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JOURNAL
OF THE SOCIETY OF
MOTION PICTURE ENGINEERS
Volume XXIX JULY, 1937 Number 1
CONTENTS
Page
Progress in the Motion Picture Industry — Report of the Prog- ress Committee 3
Report of the Projection Practice Committee 39
Report of the Committee on Exchange Practice 50
Report of the Color Committee 54
Report of the Non-Theatrical Equipment Committee 57
Report of the Membership Committee 63
Toning Positive Film by Machine Methods . . J. M. NICKOLAUS 65
A Transmission-Measuring System Utilizing a Graphic Re- cording Meter W. W. LINDSAY, JR. 68
Denham Studios of London Film Productsion, Ltd
L. C. FERMAUD 77
New Motion Picture Apparatus
The Super Simplex Pedestal J. FRANK, JR. 94
Current Literature 99
Obituary — Harry Pfannenstiehl 104
Spring, 1937, Convention at Hollywood, Calif.
Highlights of the Convention 106
Final Program 1 10
Society Announcements 116
JOURNAL
OF THE SOCIETY OF
MOTION PICTURE ENGINEERS
SYLVAN HARRIS. EDITOR
Board of Editors J. I. CRABTREE. Chairman
A. N. GOLDSMITH L. A. JONES H. G. KNOX
A. C. HARDY E. W. KELLOGG T. E. SHEA
Subscription to non-members, $8.00 per annum; to members, $5.00 per annum included in their annual membership dues; single copies, $1.00. A discount on subscriptions or single copies of 15 per cent is allowed to accredited agencies. Order from the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, Inc., 20th and Northampton Sts., Easton, Pa., or Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, N. Y. Published monthly at Easton, Pa., by the Society of Motion Picture Engineers.
Publication Office, 20th & Northampton Sts., Easton, Pa. General and Editorial Office, Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, N. Y.
West-Coast Office, Suite 226, Equitable Bldg., Hollywood, Calif. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1930, at the Post Office at Easton, Pa., under the Act of March 3, 1879. Copyrighted, 1937, by the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, Inc.
Papers appearing in this Journal may be reprinted, abstracted, or abridged provided credit is given to the Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers and to the author, or authors, of the papers in question. Exact reference as to the volume, number, and page of the Journal must be given. The Society is not responsible for statements made by authors.
OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY
President: S. K. WOLF, 250 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y. Past-President: H. G. TASKER, Universal City, Calif.
Executive Vice-President, G. F. RACKETT, 823 N. Seward St., Hollywood, Calif. Engineering Vice-President: L. A. JONES, Kodak Park, Rochester, N. Y. Editorial Vice-President: J. I. CRABTREE, Kodak Park, Rochester, N. Y. Financial Vice-President: O. M. GLUNT, 463 West St., New York. N. Y. Convention Vice-President: W. C. KUNZMANN, Box 6087, Cleveland, Ohio. Secretary: J. FRANK. JR., 90 Gold St., New York, N. Y. Treasurer: L. W. DAVEE, 250 W. 57th St., New York. N. Y.
GOVERNORS
M. C. BATSBL, Front and Market Sts., Camden, N. J.
A. S. DICKINSON, 28 W. 44th St., New York, N. Y.
G. FRIEDL, JR., 250 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y.
A. N. GOLDSMITH, 444 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y.
H. GRIFFIN, 90 Gold St., New York, N. Y.
A. C. HARDY, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.
K. F. MORGAN, 7046 Hollywood Blvd., Los Angeles, Calif.
C. H. STONE, 205 W. Wacker Drive, Chicago, 111.
PROGRESS IN THE MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY* REPORT OF THE PROGRESS COMMITTEE
Summary. — This report of the Progress Committee covers the year 1936. The advances in the cinematographic art during that period are classified under the headings: (7) Cinematography, (IT) Sound Recording, (III) Sound and Picture Reproduction, (IV) Publications and New Books; (Appendix A) General field of progress of the motion picture industry in Great Britain, (Appendix B) Motion picture developments in Austria, (Appendix C) Report of the activities in the cine- matographic field in Germany during 1936.
The Committee has been very successful in collecting material illustrating new advances in cinematography during 1936. Since it is practically impossible in a report of this nature to cover each and every advance in the art, many deserving items will undoubtedly be omitted. The greatest advances during the year seemed to take place in the field of sound recording and reproduction, the most interesting being the reproduction of push-pull recording and the use of ultraviolet light in both recording and printing operations. The year was noted by the introduction of a newer multicellular type of horn system for theater use, so that considerably improved quality of sound reproduction should be available to the public during 1937.
The Committee this year is including a special appendix dealing with the motion picture industry in Germany, where considerable activity both in sound recording equipment and in substandard cinematography took place during the year.
The Committee wishes to acknowledge the courtesy of the follow- ing firms for supplying materials and photographs for the report: Bell & Howell Company; Electrical Research Products, Inc.; Gen- eral Radio Company; International Projector Corp. ; Mole-Richard- son, Inc. ; RCA Manufacturing Corporation; Klangfilm, G. m. b. H.
|
L. N. BUSCH G. A. CHAMBERS A. A. COOK R. E. FARNHAM |
J. G. FRAYNE, Chairman H. C. HUMPHREYS W. LEAHY J. L. FORREST G. E. MATTHEWS |
V. E. MILLER PAUL SCHROTT G. H. WORRALL I. D. WRATTEN |
* Presented at the Spring, 1937, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
4 PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY tf. S. M. P. E.
SUBJECT CLASSIFICATION
(I) CINEMATOGRAPHY (.4) Professional
(1) Films and emulsions
(2) Cameras and accessories
(3) Camera lenses
(4) Stage illumination
(5) Color
(B) Substandard
(1) Films
(2) Cameras
(3) Projectors
(4) Color
(5) Miscellaneous
(FT) SOUND RECORDING
(1) General
(2) Recording equipment
(3) Accessories
(III) SOUND AND PICTURE REPRODUCTION
(1) Sound equipment
(2) Projectors and accessories
(IV) PUBLICATIONS AND NEW BOOKS APPENDIX A
General field of progress of the motion picture industry in Great Britain.
APPENDIX B
Motion picture developments in Austria. APPENDIX C
Report on the activities in the cinematographic field in Germany during 1936.
(I) CINEMATOGRAPHY (A) Professional (35 Mm.)
The fact that there have been no startling innovations in pro- fessional motion picture photography need not detract from the fact that the steady forward movement indicates a healthy condition and a tendency to greater permanency in the art. The year 1936 saw no new or upsetting inventions or processes, but a general improve- ment in both materials and technic in the several phases of the allied cinematographic arts.
(1) Films and Emulsions. — During the past year numerous im- provements have been made in the Kodachrome process and, in addition, a new type has been announced.1 The latter is intended
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY 5
for use with artificial light, and is compensated for the difference in color between incandescent lamps and daylight, for which latter source the original Kodachrome film was balanced. Filters have been provided for interchangeably using either film with either source. At the present time either type of emulsion is available in each of the amateur substandard widths, 8- and 16-mm., and, in addition, the film is available for miniature still cameras in the 35-mm. width.
Announcement has been made by Agfa of a new color-film based upon the Fischer process.2 Several emulsions coated upon the same support contain components in the separate emulsions that react with the developing solution to produce colored images. Following the development of the colored images the metallic silver is removed by a suitable bleach, thus increasing the transparency of the image.
In the field of black-and-white films for the substandard cameras, a new high-speed panchromatic film has been made available.3
A new infrared-sensitive negative film for professional production work has been made available to the trade.4 This type of material, in conjunction with red filters, is used principally for special effects such as night photography in full daylight. Since the film is insensi- tive to yellow-green, only a light red or orange filter is necessary to hold back the ultraviolet and blue for night effects. This not only speeds up the possible exposure, but also produces a much better balanced and more realistic picture.
A radically new type of film for the production of duplicates from transparencies by a single step has been described in the JOURNAL.* This film takes advantage of the solarization property of emulsions. The reversal point in sensitivity is obtained not by overexposing the emulsion to light but results rather from a ripening process during manufacture in the presence of fog producing agents.
A method for dry-hypersensitizing unexposed films and for treat- ing the latent image prior to development consists in exposing the sensitive material to mercury vapor. This method, as outlined pre- viously in the JOURNAL6 consists in exposing the material to mercury vapor at room temperature and atmospheric pressure for a period of 30 hours, if the film is not wrapped, or for six to eight days if the film is enclosed in the usual photographic black paper.
The effect of humidity upon the sensitivity of photographic emul- sions has been studied by Charriou and Valette,7 who reached the conclusion that exposure to excessive amounts of moisture reduced the emulsion sensitivity. Neither alcohol nor acetone was as effec-
6 PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. S. M. P. E.
tive as water vapor in this respect. Rolleau reports a study of the effect of temperature upon sensitivity.8 The results indicate that the sensitivity of an ordinary emulsion decreases with temperature in the range +20° to — 60°C. Orthochromatic and panchromatic emulsions were found to have sensitivity maximums at approxi- mately — 20°C., but this maximum disappeared when only blue light was used for exposing these materials.
The development properties of peptized emulsions prepared with a minimum of gelatin with agar agar used to facilitate coating were studied by Steigmann.9 Experiments by Marinesco10 indicate that the blackening of photographic emulsions by supersonics is similar to that produced by light.
An experimental factory for the manufacture of photographic materials was opened during the past year11 in the U. S. S. R. The research workers in that country have reported a large number of observations on photographic phenomena in a series of papers.12 The subjects dealt with include the aging of emulsions ; the relation between the method of preparation of an emulsion and its resolv- ing power; the adsorption of sensitizing dyes by silver halides ; and other effects dealing with latent image phenomena.
A systematic study of a group of cyanine sensitizing dyes has been reported by Hamer and Fisher,13 while the properties of halogen- substituted cyanine dyes have been discussed in a separate paper.14 Additional progress in the preparation of new sensitizing dyes has been reported in a series of papers by Brooker.16 A historical review of sensitizing dyes and their applications to photography has been given by Mees.16
(2) Cameras and Accessories. — Though an unblimped silent camera failed to make an appearance, progress may be reported in that field. A number of studios equipped themselves with NC Mitchell cameras, to be used in conjunction with very light-weight blimps. Two major studios gave the latest Debrie Super-Parvo Cameras practical tests in actual production with favorable results. But perhaps the most outstanding camera so far developed has been made by the Twentieth Century-Fox studios, under the supervision of Grover Laube, as previously reported by the Committee.17 It has made eight feature productions, and plans are now under way for the manufacture of several of them for use in the Fox studio. Aside from its being satisfactorily silent unblimped, it provides a greater shutter opening than is commonly used; has an improved optical
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY 7
system which speeds up its use ; the finder is not only more brilliant, but, due to its closeness to the shooting lens, parallax has been virtu- ally eliminated. Its movement, with a 200-degree shutter opening, and very fast acceleration and deceleration, permits the film to be perfectly at rest during exposure, increasing greatly the definition of the image. It is undoubtedly a big step forward in camera design.
Columbia Studios developed a direct motor drive for high-speed camera work, remotely controlled by a rheostat, providing a smooth movement from 24 to 192 frames per second. This eliminates the gear-box with its attendant unsteadiness. This studio also de- veloped a variable diffusing device, or, rather, improved several existing devices, wherein the diffusion may be varied as needed, particularly in moving from a long shot to a close-up, where constant diffusion is undesirable.
(3) Camera Lenses. — Hal Mohr has reported a useful method of achieving greater depth of field in photography.18 It consists in using a lens so mounted that it can be rotated about its nodal point, and setting the lens angle for each shot so that the near and far objects are in best focus on the film. The effect is exactly the same as if the camera were equipped with a swing-back.
Several articles have appeared during the year that are of funda- mental interest to designers of optical equipment. Klughardt and Otto give measurements of the actual light transmission through photographic lenses19 and show that the losses in modern high- aperture lenses are very great. Pritschow has analyzed the influence of optical and mechanical centering on high-speed anastigmats.20 An interesting article on the new organic glasses has also appeared.21
(4) Stage Illumination. — For the period March 1, 1936, to March 1, 1937, several new types of lamps have been made available. Perhaps most important is the No. 2 Photoflood introduced by the two Mazda Lamp companies as of July 1, 1936. This lamp has double the light output of the familiar No. 1 size. Its rated life is 6 hours. Its greater light output makes it especially useful for amateur cinematography, particularly for color photography.
The entire group of high-wattage studio lighting lamps such as the 5000-watt G-64 bulb; 10,000-watt G-96 bulb, and 2000-watt G-48 bulb have been made available at higher efficiency (temperature), and all lamps are designed for the same temperature, namely, 3380° K, for color motion picture photography. These lamps are desig-
s
PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. S. M. P. E.
nated CP, as contrasted with the designation MP for the regular motion picture types used for black-and-white photography. On account of the importance that all sources produce light of the same color for color work, the newer practice of designing for a fixed color of light has been adopted for the CP types. The Movieflood lamp made available several years ago is now a part of the CP group.
Another new lamp designed especially for motion picture photog- raphy is the 1500-watt, 115-volt T-24 bulb, medium bipost type. This lamp is of the CP type intended for use in color work, and was developed especially for the new Mole-Richardson Inky scoop. The lamp has two rather unusual features: it represents the first
FIG. 1.
Flood Flash lamp and control equipment. (Courtesy General Electric Co.)
use of the new medium bipost base — smaller than the familiar Mogul bipost base now used on the 2000- and 5000-watt studio lamps, and it incorporates a wire mesh screen mounted above the filament, which absorbs the blackening that usually collects upon the bulb and greatly improves the maintenance of the initial light output of the lamp throughout life. The lamp is intended to burn base up.
The past year has seen a considerable increase in the utiliza- tion of arc lamps as sources of photographic illumination. To meet this demand Mole-Richardson, Inc., have developed a new 65-ampere high-intensity arc (M-R Type 65), designed to meet the demand for a small, high-intensity arc spotlamp to match the characteristics of the Type 90, 120-ampere, and Type 170, 150-ampere, H-I arc
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY 9
spotlamps. This lamp has been designed so that its spectral char- acteristic in photography closely matches that of the higher powered units.
The same company announces that the Solarspot style of lamps, which have proved so advantageous for motion picture photog- raphy, have been augmented by the addition of the M-R Type 206, 500-watt, and the M-R Type 208, 1000-watt Solarspots. These lamps follow the general design incorporated in the 2000-watt Junior Solarspot and the 5000-watt Senior Solarspot,17 and have been de- veloped to meet the demand for smaller lamps having a wide range of utilization.
A new type of lamp of special interest to still picture photog- raphers is the new Flood Flash lamp announced by the General Electric Company, and shown in Fig. 1 with its control equipment. This is a 100- watt mercury lamp, mounted within a protective outer bulb. It can produce on the average of 30 lumens per watt, or as much light as the standard 200-watt filament lamp. This lamp may be flashed hundreds of times, the duration of the flashes being of the order of l/zo sec., permitting it to "stop" ordinary motion.
(5) Color.— In the color field, no doubt Technicolor, with their several pictures such as Ramona and Garden of Allah, showed the most pronounced improvement in the rendering of natural color and make-up. However, Cinecolor, Magnacolor, Cosmocolor, Dufay- color, Dunning, Keller-Dorian, and others came to the fore with strong claims. The quality of some of their work is such that it is safe to predict that a very strong color influence will be felt during the coming year. The projection of color backgrounds, and the painting of such backgrounds and the consequent matching of them photographically has been done very successfully, and will further the cause of color work immensely.
The improvements in Kodachrome1 and the impending introduc- tion of the new three-color process by Agfa2 lends active interest to color photography and augurs well for the future of color in the cinematographic field.
(B) Substandard Classification
Progress in American substandard cinematography during 1936 was confined mainly to improvement in existing equipment, film, and methods. There has been no outstanding change in the equip- ment designed. Manufacturers have concentrated their efforts to
10 PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. S. M. P. E.
simplify and refine, apparatus. Sixteen-mm. projectors have been continually improved so that now the quality of both picture and sound compares favorably with that of 35-mm. equipment. In the meantime film manufacturers also have improved their products and have kept abreast of the increased demand for finer-grained films, made necessary by the increased size of screen images.
These improvements are opening new fields to 16-mm. film, which is rapidly leaving the strictly amateur classification to enter the semi- professional field ; not as a competitor to 35-mm. film, but rather to augment it by filling the need of the smaller communities for film education and entertainment where the expense of 35-mm. equip- ment is prohibitive. Realizing this, one of the large film producers has, for the first time, announced the release of certain 35-mm. feature pictures on both 35- and 16-mm. film.
The popularity of 8-mm. film is slowly increasing, being promoted by the development of well-built, satisfactory, low-priced cameras and projectors. Here, as in the 16-mm. field, the 8-mm. size is making amateur movies possible where the cost of the 16-mm. film and equipment is too great.
Abroad, 1936 has witnessed the introduction of many new develop- ments in equipment and processes. Because of the several standards of width of film in popular use, European manufacturers of equip- ment have found it necessary to adapt their projectors to accom- modate various widths. In sound equipment flexibility was pro- vided in the claw movement to make possible the projection of sound-films produced according to the SMPE or the European standard. With the adoption of a single international standard (the SMPE) in 1936, it can be expected that this confusion will soon disappear.
(1) Films. — Hypan, a high-speed, fully panchromatic, fine-grain, non-halation, reversible film for outdoor use was produced by the Agfa Ansco Corporation. Kodachrome Type A,1 for use with arti- ficial light, was introduced by the Eastman Kodak Company. Gevaert announced the introduction on the American market of an Ortho, a Panchro Super and a Panchro fine-grain reversal film. Processing stations were established in the United States for develop- ing the film. Gevaert double-8 reversible. film has also been made available on the American market.
In England, Ilford announced the introduction of Selo fine-grain reversal film. The film has a tinted base, which, it is claimed,
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY
11
provides protection against halation and produces a more pleasing screen image during projection. Ilford also entered the field with a 9.5-mm., reversal, fine-grain film supplied in 30-ft. magazines.
In Germany, Agfa has announced a new color-film for 35-mm. miniature and 16-mm. motion picture cameras.2
(2} Cameras. — During 1936, the Eastman Kodak Company placed upon the market a magazine Cine-Kodak — a 16-mm. motion picture camera which eliminates the difficulty of threading. The loading is so simple that it can be accomplished in three seconds. The entire range of Cine lenses is available to fit this camera, from the standard 1-inch lens to the 6-inch telephoto. The camera may be operated at half speed, normal speed, or at 64 frames per second. Another Cine - Kodak was also announced during the year, the Model E, in the low- price range. In this camera, the supply and take-up spools are in the same plane, for simplifying threading. The camera is sup- plied with a fixed-focus, //3.5 lens.
The Keystone Manufacturing Company introduced a new line of cameras of the 8-mm. type which will accommodate either ordinary 8-mm. or double 8-mm. film. The cameras are equipped with fixed-focus lenses and have adjustable speed. The Universal Camera Company of New York announced the Univex single 8-mm. camera, intended to be sold in the low-price field. Paillard-Bolex announced to the American market a new 16-mm. camera having many special features: speeds 8, 16, 24, 32, and 64 frames; backward rewind for trick work; auto- matic threading; special view-finder to prevent parallax; audible footage indicator; visual focusing; and automatic footage indicator. The camera takes standard 100-ft. rolls of 16-mm. film. It has a turret lens mount and its weight is about six pounds. Zeiss-Ikon
FIG. 2. Bell & Howell double-8 camera.
12
PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. S. M. P. E.
abroad announced a new model 8-mm. camera known as Movikon 8. The camera is readily adjusted to take either single- or double-8 film, the change-over being effected by the reversal of a single sprocket, which may be accomplished in a few seconds. The camera is equipped with a Zeiss //2 Sonnar lens. It has an optical range-finder and many other special features. Bell & Howell have
FIG. 3.
Model EE Kodascope. Eastman Kodak Co.)
(Courtesy
announced a new double 8-mm. camera using the Eastman type of double 8-mm. film (Fig. 2).
(3) Projectors. — A new Kodascope, Model E, and, more recently, a modification designated EE, was introduced. This Kodascope combines most of the desirable features of the Model L, such as interchangeable lamps up to 750 watts, and interchangeable lenses,
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY 13
including the 2-inch //1. 6. The performance of this Kodascope is thus on a par with that of the Model L, although its price is very much lower. It is shown in Fig. 3.
Bell & Howell introduced a new 16-mm. sound projector known as the Model 138, intended for home and school use. It may be equipped with a 750- watt lamp and will accommodate 1600-ft. reels. Keystone developed a new series of 16-mm. projectors of die-cast construction. The projectors will accommodate a 750-watt lamp and may be equipped with an //1. 6 projection lens. Special features of the projectors are the forward or reverse projection and unusually silent operation. The Universal Camera Company of New York brought out an 8-mm. projector intended for the low-price field. Andre Debrie, Inc., of New York announced a new 16-mm. sound projector to meet the requirements of 16-mm. professional equipment. The machine embodies the features of high-powered illumination, extreme simplicity in threading, and a claw movement that is readily adaptable to either the SMPE or the former European sound-track standards. Ample cooling is provided so that the machine may run continuously without danger of overheating. Paillard-Bolex abroad announced a new projector accommodating 8-, 9.5-, and 16-mm. films. This new projector is said to have an unusually efficient light- source making large screen images possible with the smaller films. British Industrial Films announced a new 16-mm. sound projector built to take either the former European or the SMPE sound-track. The machine is strongly built for heavy-duty service, and is claimed to set a new standard of quality in type of sound reproduction.
(4) Color. — As has already been pointed out, a special Koda- chrome emulsion designed for use with artificial light was introduced during the year. This eliminated the use of a filter, and at the same time increased the effective speed about four times when used with artificial light. During the year, both the regular and the new Type A Kodachrome were made available in the 8-mm. size. The speed of regular Kodachrome was increased until it is now as fast as regular Panchromatic film. Processing stations for Kodachrome have been opened in London, Paris, and Australia, as well as in Chicago, Los Angeles, and Rochester.
Although Pola-Screens have been available for some time, it was not until the past year that they were made available for Cine- Kodaks. Their use is highly desirable under certain conditions, such as for avoiding reflections from plate-glass windows, floors, etc.
14
PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. S. M. P. E.
With Kodachrome, they are particularly valuable for rendering deep blue skies. This is the only way the blue color of the sky can be accentuated when using a color-film.
(5) Miscellaneous. — Two new lenses of wide usefulness were introduced for 16-mm. cine work: the 21/2-inch//2.7 and the 4-inch f/2.7. A new optical view-finder for the Cine Special was introduced, which corrects for parallax. The Ampro Corporation has designed a special projector condenser lens of the duo convex type which is said to increase the light output considerably. Bell & Howell brought out a new automatic film splicer for single- and double-perforated
FIG. 4.
High-quality recording channel (Courtesy Electrical Research Products, Inc.).
films, designed after models used successfully in the 35-mm. field. New lenses of various apertures and focal lengths for the Filmo 8 and Double 8 were announced by the same company. The Pola- Screen was introduced by the Eastman Kodak Company. The RCA optical printer, announced late last year, has proved very' popular. 1936 has witnessed a substantial increase in the number in use and the amount of film recorded.
(H) SOUND RECORDING
(1) General. — Progress in both recording and reproducing sound was very substantial during the year 1936. The use of class A
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY
15
push-pull recording mentioned in last year's report began to expand considerably during the past year. Universal Studio made a complete installation of push-pull recording and reproducing chan- nels, while experimental channels were put into operation at Colum- bia, General Service, and United Artists Studios. Squeeze-track recording, pioneered by the M-G-M Studios, was used very ef- fectively during the past year as a means of extending the volume range in such outstanding productions as The Great Ziegfeld, and
FIG. 5. Portable recording machine. (Courtesy Elec- trical Research Products, Inc.)
more recently in May time. Columbia also did some experimental work in this field during the past year.
In reproducing, two-way horn systems, following the lead of the Fletcher two-way horn development, came into wide-spread use during 1936. Both Electrical Research Products, Inc., and RCA Manufacturing Company have offered these systems to the trade, while the Shearer horn system has had wide popularity.22 The basic element of all these systems is the multicellular horn, credited origi- nally to E. C. Wente of the Bell Telephone Laboratories, described in last year's report.
16 PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. S. M. P. E.
In order further to improve sound reproduction in the theater, a Committee of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences has been actively investigating the optimal theater characteristic for sound systems. A report has been issued by the Committee and it is thought that general adherence to the recommended characteristic may prove generally beneficial to the industry.
(2) Recording Equipment. — During 1936 Electrical Research Products, Inc., completed the development of a high-quality portable recording channel (Fig. 4.). Two units forming parts of this channel, namely, the pick-up unit and main amplifier, were completed during 1935 and reported by the Progress Committee last year. The com- plete channel is now in use by the industry and consists of the follow- ing principal components in addition to the two named above:
FIG. 6. Four-ribbon light- valve. (Courtesy Electrical Research Products, Inc.)
A portable noise-reduction unit of the carrier modulation type; a new recorder control unit, providing the usual recorder control facilities; and, in addition, an oscillator, light-valve overload bridge, and photocell amplifier output stage. The portable recording machine (Fig. 5) used with this channel has been designed primarily for quality recording, but has been made as light in weight as possible without penalizing its performance. In use, the channel is set up with the recording machine on top of the recorder control unit, with the noise-reduction unit at the side. This places all the operating controls within easy reach of the operator, and since the oscillator delivers sufficient power to modulate the light-valve 100 per cent, it is possible for the operator to set up and test the equipment during rehearsal without interfering with the mixer's monitoring circuit.
During 1936 Electrical Research Products, Inc., developed and placed at the disposal of the industry experimental equipment for
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY
17
recording and reproducing push-pull sound records. A four-ribbon light-valve (Fig. 6) is used for recording all push-pull sound-tracks. This light-valve is of the clamped-bridge biplane type, and has proved quite rugged, holding its tuning and spacing for a long period of time. It can be used to produce either the push-pull or conventional type of sound recording.
RCA announces that in the past year several of the major studios of Hollywood have been added to the list of licensees of the RCA Manufacturing Company. Commercial equipment for push-pull
FIG. 7. RCA portable truck channel.
recording with ultraviolet light was manufactured for installations at Hollywood, New York, and London. Many new custom-built trucks have also been provided with the new push-pull ultraviolet light recording equipment (Fig. 7).
Demonstrations showing push-pull ultraviolet recordings printed with ultraviolet light on the RCA non-slip printer were made in Hollywood, New York, and London, and created a great deal of interest. It is claimed that the use of ultraviolet light23 in making push-pull and standard variable-width recordings has increased the resolution of the sound-track, reduced fogging due to halation, and
18
PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. s. M. P. E.
decreased the chromatic aberration of the lens system. This im- provement is very definite in listening tests, and quite pronounced when the sound-track is viewed under the microscope. The RCA non-slip printer24 with ultraviolet printing appears to show consider- able improvement over existing printers. It is claimed that its design eliminates slippage between the negative and the raw stock, and provides automatic compensation for various values of film shrinkage. The use of this printer is free to RCA licensees, and several printer manufacturing companies have obtained licenses to manufacture and sell them. The new unidirectional microphone28 (Fig. 8) was introduced this year, and a small number of units were made available to several motion picture studios for experi- mental use. Tests made so far indicate that this microphone has characteristics particularly useful for film recording.
(5) Accessories. — Electrical Research Products, Inc., has announced a peak read- ing volume indicator, which, as its name in- dicates, provides a ready means for visually determining the peak value of sound cur- rent. The indication of peak values of voltage is practically independent of wave- form, and the meter may be adjusted to have a slow restoring action for easy read- ing. The instrument provides a full indi- cation for sounds of very short duration.
RCA has introduced a new neon volume indicator that makes it possible to monitor the volume level of the sound-track visually over a volume range of 48 decibels. It provides an accurate indication of peak voltage over the entire volume range; and control changing is eliminated. The unit is unique in operation, size, and design.
The General Radio Co. has introduced the 759-A sound-level meter (Fig. 9), which, although developed primarily for making industrial noise measurements, has extensive application in various sound reproduction fields, particularly in measuring studio back- ground noise and the noise level in the projected sound record.
FIG. 8 . Unidirec- tional microphone. (Courtesy RCA Manu- facturing Co.)
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY 19
The General Electric Company announce that the 10-volt, 71/%- ampere, T-8 bulb lamp has been developed to a point where it does a fair job of recording by ultraviolet light. This has been done by the use of a bulb of ultraviolet-transmitting glass, and by using the horizontal filament coil. The advantage of winding the coil in an arc of about 5/g to 3/4-inch radius is twofold : closing up the turns on the concave side increases the quantity of the higher-temperature radiation emitted from the interior of the coil, and opening up the
FIG. 9. Sound-level meter. (Courtesy General Radio Co.)
turns on the convex side gives this higher-temperature radiation a better opportunity to escape from the interior of the coil, and also improves the uniformity of distribution of the radiation.
(Ill) SOUND AND PICTURE REPRODUCTION
Little notice has come to the Committee of new picture head pro- jectors in this country, although several new or improved sound attachments were introduced during the year.
(1} Sound Equipment. — Electrical Research Products, Inc., has brought out the Western Electric high-quality heavy-duty reproducer set coded T A -7400, forming part of the Mirrophonic sound system
20
PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. s. M. P. E.
(Fig. 10). It has a sealed precision kinetic scanner to insure uni- form speed of film propulsion, and utilizes the latest type of projection optical scanning capable of accommodating single, push-pull, or double sound-track. In addition to these immediately applicable facilities, it has been designed with the thought in mind of its adapt- ability to probable future developments in sound recording.
In the Western Electric diphonic speaker system (Fig. 11), Elec-
FIG. 10. Western Electric high-quality reproducer.
trical Research Products, Inc., has made available a speaker combina- tion that assures a quality of reproduction more natural and less machine-like than any previously attainable. The cellular con- struction of the high-frequency horn distributes the sound uniformly to all parts of the theater. The ample load-carrying capacity pro- vides a greatly increased dynamic range with the same natural quality throughout.
RCA Manufacturing Company has introduced the type 1060 high- fidelity sound attachment (Fig. 12), which has a number of new features over previous designs. This unit may be used to reproduce
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY 21
FIG. 11. Western Electric diphonic loud speaker system.
22 PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. S. M. P. E.
either push-pull or standard recordings. A unique and compact design of push-pull optics is employed, containing a prism assembly for bisecting the light-beam, so designed that all parts are readily accessible for cleaning and observation. A three-point rubber- suspended center-plate includes all the sound reproducing parts (i. e., rotary stabilizer and sound drum, pressure and lateral guide rollers, all optical parts, phototube and phototube transformer), which effectively isolates these critical parts from vibration. On the main casting are mounted all gears, driving sprockets, and the motor drive assembly. The motor is itself rubber mounted, and employs a universal coupling to the sound reproducer head. Another new feature is the inclusion of a flywheel on the motor shaft, which further
FIG. 12. RCA type 1060 sound head (push-pull).
insures uniformity of speed and allows the standard three-second start- ing time without reducing the starting torque, a particularly desirable feature in cold booths. The rotary stabilizer and sound drum shaft use newly designed ball-bearings with a grease seal to eliminate difficult oiling and keep out dirt.
Further improvements have been made in the high-fidelity two- way loud speaker system employed by the RCA Manufacturing Company, to provide high efficiency, low distortion, and improved directional and distribution characteristics. Multicellular horns have been developed to provide a progressive series of sound-distri- bution angles to accommodate any type of. theater.
The type PG-105 theater sound reproducing equipment has been marketed by the RCA Manufacturing Company for theaters up to a seating capacity of five hundred. This equipment employs the
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY 23
high-fidelity rotary stabilizer sound attachment, and a two-way high-frequency and low-frequency loud speaker system. Particu- larly interesting is the new amplifier (Fig. 13), designed with special consideration for accessibility and high-fidelity performance. The inclusion of the monitor loud speaker in the amplifier cabinet simpli- fies construction and increases accessibility.
(2) Projectors and Accessories. — The International Projector Corporation has announced the new Super Simplex pedestal. This
FIG. 13. RCA type 1223 amplifier with monitor loud speaker, for small theater installations.
pedestal appears to meet all the requirements of modern projection and sound reproducing equipment, permitting a steadiness heretofore unequalled (Fig. 14). The same company has also introduced a slip-in gate for the Super Simplex projector that can be easily and quickly removed by unscrewing two thumb-screws. This permits the projectionist to clean it carefully at will. It also assures positive location of the guiding elements and is recognized as a device that meets a requirement of long standing.
During the latter part of the year an intermittent sprocket that was hardened and accurately ground was introduced for use with the
24
PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [j. s. P. M. E.
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY 25
Simplex projector mechanism. The accuracy of the sprocket mate- rially assists in projecting a satisfactory picture, and the hardening process lengthens the life of the sprocket considerably. This sprocket is now being furnished on all new and repaired Super Simplex mecha- nisms and is unquestionably of the highest quality and accuracy of any sprocket in use.
ERPI has introduced a new type of double-film attachment (Fig. 15), designed as an adjunct to the new Western Electric heavy-duty reproducer. It provides a means of reproducing separate sound and picture records on 1000-ft. reels and permits the use of 2000-ft. reels when single film is run. The film in the double-film attachment is guided by means of idler rollers, or a driven sprocket as an alter- nate arrangement, and the film path is such that the sound-film enters the sound-head in essentially the same manner as it does for normal threading. There is no difference in the quality of sound obtained from film operating from the double-film attachment compared to that of film threaded in the standard manner. Strippers and idler rollers have been so located that film "jams" are virtually impossible.
(IV) PUBLICATIONS AND NEW BOOKS
A number of valuable reports have been published during the past few years by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Hollywood, Calif., and the British Kinematograph Society, London. The reports of the Deutsche Kinotechnische Gesellschaft appear in their official publication, Die Kinotechnik, and those of the Societe* Francaise de Photographie et de Cinematographic in the Bulletin of this society. In the U. S. S. R. the articles concerning motion picture progress appear in two journals, the Soviet Kino Photo Industry, and Photo Chemical Industry.
A new motion picture publication made its initial appearance in January, 1936, known as the Journal of the Association of Cine- Technicians (London).
Since the last report of the Committee in May, 1936, the books of noteworthy interest that have appeared are as follows:
(1) International Motion Picture Almanac (1936-37); Quigley Publishing Co., New York, N. Y.
(2) Year Book of Motion Pictures (1937), 18th Edition; Film Daily, New York, N. Y.
(5) Kinematograph Year Book (1937); Kinematograph Pub- lications, Ltd., London.
26 PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY LJ. S. M. P. E.
(4) Jahrbuch des Kino-Amateurs (Yearbook of the Cine-Ama- teur) (1937), edited by W. Frerk, Photokino Verlag., Berlin.
(5) Abridged Scientific Publications from the Kodak Research Laboratories, Vol. 16, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y.
(6) American Cinematographers Handbook and Reference Guide ; J. J. Rose, American Cinematographer, Hollywood, Calif.
(7) Kino-Photo Scientific Research Institute, Vols. 1-3 (In Russian); Kinephotoisdat, Moscow.
(8) International Dictionary of Cinematography (English, Ger- man, Italian, French); International Edition; E. Cauda, Editor. Stab, Tip "Leonardo da Vinci" Citta di Castello.
(9) IX Congre"s International de Photographic Scientifique & Appliquee (Ninth International Congress of Scientific and Applied Photography), edited by L. P. Clerc; Revue d'Optique, Paris.
(10} Motion Picture Laboratory Practice; Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y.
(11) Color Cinematography; A. Klein, American Photographic Publishing Co., Boston, Mass.
(12) Natural Color Processes; C. E. Dunn, American Photographic Publishing Co., Boston, Mass.
(13) II Cinematografo al Servizio della Scienza (Cinematography in the Service of Science) ; Quadrante, Rome.
(14) Trick Effects with the Cine Camera; H. A. V. Bulleid, Link House Publications, Ltd., London.
(15) Cine Titling Simplified; H. B. Abbott, Link House Publica- tions, Ltd., London.
(16) Photography; C. E. K. Mees, G. Bell & Sons, London; also MacMillan Co., New York.
(17) Photography To-Day; D. A. Spencer, Oxford University Press, London.
(18) Filmentwurf, Filmregje, Filmschmitt (Amateur Films, Plan- ning, Directing and Cutting); A. Strasser, 2nd Edit., W. Knapp, Halle.
(19) Filmtricke und Trickfilme (Filmtricks and Trickfilms); A. Stuler, W. Knapp, Halle.
(20) Exposing Cine Films; D. C. Smethurst, Link House Publica- tions, Ltd., London.
(21) Filmen mit Kodak 8 (Filming with the Kodak 8) ; A. Stuler, W. Knapp, Halle.
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTUR'E INDUSTRY 27
APPENDIX A
GENERAL FIELD OF PROGRESS OF THE MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN
Since 1927, when the Cinematograph Films Act was passed, British motion picture production has shown tremendously acceler- ated growth. The increase in production has naturally been accom- panied by improved facilities for making pictures, and enormous sums of money have been spent in building new studios, making additions to existing studios, and equipping them with the necessary technical equipment. The year 1936 was an eventful one in the annals of British production and it is hoped that a brief description of certain of the new studios, laboratories, and additions to existing studios, built during that year will be of interest to the reader.
New Studios. — May, 1936, saw the official opening of the London Film Studios at Denham, Bucks., a completely self-contained pro- ductipn center. There are seven separate stages, the four largest stages being air-conditioned. These buildings are of reinforced concrete construction, and the inside walls are covered with rock- wool for sound absorption. The sound system used is Western Electric. Complete protection from the weather is afforded by cor- ridors which connect the stages with the administrative block and the dressing room block. In the administration block are located two theaters, one of which is large enough to seat comfortably three hundred persons. The studio has one of the largest power plants in the country, having an output of 4400 kilowatts.
Pinewood Studios at Iver Heath, Buckinghamshire, was officially opened on September 30, 1936. The studios are designed on the unit principle, each consisting of eight stages. It is understood that two units will be built, making a total of sixteen stages, but on the opening date only five stages of the first unit had been completed. Constructed on a steel framework, with solid concrete walls eleven inches thick, these stages show careful consideration necessary to the various requirements of production. Internally, the walls and ceil- ings are sound-proofed with slagwool. All approaches to the stages are under cover, an obvious necessity when one considers the inclem- ent weather prevalent in this country, and covered ways are also provided between the workshops and stages. Further, a covered space of about 15,000 sq. ft. in area is located in the center of the unit. For sound recording the Western Electric variable-density system is used.
28 PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. s. M. P. E.
Additions to Existing Studios. — During 1936 several English studios engaged in extensive additions to their premises. With the additions completed during the year Sound City Studios, Shepperton, Middle- sex, now has seven sound stages, totalling 80,000 sq. ft. of floor space. Built on the unit system, each stage has its own dressing rooms, production offices, property rooms, and many of the necessary acces- sory departments. In a separate block are contained twenty cutting rooms and three theaters. Standard sound equipment for these studios are the RCA ultraviolet and the Visatone sound systems. The Warner Bros.-First National Studios at Teddington, Middlesex, made extensive additions and alterations during the past year. The old studio, which has been in use for five years, has been modern- ized, and an entirely new sound stage has been built.
Studios in Course of Erection. — At the end of 1936 there were about twenty-five studios, totalling in all more than seventy stages, avail- able for production in this country, all situated in or near the London area. Some of these studios possess excellent technical facilities, and although others are not so completely equipped, it would cer- tainly seem that the number of studios is more than ample for the present requirements of British production.
New Laboratories. — Under construction during 1936, the new Technicolor Laboratories at Harmondsworth will fill the require- ments of those British producers wishing to make films in Technicolor, and will also, presumably, print color releases from American nega- tives. The buildings are brick faced, with long windows stretching the whole length of the frontage on both floors. Of special impor- tance to the Technicolor process, every room in which film is handled is completely air-conditioned, special care having been given to the control of temperature and humidity. Having a potential output of about 36,000,000 feet per year of finished prints, the new Techni- color Laboratory will take an increasingly active part in British productions. Also under construction during 1936 were the Denham Laboratories, situated close to the London Film Studios. The building is completely air-conditioned, and for that reason double glazed casement windows are used throughout. The windows in the cutting rooms are glazed with Thermolux, which effectively prevents light or heat rays from focusing upon material exposed in the room. Including these two new laboratories there are now twenty-one motion picture film processing laboratories in this coun- try, all situated in or near London.
July. 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY
29
Technical Advances. — The Western Electric Company has de- veloped a portable 16-mm. sound-film reproducing system primarily for road show service, and embodying a number of novel features (Fig. 16). The projector employs a single 450-watt lamp, which is used for the dual purpose of picture projection and sound scanning. The main drive is a synchronous motor, and a series motor having a saturated field constitutes the take-up mechanism. To compensate
FIG. 16. Western Electric, Ltd. (London), IG-mm. sound- film projector.
for the high-frequency loss inherent in 16-mm. film, variable high- frequency equalization is provided. Similarly an adjustable high- pass filter is provided to reduce the base effect in reverberant halls. Messrs. A. Vinten, Ltd., have a light gyroscopic tripod for light type 35-mm. professional cameras and for serious work in 16-mm. The head is so constructed as totally to enclose the whole mechanism, and the oiling is such that it does not need renewing for at least five years. The head can be immediately removed from the bowl type
30
PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. S. M. P. E.
spider and placed in a similar one of metal construction which can be readily fixed to an aeroplane wing or a carriage window. Another
product for the year is an optical printer for producing double-8 amateur films from 16-mm. (Fig. 17).
Exhibition. — The year has in all been an improved one for the exhibitor, although there is some concern over increased competi- tion due to the number of new cinemas. The consensus is that the extensive building pro- gram will ultimately be to the benefit of the exhibiting side, because obsolete redundant cinemas will be eliminated.
The mutually advantageous association between the motion picture industry and broadcast- ing has continued. Commenc- ing in November, regular tele- vision programs have been radiated by the British Broad- casting Corporation, and the British Movietonews and Gau- mont British News are televised daily. At present, television is for home entertainment only in London and environs, and is not yet a source of competition to the exhibitor.
APPENDIX B
MOTION PICTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN AUSTRIA PAUL SCHROTT*
The Austrian film industry operates under great handicaps. The fact that there are only six million German-speaking inhabitants in Austria reduces the profits of the film industry, especially when the sales are limited to Austria. The sales field in Germany is of no
FIG. 17. Sixteen-mm. to double-8 reduction printer. (Courtesy W. Vinten, Ltd., London)
* Technische Hochschule, Institut fur Technische und wissenschaftliche Kine- matographie, Vienna.
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY 31
great advantage, since only a very limited film import to that country is permitted in return for export of an equal amount of photographic material into Austria. Furthermore, Germany does not permit payment of the imported goods in currency. Although the Austrian film industry is technically and artistically well equipped to produce large quantities of film, it can not avail itself of this opportunity because of barriers set up by other countries.
The development of the photographic apparatus industry is cur- tailed for the same reasons, although excellent facilities, installa- tions, and ideas are available.
In recent years several pieces of photographic equipment have been developed. The Ludwig Hauner Co. of Vienna produces a camera whose outstanding feature is a trick-shutter. The adjust- able sector of this device must be entirely open at the beginning of the change-over, otherwise the sector will not be closed in the as- signed number of turns of the crank. A shutter in which the change- over can be started from different opening angles of the sector is constructed by Ludwig Castagna Co.
Motion picture projectors are built by Friedl and Chaloupka, Vienna. The framing is of special interest and is accomplished by turning the Maltese cross about its axis. This form of construction is unique and rather difficult, since the moving period must be kept in constant step with the position of the revolving shutter. The shutter is controlled directly by the driving mechanism, not depend- ing upon the Maltese cross, while the Maltese cross is adjusted by means of a differential gear to keep the moving period constant. The shutter, of the metal barrel type, is arranged between light- source and film. The safety shutter consists of a centrifugal shutter within a barrel shutter. The double-hinged gate is of interest. The gate hinge is close to the film- track in most pro- jectors, so that loading the film and cleaning the film-track are diffi- cult. The film is completely exposed upon opening the double- hinged gate, and the difficulties mentioned are entirely eliminated.
The motor is mounted laterally and parallel to the base. An inter- mittent mechanism between motor and projector permits frequencies of 24, 25 l/t, and 27 frames per second.
The cylindrical lamp housing is lined with highly polished alumi- num to prevent heat radiation.
Substandard film cameras and projectors are manufactured by
32
PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. S. M. P. E.
Indicator
alvanometer
Objective
Cell iris Grid screen
Parallel resistance
FIG. 18. Automatic camera adjustment.
aperture
two firms. The automatic adjustment of the lens aperture of a camera made by Eumig is of special interest. A selenium cell
with an adjustable shutter coupled to the diaphragm is placed next to the lens. The operation of the mechanism is illustrated in Fig. 18. At a certain aperture of the lens or of the photoelectric cell corre- sponding to a certain exterior brightness, the galvanometer indicator points to zero, as can be seen in the finder. If the exterior brightness changes, the indicator must be readjusted to zero by turning the cell dia- phragm. This changes the lens aperture correspondingly. The zero mark can be adjusted ac- cording to the sensitivity of the emulsion used. If the camera is not to be used for the standard number of exposures, namely, 16, the corresponding change of the lens diaphragm occurs auto- matically with the setting to the new speed.
A color-film process upon which the inventors Gschopf and Pokorny have worked for years, nears completion and will be described in the near future. It is the "Irix" process, which is similar to the Technicolor process, but appears to have certain advantages over the latter:
Pure dyes in a colloidal solution are used for dyeing the printing matrix, instead of the usual hydrochlorides, acetates, sulfates, and other salts. The inventors recognized that the gelatin of the ma- trix as an amphoteric colloid absorbs the pure dye base very rapidly as a unilaterally electrically oriented substance and sufficiently retains it without chemical union, yet transfers it very rapidly and com- pletely to the image carrier containing precipitants for basic dyes, while even the slightest acid action causes rapid and complete bleed- ing of the dye base from the matrix.
The absorption of these pure dye bases by the gelatin of the matrix and the transfer from the latter to the image carrier takes place within a few seconds. After the printing is completed, the matrix
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY 33
does not retain the slightest trace of the dye, and cleaning is un- necessary. The three color-separations are superimposed and the resulting image is grainless, sharp, light-proof, and water-proof, and not affected by most acids. In this lies the superiority of this process over other imbibition processes.
The very simple exposure represents another advance of the in- ventors' tripack. Entirely new methods have been used in its making and in the emulsion technic in connection with sensitizing dyes and antihalation coloring. The result is a material of very high sensitivity, exposure range, excellent color separation, and extreme sharpness. It is sufficient to point out that the upper two emulsions of the tripack are almost perfectly transparent. This process is far superior to the process using several emulsions on ac- count of its wide exposure range and the extensive color correction possible.
APPENDIX c
REPORT ON ACTIVITIES IN THE CINEMATOGRAPHIC FIELD IN GERMANY DURING 1936
The year 1936 showed notable progress in the cinematographic field, indicating clearly that whereas the 35-mm. film is intended exclusively for the theater, the 16-mm. substandard film is going to take its place more and more as far as schools, associations, and other official arrangements are concerned, and in which the audience is smaller than in the theaters. Also the business in the amateur field showed a great advance in Germany in that the 8-mm. sub- standard film is actually replacing the 16-mm. size. Consequently, during the year a considerable quantity of new apparatus came upon the market, covering the whole cinematographic field, and it would be difficult to give all details in this short report.
The leading firm in the 35-mm. field, Klangfilm, brought out a new sound-film recording camera under the name of Eurocord, about which Klangfilm themselves write as follows:
"It was the aim of the development to produce an apparatus that would comply, not only with regard to sound quality but also with regard to operating characteristics, with the highly advanced require- ments and would take into account the experiences of the last eight sound-film years. Due to extensive tests the double variable-width method was chosen for sound-film recording because it is superior to other recording methods by virtue of the length of the straight-line portion of the characteristic curve, and allows simple control of
34 PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. S. M. P. E.
the treatment in the photochemical process. The reduction of noise is achieved by shading off the white parts of the sound area by means of an additional diaphragm
"The recording device consists of an oscillograph having a dynamic driving mechanism, the noise of which is suppressed by oil, the change in the noise suppression due to changes of temperature being auto- matically compensated. The control of the sound volume is effected by optical pick-up and by a new sound volume indicator. This indicator consists of two instruments, namely, one indicator for the mean value and another for the peak value, both being arranged in a casing the size of a normal measuring instrument so that both can be read at one glance. The indicator for the mean value shows the mean volume of sound, while the indicator for the peak value also reacts on short impulses.
"The apparatus is available in two types, one for connection directly to the main for work in the studio and the other one as a battery apparatus for outdoor exposures. Four so-called room microphones are used, two directional and two undirectional. The mixing table is movable so that it can also be brought to the scene. The sound camera is suitable for inner cassettes. The exposure is controlled photoelectrically . ' '
Since, however, not only good sound recording apparatus is required, but because there is also great interest in recording sound for other purposes in a more economical manner, Klangfilm has brought upon the market an apparatus about which they report as follows :
"The broadcasting companies and certain scientific institutes have suggested the development of a sound recording apparatus that would allow high-quality recording and as long a reproduction as possible, so that subsequent corrections, cuts, and splices could be made. The apparatus should be easily movable and resist vibrations. Such equipment is especially needed for the analysis of non-recurring sounds which can not be done on the spot with sufficient accuracy. Recording on normal 35-mm. film is uneconomical, and for that reason Klangfilm is placing upon the market, at the beginning of 1937, new apparatus, so-called "Schmallfilmgerate," intended for unperf orated sound-film 1/6 of the normal film width (5.83mm.). The recording and projection are carried out at the speed of the standard film."
In the same field Arnold & Richter, G. m. b. H., announce a new hand-camera for 35-mm. standard film containing double cassettes
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY 35
for 60 meters of film, which can easily be exchanged because the supply reel as well as the take-up reel are included in the cassette so that all threading is eliminated. The camera has a revolving head for three lenses (//2.3, focal length 28-75 mm.). The most important novelty of this new ARRI-Camera is the mirror-reflex arrangement, which allows a clear, upright, and parallax-free image of the picture during the running of the film. The motor for driving the camera is arranged vertically below the camera, and acts at the same time as a handle and stabilizer.
The Standard 7 Aero Projector of Eugen Bauer G. m. b. H. was fur- ther improved last year, and a special characteristic is the flanged motor provided with a fan for supplying the film-gate and the film with cool air. This air impinges upon the film from four nozzles through channels in the ground plate of the film-track.
As a further safety device, the air valves are controlled by the air blast. This safety device, called the Flammex, switches off the light-beam as soon as the film or a splice breaks, in the gate. In connection with this device a cut-off switch for the driving motor can be furnished which will stop the motor immediately when trouble occurs.
Due to the increased use of substandard film for all purposes for which the smaller film is sufficient, during the last year a great number of film treating and film printing equipments were developed. The Union Tonfilm maschinenbau und Vertriebs-Gesellschaft in Berlin have marketed an optical reduction printer (35-mm. to 16-mm.), an optical printer for 16-mm. film, a contact printer for 16-mm. film, and a reproducing and cutting table for 16-mm. sound-film.
Regarding the brightness of the pictures in the theaters, certain progress was made during the past year that is especially interesting in connection with the efforts made by Opticolor and Siemens & Halske in introducing the lenticular film in the theaters. During the Olympic Games the Siemens-Berthon color-film was shown for the first time, and it was reported that the satisfactory brightness of the projected pictures was due to the design of a new lamp.
In the processing field, Arnold & Richter constructed fully auto- matic developing machines for 35-mm. film with different footage capacities. They also constructed for 16-mm. film a fully automatic machine in three different sizes, which can be used also for processing 8-mm. film.
In the field of substandard cameras, Siemens & Halske have intro-
36 PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY [J. S. M. P. E.
duced the Siemens Kino Camera F, using lenses of various manu- facturers. Zeiss-Ikon have improved their Movikon 16 to include such features as an automatic range-finder, four speeds, polarization screen, and motor instead of spring drive.
One of the outstanding developments of the year has been the intro- duction of the Zeiss-Ikon Movikon 8 camera, which is an improved construction of the former Movikon 16. This camera can be used for double-8 film as well as for normal 8-mm. film. Some of its fea- tures are a Sonnar lens of the speed 1 :2 and focal length of 1 cm. in Fis-focusing-mount (depth of focus from 1 meter to infinity at greatest diaphragm). The bayonet mount provides for using additional lenses, e. g., 2.5- and 7.5-cm. focal lengths. Portrait-attachments and yellow filters are available. The apparatus has three speeds: 8, 16, and 64 frames per second. A single-picture device is also provided. The spring motor of the pull-down allows a run of 33/4 meters of film. A scale at the side wall and in the finder of the camera gives information about the reserve of the spring motor expressed in terms of the unexposed length of film. The picture area of the finder corresponds to that of the 1-cm. lens; for the 2-cm. lens an insertion mask is provided. Siemens & Halske placed upon the market the Kino Camera C8 for cassettes, which can be used with the Kodak daylight spools. This camera is provided with a Busch-Glaukar Anastigmat 1:2.5, 1.3-cm., and can be used for Cine Kodak 8 film (for black-and-white) or for Cine Kodak 8 Kodachrome on the usual 7.5-m. spools inserted into Siemens cassettes. Four speeds (8, 16, 24, and 64 frames per second) are provided.
The firm of Niezoldi & Kramer have supplied a low-priced camera for Kodak 8-mm. film, and a new model B Cine Nizo 8E, having a speed of 8-64 frames and interchangeable lenses, as well as a Cine Nizo 8 ZD which takes 7.5- and 15-m. daylight spools of double 8-mm. film, and permits speeds of 8 to 100 frames per second.
In the field of substandard projectors Siemens & Halske have constructed a "Two-Film Standard Projector" for 16- and 9.5-mm. film. Only the masks for the gate and the sprockets need be ex- changed; otherwise the construction is the same as that of the Siemens standard projector for 16-mm. film. Features include the Siemens beater pull-down mechanism, interchangeable projection lenses (Meyer Kinon Superior/, 3.5-, 5-, or 6.5-cm.), interchangeable two-blade or three-blade rotating shutter; an efficiency of 130 lumens with the two-blade rotating shutter and a 5-cm. lens; single-frame
July, 1937] PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY 37
device ; adjustable speed ; and it can be used on direct current or alternating current lines of the usual voltage.
Eugen Bauer announce that their substandard sound film repro- duction equipment is available with Bauer sound head and Bauer- Lorenz amplifier. The reproducer is provided with a rotating sound drum and flywheel similar to the Roxy equipment. A special micro- lens with an optical slit is provided. The apparatus is available for 16- and 17.5-mm. film.
The firm Union, G. m. b. H., placed upon the market during the last year a new substandard film projector "Gigant," which reaches an efficiency of more than 150 lumens with a 23-volt, 5.3-ampere projection lamp. The very simple internal construction of the pro- jector is of special interest.
Also the firm Lytax-Werke improved their well known substandard sound-film projector which is also characterized by its very simple construction but which nevertheless is very stable and very suitable for operating for long periods.
REFERENCES
1 Amer. Cinemat. (May, 1936), p. 218; (June, 1936), p. 264; (Sept., 1936), p. 396; (Nov., 1936), p. 483.
2 "The New Agfa Process of Colour Photography," Phot. Jour. (Dec., 1936), p. 612.
3 Amer. Cinemat. (June, 1936), p. 264.
4 MEYER, H.: "Describing Agfa's Infrared Film," Amer. Cinemat. (May, 1936), p. 194.
8 EARTH, W.: "A Film Emulsion for Making Direct Duplicates in a Single Step," J. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXVII (Oct., 1936), No. 4, p. 419.
6 DERSCH, F., AND DURR, H.: "New Method for the Dry Hypersensitization of Photographic Emulsions," J. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXVIII (Feb., 1937), No. 2, p. 178.
7 CHARRIOU, A., AND V ALETTE, S. : "Influence of Water on the Sensitivity of Photographic Emulsions," Comp. Rend., 202, (April 29, 1935), No. 18, p. 1528.
8 Rolleau, M. : "Influence of Temperature on the Sensitivity of Photographic Emulsions," Comp. Rend., 202 (March 9, 1936), No. 10, p. 835.
9 STEIGMANN, A. : Phot. Ind., 34 (Jan. 1, 1936), p. 10.
10 MARNINESCO, N.: "The Law of Blackening of Photographic Plates by Supersonics," Comp. Rend., 202 (March 2, 1936), No. 9, p. 757.
11 MIKHAILOFF, V. I., AND KNAPPE, V. A.: "The Opening of the Experimental Factory at Kazan," Photo-Chem. Ind. (1936), No. 1, p. 40.
11 Kino-Photo Res. Inst. (Moscow), 3 (1935), p. 14.
13 HAMER, F. M., AND FISHER, N. I.: Proc. Roy. Soc., 154A (May 1, 1936), p. 703.
14 BEILENSON, B., AND HAMER, F. M. : /. Chem. Soc. (Aug., 1936), p. 1225.
38 PROGRESS OF MOTION PICTURE INDUSTRY
15 /. Amer. Chem. Soc., 57 (Dec., 1935), pp. 2480, 2488, 2492. Ibid., 58 (April, 1936), pp. 659, 662.
14 MEES, C. E. K.: "Sensitizing Dyes and Their Applications to Scientific Photography," Proc. Roy. Inst. Great Britain (Jan. 31, 1936).
17 Report of the Progress Committee, /. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXVII (July, 1936), No. 1, p. 3.
18 Amer. Cinemat., 17 (Sept., 1936), p. 370.
19 Photographische Industrie, 34 (May 27, 1936), p. 608.
20 Photo. Korr, 71 (Dec., 1935), p. 158.
21 J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 55 (Apr. 24, 1936), p. 319.
22 Report of the Progress Committee, /. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXVII (July, 1936), No. 1, p. 45,
** DIMMICK, G. L. : "Improved Resolution in Sound Recording and Printing by the Use of Ultraviolet Light," J. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXVII (Aug., 1936), No. 2, p. 168.
24 BATSEL, C. N. : "A Non-Slip Sound Printer," J. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXIII (Aug., 1934), No. 2, p. 100.
25 OLSON, H. F. : "A Unidirectional Microphone," J. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXVII (Sept., 1936), No. 3, p. 284.
REPORT OF THE PROJECTION PRACTICE COMMITTEE*
Summary. — Among the projects under consideration by the Committee during the past six months are those of screen brightness; its desirable values and methods of measuring it; the question of using a visual test-pattern for checking screen illumina- tion; revisions of the projection room plans; questions of projector motors and take-ups, and difficulties incident to the starting of projector motors; requirements of sound screens; and a recently initiated survey of theaters throughout the United States to determine not only existing conditions of projection, but also for the pur- pose of establishing a set of recommendations regarding theater structures.
Many of the projects engaging the attention of the Committee have been under consideration for a long time, some of them for several years. The original plans for the projection room were drawn in 1930, and have been revised several times since. The study of screen brightness has also continued for several years, concurrently with an intensive study of all phases of the subject by the Projection Screen Brightness Committee, which this year has been merged with the Projection Practice Committee. In addition, a number of new proj- ects have been undertaken, but the work on these has not progressed sufficiently to warrant formal report. This report will be devoted only to those subjects that have been developed to such a point as to make a report worth while.
In prosecuting the work of the Committee it has been found ad- visable from time to time to delegate specific projects to sub-commit- tees appointed especially for the purpose at hand. The active sub- committees at the present time are as follows :
Adoption of Projection Room Layouts as Standard ; Projector Output and Screen Illumination
(including means of measurements) ; Suprex Lamp Magnification Ratio; Motor-Starting Time, Types of Take-Up ; Technical Coordination; Theater Structures; Fire Hazards.
* Presented at the Spring, 1937, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.; received May 10, 1937.
39
40 PROJECTION PRACTICE COMMITTEE REPORT [J. S. M. P. E.
It was with deep regret that the Committee learned of the death of Rudolph Miehling on April 7th. Mr. Miehling had long been an active member of the Committee, and had contributed very substan- tially to its work. His loss is keenly felt by his friends and co- workers.
SCREEN BRIGHTNESS
This subject was studied at length by the former Projection Screen Brightness Committee and more recently by the present Projection Practice Committee. The latter Committee at a meeting in Novem- ber, 1936, approved the recommendation1 of the Projection Screen Brightness Committee to the effect that the brightness at the center of a motion picture screen be held within the range of 7 to 14 foot-lam- berts. However, in taking this action, the Projection Practice Com- mittee desires to qualify its approval by calling attention to the fol- lowing considerations.
Many factors enter in practice to influence the physiological re- action to light stimuli. Some of these were discussed in the Projec- tion Screen Brightness Committee's report published in the August, 1936, issue of the JOURNAL. The Projection Practice Committee cites the following factors as being of first-order importance in this connection. The desirable screen brightness will depend upon the density of the print; whether the picture is black-and-white or color, the visual state of the audience upon entering the theater; the color, width, and brightness of the screen frame and masking; the immediate surroundings of the audience including the location; direction, color, and intensity of the auditorium illumination ; and the color of the pro- jection illumination source. In addition to the foregoing, there are various other second-order factors.
Therefore, it will be appreciated that extreme conditions may exist when 7 foot-lamberts may be more than sufficient, while at other times 14 foot-lamberts might not be adequate. The report of the Projection Screen Brightness Committee previously mentioned has emphasized some of these thoughts. With this explanation of its reservation, the Projection Practice Committee heartily concurs with the findings of the former Committee and believes that their report represents an important advance with respect to the subject.
The Projection Practice Committee will" continue its investigation of the practical aspects of screen brightness in theaters, reporting upon its findings as developments warrant.
July, 1937] PROJECTION PRACTICE COMMITTEE REPORT 41
MEASUREMENT OF SCREEN BRIGHTNESS
The function of the Sub-Committee of the Projection Practice Committee, to which the study of this subject was assigned late in 1936, is to recommend specific apparatus and technic for studying the practical illumination problems of the motion picture screen with respect to the following :
(1) Brightness (upper and lower limits)
(2) Optimal screen size
(5) The effect upon the eyes of the viewer of the color characteristic of the light-source
(4) Auditorium lighting conditions
(5) Resolution of detail and contrast value.
These items involve many factors; for example, both the intensity and the color of the light reaching the viewer's eyes depend upon the nature and the intensity of the light-source in the projector and the reflection and color characteristic of the screen. The optimal size of the screen, while primarily dependent upon the viewing distance, must also be related to the available illumination. The net effect upon the viewer's eyes will depend upon his state of fatigue, the am- bient illumination, print density, and other considerations.
A study of the light intensity reaching the viewer will require re- search involving viewing motion pictures at various intensities and determining the effects produced thereby upon the eyes of a number of viewers.
Relative to the selection of means for the measurement of illumina- tion, both incident upon, and reflected from the screen, extended study has indicated the virtual inability to repeat or check measure- ments of this character when made with any of the recognized com- mercial or laboratory measuring instruments now available. There- fore, it is the view of this Committee that careful consideration should be given to the characteristics required in a measuring device to be suitable for making illumination measurements of projection light- sources and light reflected from motion picture screens. A brief summation of the more important considerations follows :
(2) Extensive comparisons have demonstrated that the response characteris- tics of commercial light-sensitive instruments depart significantly from the re- sponse characteristics of the average eye. Hence, spectral composition becomes a variable which is likely to affect unduly measurements of such incident and re- flected light.
(2) While in specific instances rather wide limits of measurement accuracy can be tolerated in determining whether the conditions prevailing are satis-
42 PROJECTION PRACTICE COMMITTEE REPORT [J. S. M. P. E.
factory for an audience, it is believed that a tolerance limit of =*=5 per cent will be required in meters or instruments used for measuring the light performance of projection equipments in different theaters. The interest of one or more of the commercial instrument manufacturers experienced in the development of il- luminometers is being sought in an effort to bring about the development of a suit- able meter.
Before such an instrument can be designed and manufactured, specification requirements must be determined that will satisfy the following considerations :
(1) The instrument shall provide, for the various types of light-sources en- countered in projection rooms, consistent luminosity measurements that are proportional to the visual effect of the light upon normal eyes.
(2) The meter shall be of such dimensions and rugged construction as to be portable and capable of withstanding the handling necessary to its use.
(3) Obviously, the cost of the meter must be such as to promote its wide- spread use throughout the industry.
Evidently the nature and present status of the problem as outlined prevent drawing final conclusions at this time. Rather, the Com- mittee proposes to canvass various individuals and companies having potential interest in the problem with the object of organizing a study in a logical and orderly fashion to gain the greatest possible contribution for the common good.
It should be appreciated that the development required will prob- ably prove costly and extensive. Some lengthy period of time may be necessary in which to accomplish it. However, it is believed that instruments capable of the performance desired will be produced ultimately. One of the first requisites indicated by this situation is the creation of a general interest among technical organizations whose contributions will accelerate the development.
VISUAL TEST PATTERN FOR CHECKING SCREEN ILLUMINATION
The plan was suggested of designing and preparing a suitable film containing a visual test pattern for projection in theaters to determine whether a projected light falling upon the screen is satisfactory for best viewing conditions. A study of the problem included a review of the reports and papers published in the JOURNAL by various individuals and by the Projection Screen Brightness Committee.
The consideration of the design of a test pattern included the follow- ing factors:
(1) Weber-Fechner Law
(2) Range of print densities
July, 1937] PROJECTION PRACTICE COMMITTEE REPORT 43
(5) Type of test pattern
(4) Uniformity of illumination over the surface of the screen
(5) Effect of visual acuity of the observer upon use of the test pattern.
A plot of the just-perceptible brightness difference A B, expressed as a fraction &.B/B (the Weber-Fechner fraction) has been published in the JOURNAL2 for a natural pupil, with logio B (in foot-lamberts) as abscissa and for a 3-degree field. This plot provides the means for calculating the step densities of the test pattern. A film con- taining these step densities would require the most accurate and careful control of exposure and film processing. There is serious doubt whether such control could be realized.
The range of densities to be covered should be taken from 3.2 to 0.19.3 These values are the highest -Dmax. and the lowest DmsLX measured on a large number of release prints by the Projection Screen Brightness Committee.
The type of test pattern must be one that would give the greatest number of step densities at various absolute values of density for all parts of the screen. Probably the most convenient would be one in which the screen was divided radially from the center in either eight or sixteen sectors. Each sector would have the density steps arranged radially and the density steps of the different sectors staggered to provide each portion of the screen with as many density steps as possible.
Assume that it were possible to make a test pattern as described, and in accordance with the Weber-Fechner Law, it would still be of little use since the illumination on the screen is not uniform. The brightest portion is at the center and decreases toward the margins. The reduction of the marginal illumination depends upon the focal length and type of projection lenses used. Hence the design of a test pattern must of necessity take these facts into account, in addition to many other variable factors.
Finally, no two observers would see the same results due to their differences in visual acuity.
It was deemed advisable to include this negative report in the hope that a different method of attack may be devised by someone which will lead to a solution of this problem.
PROJECTION ROOM PLANS
As was previously mentioned, a partial revision of the projection room plans published in the November, 1934, issue of the JOURNAL
44 PROJECTION PRACTICE COMMITTEE REPORT [J. S. M. P. E.
was made, and although the revisions were not sufficiently extensive to warrant republication in the JOURNAL at this time, several thousand copies of the revision were prepared in pamphlet form for distribution to interested persons and organizations throughout the world. The intention of the Committee was to distribute this report as widely as possible in order to arouse a realization throughout the country of the great lack of uniformity in regulations pertaining to motion picture projection in theaters, and to attempt to enlist the assistance and so- licit the suggestions and criticisms of law enforcement and fire preven- tion departments of states and municipalities, so as eventually to be able to draw up a model set of regulations that can be recommended to the law-making bodies throughout the country.
Letters directed to the various States of the Union indicated con- siderable misunderstanding regarding the purpose of the booklet, and it was accordingly ruled by the Committee that the following caption be imprinted upon the covers of the pamphlets in order to clarify the situation :
"The material herein presented is recommended practice for new theaters, and for alterations of existing theaters. It is not to be proposed as obligatory for existing theaters."
This provision must be clearly appreciated in view of the fact that certain differences exist between some of the recommendations con- tained in the pamphlet and certain regulations of the National Fire Protection Association. Further study of projection room and pro- jection conditions is being conducted with the possible view of pre- paring a set of practical regulations reconciling these differences.
PROJECTOR MOTORS AND TAKE-UPS
Difficulties encountered in projection with regard to motors and take-ups are:
(a) Fast starting of the projector motor, which strains the gears and damages the film;
(6) Irregular action of the take-up, with the result that jerks are transmitted to the film, tending to tear the sprocket holes at the hold- back sprocket. If the pad roller on the hold-back sprocket is of the single-roller type and the jerk of the film is excessive, the film is likely to be damaged and jerked from the sprocket entirely.
Jerking of the film may be caused either by rough action of the clutch, slippage in the drive of the belt types, or slack in the drive in either the belt or chain type of take-ups.
July, 1937 ] PROJECTION PRACTICE COMMITTEE REPORT 45
Either the adoption of the following specifications as standard or the submission of them to the manufacturers of projection equipment should help considerably in reducing the difficulties outlined above.
Motor-Starting. — Experience shows that a starting time of two to three seconds seems to be quite satisfactory. The acceleration of the equipment from zero to full speed should be approximately steady, and under no circumstances should have a break in the speed-time characteristic. This latter point is mentioned because the use of a resistor in the starting winding for slow starting, and short-circuiting this resistor as the motor comes up to speed, is likely to cause a jerk in the equipment at the time the resistor is shorted.
Take- Ups. — The design of take-ups should be such that the pull of the film is steady at all times, irrespective of the amount of film upon the take-up reel.
It is preferable to use double pad rollers on the hold-back sprocket to insure that the film stays upon the sprocket at all times.
Projectionists using the equipment can reduce film damage by mak- ing certain that the film is not slack between the take-up reel and the hold-back sprocket before starting the projector.
SOUND SCREENS
The accepted practice and requirements with regard to the trans- mission of sound through motion picture screens have not undergone any appreciable changes since they were established during 1930 and 1931. The only major difference refers to the losses allowed at the higher frequencies.
The screens in common use at the present time are those in which the sound waves are transmitted through the air spaces in the screen material. These air spaces may be either the pores of the material or perforations punched into the material.
Because of optical characteristics of the screen material, the per- forations or air spaces should be as small as possible and the number of perforations a minimum.
As a result of tests, it was decided to limit the aggregate open area for the screen to 7.5-10.0 per cent of the total screen area. The ratio of the thickness of the screen material to the area of a single opening should be very small, because the air in the individual air passages presents a mass reaction to the flow of sound energy.
The frequency response of a screen enters into the determination of its suitability from an acoustical standpoint. No serious trouble is
46 PROJECTION PRACTICE COMMITTEE REPORT [J. s. M. P. E.
experienced with regard to the low-frequency response but a drop occurs at the higher frequencies.
Losses at various frequencies were limited as follows :
4.5 decibels at 10,000 cps. 2.5 decibels at 6000 cps. 0.5 decibels at 1000 cps.
Each of these figures represents an average value taken from mea- surements having no variations due to testing procedure that exceed plus or minus 2 db.
On the whole it is quite difficult to set definite limits for screen transmission to cover all possibilities, but if the tolerances given above are adhered to, efficient results will be obtained.
THEATER SURVEY
In order to obtain information that would assist in the study of screen brightness and various other matters, such as projection angles, seating areas, general lighting, in addition to a number of projection and screen characteristics, a chart was drawn up containing skeleton diagrams of the vertical and horizontal plans of a theater. Several thousands of these charts have been distributed among a number of large companies of the industry whose engineers are assist- ing in obtaining the dimensions requested on the chart. A reproduc- tion of the chart is shown in Fig. 1. Accompanying the charts dis- tributed were letters describing its purpose.
The theaters covered in the survey include all classes, both as to size and general construction, and there will be sufficient representa- tion of the entire industry to permit a very reliable analysis of condi- tions to be made. Instead of mailing the charts directly to the man- agers of theaters, it was felt that the results would be more reliable if the measurements were made and the charts filled out by men experi- enced in such work. Accordingly, the field men and the management of RCA Manufacturing Co., International Projector Corp., Electrical Research Products, Inc., National Carbon Co., Inc., Forest Electrical Co., Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., and National Theater Supply Co. are all to be thanked for their cooperation. In addition, a number of charts were distributed to the delegates at the Convention of the M. P. T. O. A. at Miami in March and the additional information de- rived therefrom will probably be very helpful. As it will probably require consideration time to make a thorough analysis of charts that
July, 1937] PROJECTION PRACTICE COMMITTEE REPORT
47
are returned, it may not be before the October Convention of the Society that the Committee will be able to render a report on its findings.
SOCIETY OP MOTION PICTURE ENGINEERS Hotel Penn.ylianla N e • York City
SURVEY Of MOTION I'ICTIIRK THEATHK STRUCT HIES
envelope provided.
ORCHE3TP4 FLOOP PLAN
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
|
Question No, 1. |
Uuestlon No. 5. |
|
Dimension A should be klilte Picture WIDTH. |
AC Volts |
|
Dimension L should be Width of Proscenium |
Question No. 8. |
|
*ie«_lion «o. 3. |
Question No. 7. |
|
B-Balcony Total |
Question No. 8. |
|
Question No. 3. |
of theatre. Question No. 9. |
|
A- Beaded or metallic |
|
|
i - lltlier-Uescrlbe |
|
|
Question No. 4. |
|
|
Check type of proje tlon llgiit source In use. A- Lo« Intens ty Anps. |
|
|
11- High Inten ily 1) HlKh- o« (Heflector) |
|
|
2) Conde ser Type 3) Supre |
Fora ~~~ H- — |
|
0 A.C. Arc |
riojicTioi rocTicc COHHITTK |
FIG. 1. Theater survey chart.
With the information thus obtained, the Committee hopes even- tually to be able to construct plans for various types of theaters, just as they have been able to construct plans for projection rooms.
48
PROJECTION PRACTICE COMMITTEE REPORT [J. S. M. P. E.
These plans are to include schedules of screen sizes, screen brightness, and other matters of importance to architects and others engaged in building new or altering existing theaters.
MUTILATION OF FILM
In view of the fact that devices have been placed upon the market by means of which projectionists may place upon films cue marks for
change-overs, the following reso- lution was adopted by the Com- mittee at its meeting in January :
Guided Edge
.0.020"
"The Projection Practice Committee of the Society of Motion Picture Engi- neers does not approve any structural modification, injury, or mutilation of the Standard Release Print by the projectionist, and views with disfavor the sale of devices capable of causing physical damage to the film for cue marks or the like. The Committee regards cue-marking as a function ex- clusively of the laboratory."
PICTURE APERTURES
Since the adoption of the standard camera and projector apertures by the industry several years ago, these standards have not fulfilled the requirements for which they were created, due to failure to take into consideration the masking at the theater screen.
To overcome objectionable blocking out by the screen masking of important parts of the photographed action, it is recommended that action being photographed be limited to an area 0.005 of an inch smaller on all sides than the dimensions of the standard projector aperture.
The following will outline in general the differences between the camera and projector apertures:
Camera 0.868 ± 0.002 inch wide 0.631 ± 0.002 inch high 0.744 =*= 0.002 inch center-line from guided edge.
FIG.
2. Recommended area photographed action.
of
July, 1937] PROJECTION PRACTICE COMMITTEE REPORT 49
Projector 0.825 ="= 0.002 inch wide 0.600 =*= 0.002 inch high 0.738 ± 0.002 inch center-line from guided edge.
It has been found from experience that, on a 9 by 12-foot screen at an angle of projection of approximately 15 degrees, a 1-inch masking around the screen into the projected picture has proved sufficient to assure proper projection.
This 1-inch masking represents a decrease of 0.005 inch approxi- mately on each side of the projector aperture, or an aperture 0.815 inch wide by 0.590 high, 0.738 ± 0.002 inch from center-line to guided edge (Fig. 2).
The Committee recommends, in view of the facts given above and in order to avoid loss of portions of the picture, that cameramen and studio laboratories provide their camera-focusing devices and view-finders with a working ground-glass having a rectangle of the conventional thin black line corresponding to the dimensions 0.815 by 0.590 inch, as an aid to the cameraman in composing his picture.
The Committee also recommends that a minimum masking or overlapping of the projected film image upon the screen be established. For example, on a 9 by 12-foot screen the masking should not overlap the projected picture more than one inch on each side; for smaller or larger screens this masking or overlapping on each side should be of the same approximate ratio.
H. RUBIN, Chairman
J. O. BAKER A. N. GOLDSMITH E. R. MOWN
T. C. BARROWS A. GOODMAN M. D. O'BRIEN
F. E. CAHILL H. GRIFFIN G. F. RACKETT
J. R. CAMERON S. HARRIS F. H. RICHARDSON
A. A. COOK J. J. HOPKINS B. SCHLANGER
J. K. ELDERKIN C. F. HORSTMAN C. TUTTLE
J. J. FINN D. E. HYNDMAN J. S. WARD
R. R. FRENCH J. J. KOHLER V. A. WELMAN
E. R. GEIB P. A. McGuiRE A. T. WILLIAMS
REFERENCES
1 Report of Projection Screen Brightness Committee, /. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXVII (Aug., 1936), No. 2, p. 127.
2 /. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXVI (May, 1936), No, 5, p. 517. (See Fig. 3.)
3 /. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXVI (May, 1936), No. 5, p. 551. (See Table II.)
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON EXCHANGE PRACTICE*
Summary.— With the recent reorganization of the Committee representation was effected from all the important exchange companies, in addition to the theater and laboratory branches of the industry, which gives the Committee close contact with all the important factors in which it may at any time be interested.
The attention of the Committee is restricted to the physical handling of film in ex- changes, questions of safety and fire prevention, technic and supervision of inspection, uniformity of exchange practice, and the like.
Projects have been initiated for drawing up plans for an ideal exchange, for pre- paring an instructional booklet for exchanges, and for producing a descriptive film to supplement the booklet.
The Committee on Exchange Practice was originally formed in July, 1932, under the Chairmanship of Mr. Trevor Faulkner. Regu- lar reports were submitted to the Society each year, a list of which is appended to this report for reference.
At the beginning of 1937 a reorganization of the Committee was effected, the new members consisting of the heads of the various New York City Exchange Departments, so that a closer contact could be maintained with the very branch of the industry that would be most interested in the work of this Committee. In order to show this relation, the list of members of the Committee is given herewith, together with their company affiliations :
A. W. SCHWALBERG, Chairman (Warner)
O. C. BINDER ( Universal) H. A. MERSAY (20th Century-Fox)
A. S. DICKINSON (M. P. P. D. A .) N. F. OAKLEY (Dupont) G. K. HADDOW (Paramount) H. RUBIN (Paramount)
H. C. KAUFMAN (Columbia) A. SCHUBART (R. K. O.)
J. S. MACLEOD (M-G-M) J. H. SPRAY (Ace Labs.)
It is with deep regret that the Committee records the death of one of its most active members, J. P. Skelly, on March 8, 1937.
It will be noted that in addition to having representation among the various large companies, the Conservation Department of the M. P. P. D. A. through Mr. Dickinson, the Laboratory branch of the industry through Mr. Spray, as well as a film manufacturing com- pany through Mr. Oakley, are represented.
* Presented at the Spring, 1937, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.; received May 12, 1937. 50
EXCHANGE PRACTICE COMMITTEE REPORT 51
During the past season meetings of the Committee have been held every month at the offices of the M. P. P. D. A. Minutes of the meet- ings have been prepared and circularized by the Secretary of the Committee, Sylvan Harris, and it is the plan of the Committee to continue its meetings regularly during the entire year. This, the first report of the new Committee, will be followed in due course by a detailed description of the Committee's accomplishments at the next Convention in October.
The first meeting of the new Committee was held on February 25th, at which time the agenda and scope of the Committee were estab- lished. The attention of the Committee is restricted to the physical handling of film and not to subjects relating to advertising accessories, accounts, sales, or the like. Other problems facing the Committee refer to safety and fire prevention, the technic and supervision of inspection, methods of "processing" film, and uniformity of exchange practice.
The question of uniformity of exchange practice and technic have been receiving the close attention of the Committee for some time, particularly with reference to the relation between the laboratory phase and the projection phase, referring to the state in which film is received by the exchanges from the laboratories and sent by the exchanges to and received from the theaters. In this connection, it is important to note that the Chairman of the Projection Practice Committee of the SMPE, Harry Rubin, has been made a member of this Committee.
Considerable attention has been given to the subject of rewinding films in exchanges and the manner of making patches. It was the decision of the Committee that in the interests of uniformity it would be best to supply films to the theaters wound with the heads out, despite the fact that this would lead to a slight problem in Chicago, in view of the requirement in that city that the projectionists use 14-inch reels, making it necessary to rewind the film from the reels supplied by the exchanges. Exception must therefore be made in the Chicago area, in supplying the films wound with the tails out.
Steps have been taken to improve the uniformity of printed mate- rial accompanying films shipped out by exchanges, in respect to reel- bands, labels, etc., the idea being to make the information contained thereon more uniform and explicit.
A plan has been formulated to prepare an instruction booklet, under the auspices of the Committee, for distribution among ex-
52 EXCHANGE PRACTICE COMMITTEE REPORT [J. S. M. P. E.
changes, which would describe in more or less detail the proper way to inspect and handle film. Such a booklet was prepared some time ago for use in Paramount exchanges, but the plan is to prepare a more up-to-date and complete guide for the exchange personnel than was available in the Paramount booklet.
Steps have been taken also to draw up plans for an ideal exchange, probably in a form somewhat similar to the plans drawn up by the Projection Practice Committee some time ago for motion picture projection rooms. These plans will describe, in general terms, the recommended construction of the exchange; specifications for the equipment ; and proper method of operation, including housekeeping and general maintenance. The plans will also contain general information relating to the problems of supervision, working condi- tions, the advantages of avoiding confusion and noise, the impor- tance of adequate light and ventilation, cleanliness, etc.
Another project that will undoubtedly turn out to be of great importance to the exchange branch of the industry is that of preparing a demonstration film, under the supervision of the SMPE Exchange Practice Committee, which would show the proper procedure to be followed in inspecting and handling film in the exchanges. This film will complement the instructional booklet described above. The scenario for the film is now being prepared, and it is probable that shooting will begin within the next month or so. The purpose would be to provide prints of the film to exchanges, as needed, for showing at their various branches in order to instruct their employees. How often such showings will be necessary will, of course, depend upon the needs of the exchanges and upon the turn-over of their personnel. The film will tell a running story, the comments being made either in the form of a running narrative or as remarks by the various actors in the picture.
The items described are the more important ones facing the Com- mittee. In addition, however, there are a number of other items that do not warrant a report at this time in view of the fact that work upon them is just being initiated. However, it is expected that by the time of the Fall Convention in October a very complete report of the year's work will be available; and in view of the fact that the members of the Committee are those in charge of the various ex- change circuits, it is anticipated that the improvements in procedure and uniformity that will be agreed upon by the Committee will be put actively into effect in the exchange branch of the industry without
July, 1937] EXCHANGE PRACTICE COMMITTEE REPORT 53
delay. However, close collaboration with other branches of the industry is desired in view of the fact that the exchange branch repre- sents only one link in a long chain, and the procedure adopted in the exchanges is dependent to a large extent upon the materials supplied to the exchanges and the manner in which the film is handled in the theaters.
REFERENCES Reports of the Exchange Practice Committee:
/. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XX (March, 1933), No. 3, p. 199. Ibid., XXH (May, 1934), No. 5, p. 332. Ibid., XXV (Nov., 1935), No. 5, p. 462.
REPORT OF THE COLOR COMMITTEE*
Summary. — The Eastman perforation, although adopted by the Society as a standard for positive and negative film, has certain disadvantages for use in con- nection with color processes and for background projection. The reasons for these limitations are analyzed, and a proposal is made that the important advantages of the Eastman filleted rectangular shape be retained in a perforation, the dimensions of which are the same as those of the Bell & Howell perforation. Such a perfora- tion would fit existing Bell & Howell registering pins.
The use of a photocell having most of its sensitivity outside the visible spectral region imposes an added burden to those "working upon color sound processes. Search is urged for a cell that would have all the advantages of existing caesium cells but with its chief sensitive response in the visible range.
The term "Direct Color Developer Process" is recommended for a color process wherein non-diffusing color-formers in the emulsion (multiple-layer) combine with the oxidation products of the developer to form insoluble dyes. A process of this type was introduced recently by Agfa.
Perforation Standards. — Prior to 1930, the industry was using what is known as the Bell & Howell perforation for both negative and posi- tive stocks. The overall dimensions of this perforation are 0. 1 10 inch wide by 0.073 high, and the shape is such that the rounded ends of the perforation lie upon a circle.
In the fall of 1930, the Society adopted a new standard perforation for positive film only, the shape of which is a filleted rectangle of di- mensions 0.110 inch by 0.078. This shape and size are usually referred to as the Eastman perforation, because it was introduced by the East- man Kodak Company some years earlier. This new standard for positive film has been adopted by the black-and-white industry gen- erally; however, it has not been adopted by any commercially oper- ating color process. All color prints being commercially produced today have the old Bell & Howell standard perforation. The reason is, of course, the necessity in present-day color processes of transfer- ring accurate register from negative to positive by means of regis- tering pins. This means that at least the overall dimensions of the perforations in negative and positive must be the same.
In November, 1934, the Society adopted the Eastman perforation
* Presented at the Spring, 1937, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif. ; received April 15, 1937. 54
REPORT OF COLOR COMMITTEE 55
as standard for negative as well as for positive stock but there is no indication, either here or abroad, that this new standard for negative stock will actually be accepted; in fact, it appears that it will not be accepted. There are several reasons for this. For example, steadi- ness in background projection requires transfer of registration of pic- tures with respect to sprocket holes from the negative to the print, and the use of registering pins in the projector. It is universal prac- tice in the black-and-white industry to use Bell & Howell perforations even in the positive prints used in this type of work. Much of the negative material used in background projection conies from "stock shots," all of which, of course, already have the Bell & Howell perfora- tions. A third reason is that the confusion that would result during the change-over period might result in cases wherein film containing the small perforations encounters large-size pins either in camera, printer, or projector. In such a case, jamming and damage to the film would result. While it might be possible to re-perforate the old negative to the new standard, and, further, so to organize the period of transition as to minimize trouble, the fact remains that the industry has taken no step to adopt the Society's recommendation on Novem- ber, 1934. The Society now finds itself in the rather unfortunate position of having approved, in November, 1934, a standard that the industry has refused to accept in practice. From the point of view of the present-day color processes, even the standard adopted in 1930 for positive stock is impracticable.
The reason for adopting the increase in the vertical dimension in the case of the Eastman perforation was to allow additional clearance on projector sprockets to compensate for film shrinkage; but this diffi- culty has been minimized in the intervening years by the introduction of film bases of less shrinkage than those that were in use at the time the Eastman perforation was promulgated. Furthermore, the sound revolution has caused a very great increase in the care taken inmechani- cal maintenance of equipment in the theater projection room.
Now it is believed, and such tests as have been made substantiate the belief, that the very definite and important advantages of the fil- leted rectangular shape can be retained in a perforation whose dimen- sions are the same as those of the Bell & Howell perforation and will consequently fit upon existing Bell & Howell perforation registering pins. Such a solution of the problem has previously been urged by Mr. Howell.
While the cost of a change of standards is always great, it never
56 REPORT OF COLOR COMMITTEE
grows any less with time, and there is, of course, a not inconsiderable current expense to maintain two standards. In view of the fact that such standards as have previously been adopted have been found to be impracticable both for black-and-white and, especially, for color, the Color Committee feels that the Society, through its Standards Commit- tee, would do well to examine carefully the possibilities and advan- tages of a new universal standard perforation that would be practi- cable.
Photocell Sensitivity. — The Color Committee would like to call the attention of those working in sound to the fact that the use in the pro- jector of a photoelectric cell such as the caesium cell, having most of its sensitivity outside the region of the visible spectrum, requires that color processes deal not only with the visible spectrum but also with the added region in which the photocell is sensitive. This imposes a further burden upon those working in color. Their problems would be considerably simplified were the sensitivity of the photocell con- fined to the visible spectrum. The sound men themselves would gain an advantage also in such a case, due to a simplification of the design and accurate focus setting of the optical system in the reproducer. We do not mean in any way to urge a return to the potassium cell that was in use prior to the advent of the caesium cell but rather to urge the search for a cell having all the advantages of the caesium cell but with its principal sensitivity within the visible range. In other words, the Color Committee believes that the ideal photocell for the projector has not yet been developed and it would urge the sound men to seek it.
Further Classification of Color Processes. — A further classification of types of color processes is needed to take care of the process recently introduced by Agfa. In this process, non-diffusing color-formers re- side in the several emulsion layers. When the film is developed in a coupler-developer these color-formers combine with the oxidation products of the developer to form insoluble dyes. The phrase, "direct color," has been considered as descriptive of this process, but such a phrase might also apply to a bleach-out process. The recommended phrase, therefore, to describe the new process is "direct color developer process."
J. A. BALL, Chairman
W. H. CARSON C. H. DUNNING A. M. GUNDELFINGER
O. O. CECCARINI R. M. EVANS H. W. MOYSE
REPORT OF THE NON-THEATRICAL EQUIPMENT COMMITTEE*
Summary. — A resume is presented of correspondence conducted with the British Institute of Cinematography. The report of this organization is abstracted as follows: (1) A theoretical analysis of the light losses in a projector rising direct illumination is made, showing that for every 100 lumens emitted by the lamp, only 2.43 lumens find their way through the projection lens; (2) it is suggested that unit intensity be used as a method of comparison between one projector and another and that 1 foot- candle be regarded as an average value for home use and 4 foot-candles for small audi- toriums.
Objection is taken by this Committee to the latter proposal, and the opinion is ex- pressed that the suggested values are too low. A satisfactory intensity should cover projection of adequate quality.
Attention of the Society is directed to the matter of standardizing the procedure for the determination of total screen lumens.
This Committee is investigating the German recommendations concerning standardization of camera and projector sprockets, prin- cipally 16-mm., with a view of passing on recommendations to the SMPE Standards Committee for further consideration.
Additional work is being done in the matter of establishing a sat- isfactory basis upon which to rate 16-mm. projector performance. In this respect, some correspondence has been conducted with the British Institute of Cinematography in connection with their initial report on the same subject, which appeared in January, 1937. l It is felt that the report is sufficiently important to warrant repeating its essentials:
"In a projector, a source of light is enclosed in a lamp house having an opening in which is fixed a condenser ; usually, in addition, a re- flector is mounted diametrically opposite the condenser. The light escaping through the condenser passes through a gate, a shutter, and a projector lens. Assuming that the projector is running at normal speed, with no film in the gate, what proportion of the light emitted from the lamp escapes from the projection lens? Consider the ob- vious sources of light loss, working from the projection lens back to the lamp.
* Presented at the Spring, 1937, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
57
58 REPORT OF NON-THEATRICAL COMMITTEE [J. S. M. P. E.
"(1) The Lens consists of a number of glasses, all of which absorb a certain amount of light in themselves and the combination has an effective aperture which controls the amount of light passed.
"(2) The Shutter. Assume a two-bladed shutter with 90-degree blades. The light passing to the projection lens is cut by one-half during each revolution of the shutter, so that 50 per cent of the light output is lost. This is a necessary loss and varies according to the type of shutter.
"(«?) The Gate is rectangular in shape and must be evenly illumi- nated to the corners so that the diameter of the circle of light passing from the condenser must be at least equal to the diagonal of the gate. The loss here is therefore equal to the difference between the area of the gate and the area of the circle of light whose diameter is equal to the gate diagonal. This loss amounts to no less than 40 per cent.
"(4) The Condenser is of thick glass and absorbs its proportion of light
"(5) The Lamp House. The diameter of the condenser is condi- tioned by the diagonal of the gate and its distance from the gate. Reverting to our consideration of the candle inside a sphere, it will be seen that since the opening in the sphere, or enclosure, is already con- ditioned, the light-source must be brought as near as possible to the condenser so that the opening in the equivalent sphere is as large a proportion of its total area as possible. This, in turn, is conditioned by the heat generated by the lamp, because the greater the heat the larger must be the diameter of the glass tube, and hence the greater the distance of the filament from the condenser. The most efficient reflector is a polished silver surface, but, as this surface deteriorates, a silvered mirror is preferable over a period of time and will reflect not more than 75 per cent of the light incident upon it.
"Taking these matters into consideration, and assuming that the whole of the horizontal candle-power can be directed at the condenser, we have, very roughly, one-twelfth of the lamp lumens plus 75 per cent of this figure; i. e., all that we can expect to present to the con- denser is, very roughly again, some 15 per cent of the total lumens of the lamp. This upon the further assumption that the square of the distance from the lamp filament to the condenser is not numerically greater than the effective area of the condenser opening.
"Adding up these sources of loss, it is not surprising, therefore, to find that the efficiency of a projector measured in terms of the ratio of lumens output to lumens input to the lamp house is only of the order
July, 1937] REPORT OF NON-THEATRICAL COMMITTEE 59
of 2 per cent. Hence the comparison of projectors by means of their true measured efficiency will not convey a great deal, and it is, there- fore, advisable to consider some other method.
"Only projectors with direct lighting have been considered above. Those of the indirect type, where the lamp house is at the side of the machine and the light issuing from the condenser is reflected at right angles to the gate, have an additional light loss due to absorption by the mirror. A prism giving total reflection does not entirely over- come this loss, as there is still absorption taking place in the glass. In view of the other losses, however, this loss is not serious.
"A summary of the losses in a projector using direct illumination can be demonstrated in the following way. The figures given do not refer to any particular type or make of projector, but represent a purely theoretical case.
"For every 100 lumens emitted by the lamp:
15 lumens arrive at the condenser surface, including light reflected by the mirror;
13 . 5 lumens find their way through the condenser; 4.5 lumens find their way through the shutter; 2.7 lumens find their way through the gate; 2.43 lumens find their way through the projection lens.
"It should be appreciated that with a given projector, the true efficiency can be increased in two ways: by the use of a projection lens of greater effective aperture, and by the use of a shutter having a shorter period of cut-off. The actual light output can also be in- creased by using a higher-wattage lamp, or a lower-voltage lamp of the same wattage, this latter giving a greater number of lumens per watt. But increased wattage in the same lamp house, although giving increased light output, generally does so at the expense of efficiency. It is usual to express the overall efficiency of a projector in screen lumens per watt, and this figure varies from about 0.06 for 8-mm. machines to 0.6 for 16-mm. machines.
THE RATING OF PROJECTORS
"In determining a suitable criterion of screen illumination, consider- ation must be given to the practicability of this criterion and to the manner in which the customary illumination of screens is affected thereby. It is customary in the home, on the one hand, to arrange the projection room to be completely dark if possible, and in the profes- sional auditorium, on the other hand, it is usually a matter of law to
60 REPORT OF NON-THEATRICAL COMMITTEE [J. S. M. P. E.
have sufficient lighting in the auditorium to enable the audience to see its way out in emergency. Conditions in the home and in the cinema differ in two respects:
(a) The home auditorium can be made completely dark, the cinema can not ; and
(b) The type of film used in the home is usually of the reversal type and dense, whereas in the cinema it is of the positive type and, by comparison, thin.
"It is not beyond the bounds of probability, therefore, that the additional light required by reversal film is offset by the additional light required in the theater by virtue of the fact that stray emergency lighting reaches the screen and tends to dull the picture.
"The criterion suggested is that of an intensity of one foot-candle at the surface of the screen when the screen is illuminated by light projected through a piece of film of perfect transparency. This means that when a film containing a grading from perfect transpar- ency to perfect opacity is projected onto a screen, the light at the sur- face of that screen varies from 0 to 1 foot-candle. It may be said here that if the screen were evenly lighted by stray light to an inten- sity of 1 foot-candle, then the variation of light would be from 1 to 2 foot-candles, giving a duller picture, but still visible. The amount of light reaching the eye from a screen so illuminated depends upon the reflecting power of the screen, and the reflecting powers of commercial screens will be the subject of a further investigation. In the mean- time the suggested criterion can be taken to refer to an average screen 3uch as is used in the home, having an average reflecting power over a fairly narrow angle.
"At first sight this intensity of 1 foot-candle appears very low, but it should be remembered that it is being applied in a special case. From a psychological point of view, attention is being focused upon a small area, and this represents only a small section of the total area that would be taken in by the eye if all objects in the total angle of view at that distance were illuminated. It is probable that the eye is called upon to do less work when focused at one distance only upon a two-dimensional object, and requires less stimulation of light than when constantly changing focus and direction and measuring dis- tances, as is the case normally. It is suggested that unit intensity be used as a method of comparison between one projector and another, and that this intensity of 1 foot-candle be considered as an average value for home use and that an intensity of 4 foot-candles be con- sidered as an average value for small audiences including educational use. This is more or less within present practice.
r, 1937] REPORT OF NON-THEATRICAL COMMITTEE 61
"It is proposed to classify projectors according to the size of screen, rhich will give the intensities mentioned above.
"Before proceeding to the method of measurement and classifica- tion it will be of interest to examine the claims put forward for some of the well-known projectors on the market today. The screen lu- mens given for the 16-mm. projectors are those published by the makers and those given for the 9-mm. projectors are the results of tests.
"Messers. Siemens claim that their standard projectors have been used to show a 16-ft. picture (0.68 foot-candle) to an audience of over 2000 people, and speak of 21 lux (1.95 foot-candles) as an 'extraor- dinary light value.' If we exclude the 13-ft. guaranteed picture of the Agfa, which refers to a white screen, and assume that the other claims presuppose the use of the best type of beaded screen, then the intensities vary from 0.32 to 0.84 foot-candle, and our requirements of 1 foot-candle on an average screen appears to be reasonable.
"R. F. Mitchell2 has suggested a standard of 6 foot-candles as a basis of classification, but this would appear to be impracticably high in view of the present output limitations of substandard projectors, since one has yet to hear of a 16-mm. projector with an output as high as 300 screen lumens,* and even this figure would limit the size of a screen to a maximum width of 8 feet. This was only a suggested standard, however, and he also said that the corresponding screen sizes could be doubled if necessary, i. e., an intensity of 1.5 foot-candles. A point of interest, however, is that Mr. Mitchell stated in the discus- sion in a previous paper that it was quite usual to show a 12-ft. or 14-ft. picture to an audience of 1000 or 2000 people with quite satis- factory results when using a 750- watt lamp. Now, a Bell & Ho well 750- watt projector with an //1. 65 lens gives about 210 screen lumens, so presumably the audience was satisfied with intensities of 1.95 and 1.43 foot-candles."
The Chairman of this Committee has objected to the interpretation of this low intensity as being satisfactory, because of the fact that many 16-mm. projector manufacturers advertise the possibility of showing large-size pictures. A careful definition of the word satis- factory has been suggested: "Too often we tend to use this word to cover projection of minimum suitability, whereas really it should cover projection of adequate quality." The attention of the British Institute has also been called to the various papers that appeared in
* Such a machine is available.3
62
REPORT OF NON-THEATRICAL COMMITTEE
the May, 1936, JOURNAL, and their reply is being awaited with con- siderable interest.
The Committee would like to call the attention of the Society mem- bers in general to the matter of standardizing the procedure for de- termining total screen lumens. The lack of an approved method in- troduces sufficient differences as to hamper, if not prevent, satis- factory progress of this rating procedure.2 This Committee is co- operating with the Projection Practice Committee and Standards Committee in furthering the establishment of these desirable recom- mendations.
R. F. MITCHELL, Chairman
D. P. BEAN E. C. FRITTS R. C. HOLSLAG
F. E. CARLSON H. GRIFFIN J. H. KURLANDER
W. B. COOK J. A. HAMMOND A. SHAPIRO
H. A. DEVRY A. F. VICTOR
REFERENCES
1 "The Performance and Classification of Substandard Projectors," J. Brit. Inst. Cinemat., (Jan., 1937), No. 1, p. 6.
2 MITCHELL, R. F.: "Non-Theatrical Projection," J. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXXI (Oct., 1935), No. 4, p. 314.
J MITCHELL, R. F., AND HERD, W. L.: "1000-Watt 16-Mm. Filmosound Projector," J. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng., XXVII (Oct., 1936), No. 4, p. 440.
REPORT OF THE MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE*
Summary. — The membership of the Society is growing steadily at the net rate of 25 to 30 members a month, the present (April 30, 1937) membership being 1283, with 30 applications pending. The broadening of the membership to include all the important countries of the world, in addition to the domestic membership, is indicative of the widening activities of the Society in international motion picture affairs.
The growth of the membership, although not spectacular, this past year has nevertheless been steady and quite satisfactory. During 1936 the net increase was approximately 25 new members a month. Since January 1, 1936, 79 new members have been admitted, 18 old members reinstated, and 30 new applications are pending, making a total of 127, or approximately 32 a month.
The net figure, however, is less than that, because of the fact that,
as every year, there are a few resignations, and this year so far there
have been five deaths. The net, however, as stated, is very close to
25 a month.
The total membership at the present moment (April 30) consists of :
Honorary 7
Fellows 140
Active 328
Associate 808
Total 1283
Applications
Pending 30
Total 1313
This figure may be reduced somewhat by the middle of the year, because at that time members who have not paid their dues for the current year will become delinquent. It is expected, however, in view of the general improvement in conditions, that the number of delinquents this year will not be as great as that of last year, so that by the end of 1937 it is anticipated that the net membership in good standing will be well over 1400.
* Presented at the Spring, 1937, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.
63
64 REPORT OF MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE
It is particularly interesting to note that the foreign membership of the Society is increasing as rapidly as the domestic membership. This is probably due in part to the broadening of the Society's activi- ties through its relations with the foreign standardizing bodies and other motion picture engineering societies.
A similar increase may be noted also with respect to non-member- ship subscriptions. For several years the number of non-member subscriptions averaged very close to 200. During the past two years, however, the number has increased to 364, the net increase during the past four months alone being 66. Many of these non-membership subscriptions are held by the libraries of large research and industrial organizations, and as noted above in connection with membership, the increase in non-member subscriptions in foreign countries is par- ticularly interesting.
Although the situation is very promising, and the membership and non-member subscriptions have reached new high peaks, it is the de- sire of the Membership Committee that there be no relaxation of effort to increase the membership further. The Society does not by any means cover the entire field adequately, and there are many per- sons actively engaged in the motion picture field, even in such a center as Hollywood, who could well become members of the Society, to the interests both of the Society and themselves. The Membership and Subscription Committee seeks the assistance of the entire member- ship of the Society in this work.
E. R. GEIB, Chairman
TONING POSITIVE FILM BY MACHINE METHODS* J. M. NICKOLAUS*
Summary. — A description of the toning of the entire release of the Metro-Goldwyn- Mayer production "The Good Earth," using a modified developing machine,
Toning a motion picture positive film is an art that has been nearly forgotten. For the past decade very little, if any, toning has been done. The inception of sound photography with its many compli- cated problems probably had a great deal to do with it, but with the advances that have been made, not only in sound photography but also in laboratory processing, it is not inconceivable that this art might be partially revived.
Many of the emotional moods that motion pictures seek to portray can not always be depicted to their full extent by the normal gray tone of black-and-white photography, since gray tones can have a very sobering effect upon the observer. While gray no doubt en- hances certain moods, there are many instances where color of some sort would enhance the mood and thereby produce a more striking and favorable reaction upon the observer. Much of the early work in motion pictures made use of color effects produced by the use of tints and tones, either separately or in combination. Every so often a picture is made in which definite mood effects are to be depicted that could be greatly strengthened by the use of some color medium. The choice of the color, as well as the medium, requires very definite plan- ning.
When consideration was given by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to the picture The Good Earth it was felt that normal black-and-white photography did not convey the desired mood satisfactorily. Search- ing for a means to produce the desired effect the subject of toning the positive print was given consideration, and after much experimental
* Presented at the Spring, 1937, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.; received May 11, 1937.
k* Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, Culver City, Calif.
65
66 J. M. NICKOLAUS [J. S. M. P. E.
work a solution of the problem was arrived at, as will be described. One of the reasons why it was felt desirable to present the data was the fact that to the best of our knowledge this is the first complete major release to be toned in its entirety, and, furthermore, it is the first picture to be so toned in a modern developing machine.
It should not be presumed that because the release prints of The Good Earth were completely toned, there is a desire on the part of the studio to tone other pictures indiscriminately. It must be remem- bered that the decision to tone the prints of this picture was not ar- rived at with any thought in mind of eliminating color photography. It stands to reason that it is extremely difficult to find a story that has been photographed that is so completely adaptable to toning as was this picture. The subject matter will decide whether other pictures will be similarly treated in the future. The mere application of a tone is not sufficient : a choice of the color resulting from the treatment is most important and vital for depicting the proper mood.
A toned photographic image is quite distinct from a tint, in that a toned image consists of a color image embedded in a layer of colorless gelatin, so that while the highlights are clear, the shadows are colored. A tone may be applied chemically by the use of an inorganic metallic salt or by the use of a dye. It is, of course, most important that the toned photographic image be as transparent as possible for proper and adequate projection. In this respect some samples of toned film that appear fully toned upon hand examination produce a practically colorless effect upon projection. It is important, therefore, when judging a particular tone to view it upon a projection screen.
A toning machine had to be designed and built for the work, using the general idea of a regular developing machine, rearranging the tanks, however, so as to be suitable for the process. The tanks were constructed of Allegheny steel and were set up in a lighted room, as a dark room was not necessary for the operation. For that reason the prints were not toned immediately after they were developed; they were dried first, and then put through the toning machine, air squee- gees being provided throughout the machine to prevent an excess carry-over of water, chemical, and dye. The machine operates at a rate of 90 to 100 feet per minute, depending upon the length of time required for the toning operation. The toning solution is a chemical one made up with uranium nitrate as the chief constituent. The formula used was that contained in the 1927 edition of "Tinting and Toning," published by the Eastman Kodak Company:
July, 1937] TONING POSITIVE FILM 67
Uranium Toning Formula — T9
Uranium Nitrate IG'A ounces
Potassium Oxalate lOVa ounces
Potassium Ferricyanide 6x/2 ounces
Ammonium Alum 2*/2 pounds
Hydrochloric Acid (10%) 1 quart
Water to make 50 gallons
The chemicals were mixed in the order given in the formula. The temperature of the toning bath was approximately 70°F. The time of toning was a variable, depending upon the depth of the tone de- sired, varying from 1 J/2 to S'/a minutes. It is important to remember that the effect of toning is to produce an intensification of the silver image and that the intensification increases with the time of toning. That means, of course, that the nature, or depth of the tone, changes also.
The reaction of the toning bath is to replace the silver image in the positive film by uranium ferrocyanide. The film is placed in a single solution consisting of the metallic ferricyanide dissolved in a suitable solvent, such as the alkaline salt of oxalic acid in the presence of a mineral acid and certain other salts. The silver image is thereby partly converted to a mixture of silver ferrocyanide and the corre- sponding uranium ferrocyanide, thus producing a toned image. Fol- lowing the toning operation it was necessary to wash the film com- pletely so that all effects of the solution that are undesirable are re- moved. Highlights should be clear and the time of washing should be such as to render them clear. However, too long washing is det- rimental, in that some of the color will wash out, due to the fact that the uranium tone is soluble in water that is at all inclined to be alka- line. Normally a ten-minute wash is sufficient.
The bath was made up in quantities of approximately 250 gallons, and as the film passed through it the solution was maintained at the desired strength by boosting at the rate of approximately two quarts of fresh, five times normal strength toning bath for every 2000 feet of positive film passed through it.
The picture The Good Earth was approximately 12,000 feet long, consisting of 14 reels. There have been made from this negative ap- proximately 500 release prints, and all the prints have been toned.
From the standpoint of sound, there is little to report other than the fact that the sound department advised that all tests made by them pertaining to the effect of toning the sound-track showed no detri- mental effects upon the quality of the sound.
A TRANSMISSION-MEASURING SYSTEM UTILIZING A GRAPHIC RECORDING METER*
W. W. LINDSAY, JR.**
Summary. — The design of a transmission-measuring system utilizing an Esterline Angus recording meter is described. A circuit was developed requiring a special triode exhibiting a logarithmic relation between change of grid bias and plate current. The audio oscillator is a commercial type to which has been added a synchronous motor drive geared to the frequency dial. For the amplifier -rectifier, required to oper- ate the 5-ma. recording meter, use is made of a push-pull class A amplifier terminated by a full-wave, approximately square-law tube rectifier, the d-c. output of the latter being connected to the recording meter.
The paper concludes with a discussion of the various applications to which the sys- tem may be put.
The need for a graphic record of transmission measurements has been recognized for many years, particularly in connection with the study of acoustical systems and other characteristics that play im- portant parts in the development, testing, and maintenance of electri- cal and acoustical apparatus.
The technical literature describes numerous systems developed for this purpose, and many ingenious methods have been published, ranging from a simple, hand-operated stylus to elaborate photo- graphic registration. Logarithmic amplitude scales are most desir- able, and it will be well to mention briefly some of the more funda- mental methods used to obtain them. Ballantine used exponential tetrodes.1'8 Best describes a direct-current instrument with special pole-pieces.2 Wente, Bedell, and Swartzel use an amplifier and rec- tifier, the gain being controlled by motor-driven potentiometers grad- uated in logarithmic steps, the gain settings of which are recorded.3 European methods differ from ours: Payne and Storey utilize the positive grid region of certain triodes.4 Thilo and Bidlingmaier use the non-linear characteristic of copper-oxide rectifiers with tempera- ture control.6 Peachey also uses the copper-oxide rectifier, but with- out temperature control.6 Meyer provides a liquid potentiometer of
* Presented at the Spring, 1937, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif. ** General Service Studies, Inc., Hollywood, Calif.
68
A TRANSMISSION-MEASURING SYSTEM
09
exponential shape.7 More recently, several modifications of the origi- nal Ballantine method have been described.9' 10>u
A study of the various systems will indicate that a simple device that will provide a logarithmic amplitude scale is not at hand without resorting to a special tube and circuit, as described later.
In designing our present equipment, the fundamental requirements we attempted to meet are as follows:
(1) The equipment must be stable, rugged, simple in operation, and the recording portion must be portable and a-c. operated.
(2) The response must be independent of frequency from 35 to
FIG. 1. Experimental linear decibel scale amplifier.
10,000 cps., ±0.2 db., and effects of line-voltage change should re- main within these limits.
(3) Effects of turn-over, wave-form errors, and stray magnetic fields at power supply frequencies must be reduced to a minimum.
(4) A logarithmic amplitude scale that may be calibrated in deci- bels, and logarithmic change of oscillator output frequency are de- sirable.
(5) Accurate marking of the completed record should be made in terms of the oscillator frequency dial calibration.
The first three requirements have been met in a satisfactory manner, the fourth not at all, the fifth partially.
Experiments with most of the generally known circuits, as well as several of our own, led us to believe it difficult to obtain a strictly linear decibel scale and at the same time provide the required degree
70
W. W. LINDSAY, JR.
[J. S. M. P. E.
of stability, simplicity of operation, and freedom from line-voltage changes or tube replacements.
The writer has developed a simple circuit (Fig. 1) which requires, however, that the tube manufacturers supply a special triode in which the plate current and grid bias follow the relation shown in Fig. 2, which is a strictly logarithmic relation between grid bias change and plate current. The usual variable-/* tubes do not follow this charac- teristic accurately, or over a sufficient range to be of much value. In Fig. 1, a class A push-pull amplifier terminates in a full- wave rectifier
MIUIAMPCRCS It> K>dt>
Negative Bias Voltage Ratio
J L
J L
FIG. 2.
Negative bias voltage ratio (Curves 1 and 2 show charac- teristics of 6D6 tube with different plate voltages) .
made almost perfectly linear by reason of a large value of load resis- tance. The negative bias voltage produced as a result of signal rec- tification is applied to the grid of the logarithmic triode. A milli- ammeter in the plate circuit, and the recording meter with a variable shunt resistance in the cathode circuit, permit proper adjustment by means of the bias resistance, for full-scale deflection with reference signal input. Linear input signal increments will result in a logarith- mic reduction of plate current, obviously providing a linear decibel scale. The range in decibels is limited by the ability of the class A amplifier to supply signal voltage to the rectifier without overloading, and by the tube parameters chosen in designing the special tube. A
July, 1937]
A TRANSMISSION- MEASURING SYSTEM
71
range of thirty to forty decibels should be possible. An advantage possessed by this circuit arrangement is that excessive input signal will not damage the recording meter, since the plate current is re- duced to zero.
Space limitations and lack of a suitable commercially available con- denser prevented adopting a logarithmic frequency change with re- spect to time.1'8 A mechanical cam arrangement is the most simple
FIG. 3. Records obtained with the recording meter.
solution of the problem, particularly if a variable condenser is used having a true "law" plate shape, such as a straight-line frequency type.6
We found that the simple method of engaging the oscillator dial- drive pinion at the beginning of the record is entirely satisfactory for use as a frequency fiducial in applying the transparent chart to the graphic record. This chart is marked in decibels and with frequencies corresponding to the oscillator dial calibration. (Fig. 3, showing also
72 W. W. LINDSAY, JR. [J. S. M. p. E.
the overall frequency response of the equipment as well as the effect of line voltage variation.)
Theoretical requirements have been so well covered in the bibliog- raphy, that the remainder of this paper will be devoted to the prac- tical problems of mechanical and electrical nature encountered during construction of the apparatus.
A commercial audio oscillator (Fig. 4) has been provided with a syn- chronous motor drive, connected to the frequency dial by means of a set of gears. A small, hand-operated lever permits engaging the gears so that the dial will begin rotating at the desired moment. The number of gears is so chosen that the graphic record starts at the high-frequency end of the scale. This is necessary with a left-hand
FIG. 4. Audio oscillator, with synchronous motor.
zero recording meter, otherwise the lower frequencies would appear upon the right, instead of upon the left-hand, side of the chart, as con- vention dictates. An additional pinion provides rotation in the op- posite direction when making "toe" frequency negatives. The speed of the motor and the gear ratios have been chosen to cover the fre- quency range in sixty seconds.
A study of the circuit diagram (Fig. 5) will assist in following the description of details used to attain the desired results.
The electrical circuits of the oscillator have been changed to provide, in conjunction with an external booster amplifier, constant output into 500 ohms, measured with a thermocouple instrument. The changes consist in removing a low-pass filter and adding a suitable output transformer and series capacity of the correct size to provide low-frequency equalization, as well as a series resistance which hap-
July, 1937]
A TRANSMISSION-MEASURING SYSTEM
73
pens to affect both low and high frequencies, in the right amount. The booster amplifier is normal, except that the input and output transformers have been changed to more recent designs. The result- ing output over the frequency range specified is well within the limits set.
Having achieved a satisfactory oscillator-amplifier system, it re- mained to work out an amplifier-rectifier arrangement that would satisfactorily operate the five-milliampere recording meter. The
MODIFIED G.R.6I3-B AUDIO OSCILLATOR. Ci C2
iH
FIG. 5. Circuit diagram of the system.
design chosen makes use of a push-pull class A amplifier, terminating with a full-wave, approximately square-law12 tube rectifier, the d-c. output of the rectifier being connected to the recording meter. This provides an amplitude scale that is not linear in decibels, but is satis- factory from a stability standpoint.
All the tube heaters are in series, and together with a small addi- tional resistance, are connected directly to the 110- volt supply. The B voltage required for the amplifier tubes is obtained from a voltage- doubling circuit, without the use of a high- voltage power transformer. The necessary filtering is obtained with capacity elements only. The input circuit is of the high-impedance type, and may be connected
74
W. W. LINDSAY, JR.
[J. S. M. p. E.
FIG. 6. ( Upper) Amplifier-rectifier, with recording meter. FIG. 7. (Lower) Same, with covers removed.
July, 1937] A TRANSMISSION-MEASURING SYSTEM 75
across a line having an impedance of 500 ohms in either direction without serious bridging loss (0.2 db. at 35 cps.; less at higher fre- quencies). The input circuit contains a series capacity and a shunt resistance which serve to maintain the low-frequency response. The input transformer feeds the signal to the two tube grids, and then after amplification by the tubes, is transformer-coupled to the full- wave rectifier. It so happened that this combination showed a slightly rising characteristic up to 12,000 cps. The addition of a small shunt capacity across the primary of the output transformer provides uniform response from 35 to 12,000 cps.
Cathode resistor biasing was found to provide the required compen- sation for line- voltage fluctuations. A +10-db. signal at the input produces full-scale deflection of the meter. (Zero level equals six milliwatts in 500 ohms.)
The full- wave rectifier is provided with a small adjustable resistance, which is set for the initial calibration and may be reset at a later date if necessary. In certain acoustic measurements, a large capacity across the meter acts as an integrating device, and serves to smooth out certain irregularities in the response curve, which are not of par- ticular interest. Care must be used, however, in choosing its value, since, if too large, it will give a false impression of flatness, and, also, it shifts downward the peaks and valleys in the frequency response curve. The value that we have found useful varies between 500 and 2000 /if across a 570-ohm meter movement. With this capacity in the circuit, warble of the oscillator frequency is generally not used.
This completes the details of the oscillator-amplifier and amplifier- rectifier recording meter combination. Fig. 6 shows the amplifier- rectifier in its case, with the recording meter beside it. Fig. 7 shows the same equipment with covers removed.
Applications to which the equipment has been put are as follows:
(1) Gain runs of all kinds, including amplifiers, microphones, loud speakers, light-valves, frequency films, and records, etc.
(2} A recording microdensitometer has been achieved by using a modulated light-source, moving the sound-track past a scanning aper- ture at a slow, but uniform rate, and recording the amplified varia- tions due to density changes.
(5) As a recording volume indicator, the instrument has been use- ful in studying recording and re-recording signal amplitudes.
(4) The recording meter alone has been used for making direct current or voltage records of various transient phenomena.
76 W. W. LINDSAY, JR.
Other applications are too numerous to mention, and depend chiefly upon the problems at hand and the need for graphic record. The time saved is quite appreciable, and permits giving greater attention to other problems. The apparatus has been performing satisfac- torily since July, 1936.
In conclusion, the author wishes to thank Mr. D. C. Hickson, Vice- President, and Mr. J. R. Whitney, Sound Director, of General Service Studios, Inc., for their cooperation in making this development pos- sible; and also to acknowledge gratefully the many helpful sugges- tions of his co-workers, Mr. J. G. Matthews and Mr. C. M. Ralph.
REFERENCES
1 BALLANTINE, S.: "Variable-mu Tetrodes in Logarithmic Recording," Electronics (Jan., 1931), No. 1, p. 472.
2 BEST, F. H. : "A Recording Transmission Measuring System for Tele- phone Circuit Testing," Bell Sys. Tech. J. (Jan., 1933), No. 1, p. 22.
3 WENTE, E. C., BEPDELL, E. H., AND SWARTZEL, K. D., JR.: "A High- Speed Level Recorder for Acoustic Measurements," J. Acous. Soc. Amer. (Jan., 1935), No. 1, p. 121.
4 PAYNE, E. L., AND STOREY, J. G.: "A Portable Program Meter," The Wireless Eng. & Exp. Wireless (Nov., 1935), No. 11, p. 588.
5 THILO, H. G., AND BIDLINGMAIER, M. : "The Tone Meter," E. N. T. (May, 1936), No. 5, p. 176.
6 PEACHEY, F. A.: "Automatic Line-Level Recording Apparatus," Wireless Eng. (Sept., 1936), No. 9, p. 462.
7 MEYER, E.: "Reverberation and Absorption of Sound," J. Acous. Soc. Amer. (Jan., 1937), No. 1, p. 155.
8 BALLANTINE, S. : "A Logarithmic Recorder for Frequency Response Mea- surements at Audio Frequencies," /. Acous. Soc. Amer. (July, 1933), No. 7, p. 10.
9 WHEELER, H. A., AND WHITMAN, V. E. : "Acoustic Testing of High-Fidelity Receivers," Proc. I. R. E. (June, 1935), No. 6, p. 610.
10 HUNT, F. V.: "A Vacuum-Tube Voltmeter with Logarithmic Response," Rev. Sci. Instr. (Dec., 1933), No. 12, p. 672.
11 TAYLOR, J. P.: "A D-C. Amplifier for Logarithmic Recording," Electronics (March, 1937), p. 24.
11 WOLFF, I. : "Alternating- Current Measuring Instruments as Discrimina- tors Against Harmonics," Proc. I. R. E. (April, 1931), No. 4, p. 647.
DENHAM STUDIOS OF LONDON FILM PRODUCTIONS
LIMITED*
L. C. FERMAUD**
Summary. — The studios occupy 28 acres of a 165-acre estate in Buckinghamshire about 17 miles from the center of London. Fine gardens stretching to the edge of dense woodland provide a natural setting that can be adapted easily for exterior pho- tography. There are seven stages, totalling 120,000 square-feet of floor area. Two stages are 250 by 120 by 45 feet (high) ; two are 125 by 120 by 45; and three are 120 by 80 by 35. Details of the foundation and wall construction are given. The main reviewing theater is designed for reviews and for scoring; for the latter the reverbera- tion period can be adjusted to 0.8 second and for the former, 1.5 seconds.
A description is included of the various shops that service the studios, not only for set construction but also for equipment. The metal shop, for example, has turned out more than 700 lamps for set lighting, two optical printers, a projection printer, a stop-motion machine, and a rear projector.
In the sound stages, only the dubbing channel is of the permanent type. A brief description is given of the portable sound channels, the camera department, and the processing laboratories. Two automatic developing machines, capable of developing 480 and 1000 feet per hour, are available for film processing. Automatic mixing equipment is used for preparation of solutions.
The electrical power plant is described and details are included on fire protection, water supply, and sewage disposal.
It is important that a British studio be situated in close proximity to good natural settings so that production hold-ups may be reduced to a minimum by the use of alternative exterior and interior schedules for fine or wet weather. London Film Productions' studios are hap- pily situated in this respect in that the estate, though only some seven- teen miles from the center of London, is in the heart of Buckingham- shire's reputedly fine scenery.
The estate itself is 165 acres in area, of which the studio occupies 28 acres. The River Colne winds through the estate for ll/^ miles, and widens out into a lake by the lawns of the Old House, formerly the residence on the Denham Estate. There are fine gardens stretch-
* Presented at the Spring, 1937, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif.; received April 19, 1937.
** London Film Productions, Ltd., Denham, Middlesex, England.
77
78
L. C. FERMAUD
[J. S. M. P. E.
ing to the edge of dense woodland possessing a surprising variety of trees, while the upper reaches of the river run through typical English meadowland.
It is there that many permanent sets have been constructed in a setting that can be easily adapted for exteriors of almost every kind. The site is naturally insulated against sound, for the only chance of noise on one side — a country road — is effectively screened by trees in most parts, while on the other the country is entirely devoid of build- ing development. The possibility of the spoiling of the sky-line is remote, for large areas of the surrounding country and part of the
FIG. 1. General layout of the studios.
estate are included in a town-planned green belt upon which building can not take place for at least twenty years.
The value of such locations, literally at the back door of the studio, can not be gainsaid. Production units remain under executive super- vision, and also have the advantage of the studio power supply, stores, accommodation, and catering arrangements.
Such was the setting chosen by Mr. Korda for the construction of a studio at least as modern, it is hoped, as any in the world. It was commenced with the initial advantage that it was to be built as one complete whole, and all possibilities of future development for many years to come laid out in the original plans.
The tremendous amount of thought arid knowledge put by Mr. Jack Okey into the scheme can only now be fully appreciated, for the studio was built at a time when contractors and specialists in this
July, 1937] DENHAM STUDIOS OF LONDON 79
country had little experience with plants of such size, with their trains of pitfalls. All the pitfalls had to be watched for and avoided, and a scheme evolved that was to house a complete community ca- pable of making sound and color-films upon a large scale. Everything possible was to be produced on the premises, with a minimum of calls upon outside resources, from power supply to the processing of the exposed film.
Fig. 1 shows the general layout of the studio. The main entrance and gatehouse are at the top left-hand corner, and the garage just below. There are three entrances to the front block of buildings,
FIG. 2. Front view of stages.
south, central, and north. The administration offices are grouped near the south entrance, together with the sound department, main review, and scoring theater. The executive offices are situated on the first floor overlooking the main entrance and the surrounding coun- tryside. The central entrance is, in effect, a private entrance giving access to an individual two-story block of offices for the use of renting companies.
Dressing rooms, make-up, wardrobe departments, and casting offices are grouped near the north entrance, where crowds are checked in and paid off. Beyond is the studio restaurant. The whole of this front block is interconnected with corridors and glass-covered ways that feed into a main transverse corridor connecting the stages — the hub of all film studios. Covered ways are a very necessary feature. Apart from access to the shops, there is little need for anyone to go
80 L. C. FERMAUD [J. S. M. P. E.
into the open air, where costumes may be damaged by rain or one may catch cold by the sudden changes of temperature in the winter time.
At the base of stages 4, 5, and 7 are three two-story annexes, housing, respectively, the special-effects department, art department, and the still and camera departments.
The power station will be seen placed centrally, immediately below the stages with the two stage air-conditioning fan chambers, and the boiler house adjoining. This position for the power station was chosen in order to reduce to a minimum the length of the bus-bars to the stages, with the resultant saving in cost and minimizing of the
FIG. 3. Rear view of large stages.
voltage drop. The workshops are housed in three buildings to the south of the stages, the various departments being arranged as far as possible in the order of the procedure of work.
Owing to the large area that a number of sound stages must cover, even when grouped as closely as practicable, and the consequent long distances to be traversed, it was considered most satisfactory to ar- range the shops together in one group for easy intercommunication, and to feed their output to the stages in low-loading lorries.
With the exception of the road leading down from the main en- trance, which is thirty feet wide, all roads are twenty-five feet wide with five-foot grass verges on each side, giving a standard distance between buildings of thirty-five feet. Though it has proved difficult
July, 1937] DENHAM STUDIOS OF LONDON 81
to persuade the grass to keep on growing, the green verges add greatly to the impression of airiness about the studio. Fig. 2 shows the front elevation from the dressing room end, and Fig. 3 the rear of the large stages with their annexes and air-conditioning extract turrets.
All buildings are steel framed. A total of 4500 tons was used. There are over 700 tons of steel in each of the three large stage build- ings. Apart from the shops, where the walls are covered with asbes- tos sheeting, and stages 1, 2, and 3, where they are of brick, walls are of 4-inch reinforced concrete. The low-pitched roofs of the front block, which are concealed by parapet walls, are of roofing felt laid upon close boarding on wood purlins. The remainder of the 25-
FIG. 4. General view of studios from the air.
degree pitched roofs of the stages, power station, shops, etc., are of green-colored asbestos cement, "Watford" tiles. These green roofs, which blend with the natural green of the countryside, were decided upon after cooperation with the local town-planning authorities, who were as anxious as the Company that the studio should not spoil the amenities of the district by striking a contrasting note.
The broad, square corrugations of the gray asbestos cement sheets used on the shops is a great improvement on the more usual 3-inch corrugated material. Moreover, it is not so liable to breakage. If breakage does occur, individual sheets can be quickly and inexpen- sively replaced without disturbing the rest of the wall.
It was decided to build stages 1, 2, and 3 only after the major part of the studio was completed. The stages were required urgently,
82
L. C. FERMAUD
[J. S. M. P. E.
and are consequently made of brick, for brick is the British work- men's favorite type of construction, and at which he is quickest. The tie-beams between the stanchions were laid upon their sides, and the 41/2-mch brick panels built upon the webs for stability. The exposed flanges were afterward wire-lathed and the exterior rendered in cement.
The entrance halls, principal offices, and stars' dressing rooms are finished in plaster. The remainder of the offices and dressing rooms
FIG. 5. Sound stages under construction.
are papered on wallboard on stud partitions. This type of construc- tion, apart from being cheap, possesses the advantage that partitions may be removed, or new doors cut, very easily and without the need for complete redecoration.
Fig. 4 is a general view of the studio from the air — the workshops upon the right, the semicircular end of the main review and scoring theater just inside the main entrance, and the laboratories, where the film is processed, on the extreme left.
Fig. 5 shows the sound stages during the course of construction. Each of the roof trusses, which are composed mainly of double chan-
July, 1937]
DENHAM STUDIOS OF LONDON
83
nels, weighs twelve tons, and is designed to carry a load of two hun- dred pounds per foot run of truss. Interlocking steel shuttering was used for the concrete work, the walls being raised uniformly by pour- ing a four-foot ring of concrete every day, except, of course, when heavy frost caused a hold-up.
The framing to the stage walls is seen in Fig. 6. The double stanchions at the lower part of the wall were required in order to keep air-conditioning input ducts within the thickness of the wall without encroaching upon the floor space. These ducts branch off the main duct, the trench for which is at the base of the wall.
FIG. 6. Interior of large stage.
The seven stages total 120,000 square-feet of floor area. There are two each, 250 X 120 X 45 feet high, two 125 X 120 X 45 feet high, and three 120 X 80 X 35 feet high. The two 125 X 120-foot stages are in reality one stage identical to the two large stages, but with a sound-proof dividing partition across the center.
The floors of all stages are composed of 1-inch G & T boarding, secret-nailed to 1-inch close boarding. Water-proof paper was laid between the boardings to prevent squeaking. There is an ample num- ber of electricians' runways in the roof trusses to facilitate lighting. The stages are also equipped with tracks and chain tackle. All doors, including those of the shops, are of standard size, 20 feet high by 16 feet wide, so that anything that can be got out of the shops can also enter the stages, and vice versa.
84 L. C. FERMAUD [J. S. M. p.
Particular attention was given to the design of the sound-proofing and acoustic treatment, particularly in the case of the bigger stages, where it was thought that the large area of the comparatively thin walls would tend to transmit sound by resonance. It was conse- quently thought necessary to form an inner shell for both walls and roof with a dead air space between it and the structure, the shell to be isolated from the main structure as far as possible so as to prevent the passage of sound by vibration.
The treatment decided upon for the walls consists of a 6 X 2-inch wood frame spaced about iy2 feet from the outer wall. This is tied to steel channels fixed to the inner face of the main stanchions by bolts insulated from the steel frame by cork sleeves and washers. Two-inch sheets of woodrock, a material consisting of wood shavings cemented together, were nailed to the wood frame, then 1/2-inch plaster board, and finally rock-wool blankets. The inner shell of the roof is of similar construction. It is secured to a second row of pur- lins hung from the main purlins by steel straps and insulated from them by cork seatings. The actual asbestos roof was laid directly upon two layers of woodrock. The sliding doors are all double, the outer one hung from the steel frame, and the inner from the sound- proof shell. They are structurally separate, and are 4 inches thick, composed of two outer layers of 1-inch G & T boarding, the inter- vening space being composed of celotex sheets. Splayed felt and rubber buffers prevent the passage of sound at the edges.
The dividing partition between stages 6 and 7 presented a special problem, particularly since doors were required between the two stages. A system similar to that employed for the external walls was followed. Two wood-framed partitions were secured by cork- insulated bolts on each side of a supporting steel frame upon separate foundations. The doors in this case were hinged, to provide a better seal, and are entirely independent of each other.
The sound-proofing of the stages proved very efficient. As a test, the noise of an aeroplane flying 500 feet directly overhead was not sufficient to have prevented shooting. Production can also be con- tinued in stages 6 or 7 while sets are being erected in the other, the dividing partition satisfactorily baffling the sound.
Another acoustic problem, the only one of its kind in this country, is the main review theater. In order to -avoid a duplication of thea- ters, it was necessary that it should not only have a suitable rever- beration period, and good appearance for important reviews, but
July, 1937] DENHAM STUDIOS OF LONDON 85
should also possess a variable reverberation range for scoring and dubbing. The range required was from 0.8 second for scoring and dubbing to 1.5 seconds for review, which is obtained by a number of reversible hinged panels upon the side walls. These panels are 4 feet wide X 28 high, and are constructed of wood upon a steel frame tied to a tubular steel rod at the hinged side to prevent whipping. One side is covered with 3/8-inch plywood painted to conform to the general color scheme, and the other is padded with rock-wool. In spite of their weight, the lightness of their bearings renders it a simple matter to reverse them. Large sliding doors can be pulled across the front of the screen to form a sound-reflecting background for an orchestra.
The two shop buildings running parallel to the stages are 272 feet long (the same length as the stages plus their annexes) by 80 feet wide. They house, in one, the modellers, plaster, paint and pattern shops, and the grips storage; and, in the other, the electrical equip- ment and property storage, and the papier mache and drapery shops. The third shop building contains the general stores, carpenters' shop, mill, timber racks, metal shop, foundry, and blacksmith. These buildings are specially well lighted by side windows and broad roof lights. The interiors are distempered white, the doors, offices, etc., being painted a pale gray.
The carpenters' shop is 192 X 120 feet in area, which provides ample space for the laying out and constructing sets under cover. The mill adjoining contains all the heavy machinery. Timber is drawn in bulk from the racks, which open directly into the mill, for cutting on the self-feed circular saw. These two shops are fully equipped with the most up-to-date machinery available, including tenoning and mortising machines, spindles, band-saws that cut to any radius, a lathe, self-feed planing machines that will take material up to 26 inches wide, and a jointing machine. Two portable circular saws are also available for bench use.
The metal shop is, without question, the finest of its kind in Europe. With the assistance of the pattern shop in preparing the wood pat- terns for the moulds, there is practically nothing that it can not pro- duce. Apart from normal production work and equipment main- tenance, more than 700 lamps for set lighting, two optical printers, a projection printer, stop-motion machine, and a rear projector, have been turned out, practically in their entirety.
The shop is equipped with power hammers, hacksaws, and planing
86 L. C. FERMAUD
machines, nine lathes from 4x/2 to 9 inches, a shaper, a radial drilling machine, tool grinders and cutter grinders, a fully universal milling machine with attachments for gear cutting, an electric spot welder, and two oxyacetyline welding plants. There are also bending ma- chines, guillotines, rollers, and presses for the sheet-metal workers. Opening off one side of this shop are the foundry and blacksmith's shop equipped with three foundry furnaces for 60 to 120-pound pots, and a forge. Camera repairs are carried out in a small specially equipped shop in one corner of the metal shop proper.
Owing to the relatively high cost of timber, some 75 per cent greater than in Hollywood, a considerably greater amount of plaster work is done in the plaster shop than is done in the American studios. Twenty- or thirty-foot columns that might otherwise be of wood are molded more economically in plaster. The shop is 80 feet square. During production peaks, more than 200 men have used 42 tons of plaster in a week. Considerable quantities of plaster work are stored in a separate building outside the doors of the plaster shop.
The next shop in this block is the painters,' which includes a mechanically ventilated spray room, a sign writers' room, and a finishing shop. Then there is the pattern shop, 64 X 80 feet, equipped with its own machinery, and the grips, which includes the camera equipment store, and special-effects model store.
Each of the two floors of the property store are 144 X 80 feet in area, and include a separate store equipped with cupboards, racks, unpacking tables, etc., for small properties. Most properties that are not normally kept in the studio can be obtained in London, although not from one particular source. Many large shops specialize in a single type or period of furniture, such as Queen Anne, Louis XV and XVI, or modern sycamore. Consequently, much depends upon the experience of the property buyers in knowing where to look for their material.
The electrical repair shop and store look after all electrical floor equipment, as distinct from electrical supply. It possesses nearly 1000 lamps from 1000-mm., high-intensity arcs to the smallest photo- floods, seven portable generators for location work with capacities up to 1000 amperes, and more than 30,000 feet of cable. Mention must also be made of the six electrical wind machines, two lightning ma- chines, and the rain effects. Most of this equipment was made in the studio shops.
The drapery shop follows normal procedure. It contains the usual
July, 1937]
DENHAM STUDIOS OF LONDON
87
racks, benches, and sewing machines, and .facilities for stencilling. A well on one side of the shop enables large quantities of drapes to be stored, up to a length of about 30 feet.
Fig. 7 shows the internal planning of the front block in more detail. There are 56 dressing rooms, 16 for stars and 40 for small-part players. Each star's room has a bathroom adjoining, and four of them have private sitting rooms. With the exception of the chairs, all the furniture was designed and made on the premises. Dressing table and table tops are covered with sheet aluminum, which looks attractive, does not crack, can be easily cleaned, and is fire proof . The two "crowd rooms," each capable of accommodating 500 extras are equipped with steel lockers, and showers in a separate room.
The wardrobe department, on the opposite side of the corridor from the make-up department, covers an area of 102 X 57 feet, and
FIG. 7. Plan of the front block.
contains the wardrobe room proper, a large workroom and store- room, two fitting rooms for men and women, costume designers' rooms, and offices. Ten thousand costumes have been handled with ease.
The sound installation comprises equipment to cover the needs of the seven stages, two review theaters, and the large combined review, scoring, and dubbing theater. To assure maximum flexibility, only the dubbing channel is of the permanent type. Permanent wiring between the stages and "Bay X," a central control panel enables portable channels to be used from recording rooms to serve any two stages, other stages being served by recording trucks. By this means, the problem of location work is simplified, as a minimum of time is required to get a unit ready for changing over. Since it is imperative to construct cover sets owing to climatic conditions, flexibility is of paramount importance in equipping an English studio.
88 L. C. FERMAUD [J. S. M. P.
For foreign location work, the type F channel still remains tl most satisfactory, since in its compact units it can be carried ovt ground that would be impassable to a loaded truck. The FB chan- nel, though not so compact, can not be bettered from the point view of reliability. It is a testimonial to the consistency and excel- lence of the product that for us the latter is the accepted standard quality. The new QB channel at first presented some difficulty owing to its extended frequency range, and coupling with that the use of the new 630 microphone, it was found necessary to review mi- crophone technic to meet the new conditions. Disk recording ge is available for all stages. There are also two type F, two FB, and three QB channels.
Power supply is obtained from an independent power room in the basement below the sound department, where the studio d-c. supply is converted into the various a-c. and d-c. voltages required by the sound equipment. There is also a film processing room where a check is kept upon the behavior of the developing and printing laboratories, and the test-room where everything comes to pieces sooner or later.
The camera department possesses its own offices, darkrooms, test- rooms, and storerooms. To avoid the risk of fire, all camera equip- ment is kept in fire-resistant steel lockers, and only the days' supply of negative film is brought from the vaults to the test-room. The equipment includes eighteen cameras, including eight super-Parvo Debries, four N. C. model Mitchells, and three Newman Sinclair, four Fearless Panorama Velocilators, an electric velocilator, and a camera crane. Eleven units have been serviced satisfactorily at one time.
The still department is equipped for all types of work — publicity, fashion, portraits, and color photography. It is at present capable of producing 1000 prints a day, but room has been allowed for expan- sion. There is one Kodak auto-focus enlarger, two miniature en- largers, two Kodak printing machines, and the usual print develop- ing and washing facilities. All development is carried out in rooms at standard temperature by tank at fixed time and temperature. The negative drying room is also of standard temperature, with a con- stantly circulating current of air passing through it. Each negative dries in 40 minutes in a controllable temperature, to prevent the emulsions from becoming brittle; 750 10 X 8-inch negatives can be dried per day. A portrait studio with two dressing rooms is incor- porated in the department, in which facilities are available to enable
July, 1937] DENHAM STUDIOS OF LONDON 89
sets to be introduced so that stills may be in -keeping with stage pro- ductions.
Trick work, up to recently, has not been used so widely in England as in America. In view of the type of their productions, however, the Company has gone to considerable pains to provide itself with a thoroughly equipped special-effects department. It is self-contained, with its own developing, printing, cutting, camera, and darkrooms, projection theater and insert room. A large concrete tank has also been constructed in the grounds for trick work. It is 150 X 120 feet in size with a 40-ft. high steel framed backing along one side, and a 30,000-gallon dump tank with a 30-ft. head of water nearby.
As has been stated, much of the special-effects equipment has been designed and made in the studio. This has been necessary since ma- chines with the necessary range of operations could not be obtained. The major items of equipment include two rear-projection machines with Bell & Howell camera movements, which give perfect registra- tion and assure a steady picture on the screen. These machines are equipped with Brenkert high-intensity arc lamps. There are also a stereopticon projection machine with which a slide can be held upon the screen for as long as iy2 hours, without danger of damage to the slide from heat, and an ice-cooled fog machine capable of laying a fog non-injurious to health.
In the optical printing room, are a projection printer and two op- tical printers. The former has an adjustable screen with clips for holding sheets of glass so that the operator can project pictures upon the screen and take out any part of the picture being projected, and then photograph with a Michell camera mounted on the other end of the bed. The optical printers are equipped with standard Bell & Howell camera movements.
There is also a contact printer which is used to make blue-prints for the optical printer as well as rear projection prints. The light is brought in contact with the film through a lens with a number of ground glasses between the light and the lens in order to obtain an even field of light. By the use of various glasses having darkened centers, "hot-spots" on the projection screen can be eliminated. This printer was designed because a contact print is sharper and steadier than an optical print, and can be made at much lower cost. There is also a standard Bell & Howell continuous printer for daily rushes as well as for projection prints that are moving.
In the laboratory are two automatic developing machines, capable
90 L. C. FERMAUD [j. s. M. P. E.
of turning out between 480 and 1000 feet of film per hour. The time of developing can be changed while working, without stopping the machine. Each machine has its own refrigerating plant, heating system, and pumps for circulating the solutions. The laboratory is also equipped with an automatic mixing machine for mixing the chemicals, and water filters and softeners.
The cutting department, with its 14 cutting rooms and film vaults, is situated near the Old House. They are equipped with Moviolas and the usual modern cutters' equipment. Most of these cutting rooms were brick built stables, converted for the sake of economy. The music department is nearby. It is an old cottage modernized, and is away from the noise of the studio proper.
Many factors required careful consideration before a decision could be made on the system of power supply. Steam turbines, Diesel engines, and a supply from the public companies were all considered. The steam plant was ruled out, due to the possibility that the dirt arising from the coal boilers would affect the air-conditioning of the stages. Supply from a public company would have been very con- venient, but the cost of acquiring such a supply and converting it to direct current made this course prohibitive. Apart from these rea- sons, the Diesel-electric system was chosen because capital charges were in its favor, and the possibility of "black-outs" due to interrup- tion in the supply were at a minimum compared with other systems.
The plant consists of six Crossley- Premier oil engines, each directly connected to a Mather & Platt three-wire static balanced generator, each of 750-killowatt capacity, giving a total output of 4500 kilo- watts. The power station was designed to take two further sets, making a total of eight to allow for the increased demand when future stages are constructed. The generators are designed to supply 230/- 250 volts across the outers of the three wires. Overload capacity is 25 per cent for two hours, obtained by supercharging the engines.
Fig. 8 shows four of these generator sets. They are mounted on heavy concrete bases some seven feet deep, which in turn rest upon the foundations. Between these two masses of concrete is a three- inch mat of cork to eliminate vibration. The bus-bars and cables are in the alleyways formed between the bases below the general floor level.
On the control desk six sets of push-button panels control the gen- erators. On the front of the desk are the field regulators and switches, the regulators themselves being operated and mounted in the base-
July, 1937] DENHAM STUDIOS OF LONDON 91
ment below the control room. A Chadbufn electric telegraph en- ables the control engineer to signal for any machine to be started or stopped; in addition he has an excellent view of the engine room through the window at the back of the desk.
Fig. 9 shows the switchboards at the sides of the control desk de- voted to the smaller feeders. The main studio circuits are controlled by hand-operated circuit-breakers in the basement, from which the bus-bars run on the roofs of the ventilating ducts to the distribution
FIG. 8. Four of the six 750-kw. generators in the power plant.
panels at stage-floor level, and also to the catwalks from which the overhead lights are controlled. The power for the workshops is supplied by two motor-alternators of 220-kva. capacity at 400 volts. Fuel for the Diesel engines is stored in a 50-ton tank in the open air, adjoining the power station. It is enclosed on all sides by a concrete wall.
Starting air is stored in two cylinders at 250 Ibs. per square-inch, and is normally supplied by a motor-driven compressor. Due to the importance of reliability, the compressed-air storage capacity was made sufficient to enable each engine to make six starts from cold, a
92
L. C. FERMAUD
|J. S. M. P. E.
total of forty-eight starts, before recharging is necessary. In the event of the station's being put out of commission, and the charge in the cylinders becoming lost, air can be compressed by a small inde- pendent hand-started Diesel engine. An individual Ingersoll-Rand, Mather & Platt, motor-driven service compressor, situated in the power station, supplies compressed air to numerous points in the stages, shops, etc.
•Bill
FIG. 9. Feeder circuit switchboard.
The water services presented a special problem. The service had to cover not only the domestic and hot water supply for the offices and dressing rooms, but the supply for the air-conditioning plant, stage heating, and engine cooling. In view of the tremendous quan- tity required, the cost of a supply from the local water company mains would have proved exorbitant.
To obtain a supply for engine cooling was comparatively simple, since the river passes within a hundred yards of the power station. The water is pumped from it to tanks situated on the power station
July, 1937] DENHAM STUDIOS OF LONDON 93
roof. The remainder of the supply is obtained from an artesian well bored to a depth of 320 feet. The water is pumped at the rate of 10,000 gallons an hour to a reinforced concrete water tower concealed in the woods. From the tower, a network of mains runs to the various parts of the studio, and to a number of local supply tanks.
The heating of the studio is divided into four systems operated from three individual sources of supply. These are, briefly, air-con- ditioning to the four larger stages; low-pressure hot water for the three smaller stages and annexes; gas-hot-air radiators for the work- shops; and low-pressure hot water again for the front block.
Owing to the considerable length of pipe runs that would otherwise be required, it was considered necessary to install an independent oil- fed boiler plant for the front block heating. The other boiler plant adjoining the power station, and which can virtually take its supply of heat under heavy load conditions from waste-heat boilers in the power station, feeds the air-conditioning plant and the smaller stage and annex heating.
The studio also possesses its own sewage disposal plant, which was necessary owing to the absence of a public sewer in reasonable proxi- mity to the studios. The sewage gravitates to collection tanks from which it is pumped through a rising main to the disposal plant at the far end of the estate.
The major part of the studio is protected from fire by a sprinkler system. The whole of the workshops, stages, offices, etc., can be covered by means of fire hose connected to a large number of stand- pipes around the site.
Last, there is the estate department, which, apart from cultivat- ing shrubs and flowers, and tropical plants in the seven glass-houses, endeavors to keep the estate tidy in spite of the fact that a set always is built exactly where they have just finished some planting.
The writer is indebted to Mr. Watkins of the sound department, Mr. Denham, the engineer, Mr. Mann and Mr. Woods of the special- effects and still departments, respectively, and to others of Mr. Alexander Korda's organization for their assistance in supplying the information concerning their departments and equipment.
NEW MOTION PICTURE APPARATUS
During the Conventions of the Society, symposiums on new motion picture appara- tus are held, in which various manufacturers of equipment describe and demonstrate their new products and developments. Some of this equipment is described in the following pages; the remainder will be published in subsequent issues of the Journal.
THE SUPER SIMPLEX PEDESTAL* J. FRANK, JR.**
During the nine years since the introduction of sound reproducing equipment, the motion picture industry has witnessed the development of more heavily con- structed devices, often of considerable weight, such as modern sound reproducers with directly connected motors in front, heavy-duty arc lamps, more sturdily designed projector mechanisms, and larger magazines. The weight of all this apparatus is far in excess of that for which the earlier pedestals and stands support- ing all these units were designed. More recently the introduction of the standard 2000-ft. release print has placed a further burden of weight upon motion picture projection and sound reproducing equipment. To meet these demands, the International Projector Corporation has placed upon the market a new supporting pedestal.
The new Super Simplex pedestal is extremely symmetrical, harmonious in de- sign, and provides an excellent balance for the heavy-duty equipment it must support. It has also been designed to permit all the necessary quick adjustments greatly desired and appreciated by projectionists.
Previous pedestals were designed for the old type silent projection equipment using slide-over attachments for the projection of stereopticon slides. This made the pedestal somewhat flimsy; but nevertheless it adequately supported the equipment that was mounted upon it. Modern equipment mounted upon such a pedestal is not properly balanced due to the location of the pivot point. Further- more, the great weight of the equipment places a burden upon the old pedestals that almost reaches the danger point. The new Super Simplex pedestal ade- quately meets the requirements. The pivot point has been moved back under the lamp house table, resulting in excellent balance, and requiring only the slightest exertion to raise, lower, or horizontally adjust the entire apparatus, so that at an instant's notice it may be accommodated to the screen position.
Two convenient adjustments are provided, one for tilting, and the other for
* Presented at the Spring, 1937, Meeting at Hollywood, Calif. ; received April 1, 1937.
** International Projector Corp., New York, N. Y.
94
NEW MOTION PICTURE APPARATUS 95
lateral displacement. The former adjustment has a unique feature eliminating the necessity for a long lead-screw. Three positions for the horizontal rod sus- pension have been provided. This permits the use of a short lead-screw for tilting. With the rod in the top position the pedestal is locked into position at the maxi- mum angle of tilt by the control. Then the thumb-screw on the horizontal rod is loosened and the rod easily removed. The lead-screw is then adjusted so that the horizontal rod may be properly placed in the center position. The pedestal may then be further tilted. By repeating this operation and placing the horizon- tal rod in the lower position, angles of tilt from minus 3 to plus 33 may be easily
FIG. 1. Super Simplex pedestal and RCA Photophone rotary stabilizer sound head (oper- ating side).
accomplished. The lateral adjustment, accessible from either side of the pedestal, permits a horizontal angle of approximately 3Vz degrees about the pivot point located in the rear of the pedestal. Four knobs are turned to lock the pedestal in its horizontal position. When the pedestal is installed and the adjustments finally locked in place, the entire assembly is rigidly mounted, and the absence of vibra- tion, due to the great weight of the whole unit, gives a steadiness to the entire equipment heretofore unobtainable.
The pedestal is provided with a spacious internal compartment into which may be brought all electrical connections, thus eliminating the network of wires and cables distributed around the projector in an unsightly manner. Where it is not convenient to bring up the conduits through the floor in the proper position, they may be brought into the compartment through a plate especially provided in the
96 NEW MOTION PICTURE APPARATUS [J. S. M. P. E.
non-operating side. If this is not necessary, this plate provides a suitable location for a fuse-box, if desired.
Two flush twist-lock receptacles are located on the non-operating side, one a three-pole for the change-over device, and the other a two-pole for the operating motor. This allows for readily disconnecting either of these important circuits without the necessity of breaking soldered joints, when the occasion arises for making a quick change of equipment.
Two 3-way, 30-ampere switches, one on either side of the pedestal, are mounted upon the pedestal for the operating motor circuit, so that the motor may
FIG. 2. Super Simplex pedestal and ERPI heavy-duty Mirrophonic reproducer (operating side).
be readily controlled from either side of the equipment. A further improvement is provided through a number of double-pole standard outlet receptacles into which may be plugged soldering iron, work light, threading lamp, or other auxil- iary equipment. The arc lamp feed-motor also may be connected to one of these to provide an instant means of disconnecting this unit when necessary.
A universal type spirit level forms part of the unit, so that the equipment may be accurately levelled in the projection room when installation is made. The base of the pedestal is provided with levelling bolts fitted into solid steel cupped flanges, so that the stand may be levelled at all corners and still give excellent rigidity regardless of the unevenness of the surface upon which it stands.
The lamp house support bracket is of entirely new and unique design. It is of much more ample dimensions than any heretofore constructed, so that its length
July, 1937]
NEW MOTION PICTURE APPARATUS
97
adequately supports the much longer lamp house structure than was possible on any pedestal previously designed. For the first time it is possible with this unit to align accurately any type of standard lamp house regardless of slight errors that may exist in manufacture, so that the positive carbon axis is in accurate alignment through the optical system. The bracket may be tilted upward or downward at either end, from side to side, and raised or lowered vertically as a complete unit. This is accomplished by providing holes for the mounting screws twice as large as the screws, permitting displacement in all directions. A screw at the rear posi-
FIG. 3. Diagram of pedestal, showing adjustments.
lively controls the vertical adjustment at the rear. Large washers and nuts per- mit positive fastening of the screws in any desired positions in the large holes. Absolute rigidity is obtained by tightening the four nuts involved.
When lamps of the low-intensity or high-intensity Suprex arc type are used, a 100-ampere, double-pole knife-switch is provided, mounted in a heavy cast-iron switch-box attached to the pedestal. Where straight high-intensity arc equip- ment is used a heavy switch-supporting bracket attached to and supported by the rear lower pedestal section is furnished, and it is recommended that a heavy-duty, 200-ampere switch and switch-box such as the "Square D" be used. The heavy- duty switch-supporting bracket is sold at a slight additional cost. Three holes
98
NEW MOTION PICTURE APPARATUS
with insulators are located in the rear of the pedestal through which the asbestos wires for the arc lamp supply may be run.
A flat surface is located on the front operating corner of the pedestal, to which a standard change-over may be attached.
Since the sound reproducers of various manufacturers are not standardized in design, it is not possible with a pedestal of unit design to conform to all existing projection port-hole constructions because the relative position of the mechanism to the pivot point varies as much as 8 inches, depending upon the sound reproducer employed. Spacers, therefore, are furnished in 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 6-, and 8-inch sizes to fit between the lower and upper pedestal sections to fit the existing port -hole location.
For the same reason a number of different sound reproducer support-arms are available. The proper support-arm for the sound reproducer to be installed is furnished as part of the pedestal. With some types of sound reproducers it is necessary, for angles greater than 20 degrees, to provide a special support-arm to avoid interference between the pedestal front and the rear of the lower magazine.
The new Super Simplex pedestal will accommodate the Simplex sound projec- tor, Type 5.4, in which case the lamp house bracket is eliminated. The 100- ampere arc lamp switch is furnished for this equipment.
CURRENT LITERATURE OF INTEREST TO THE MOTION PICTURE
ENGINEER
The editors present for convenient reference a list of articles dealing with subjects cognate to motion picture engineering published in a number of selected journals. Photostatic copies may be obtained from the Library of Congress, Washington, D. C., or from the New York Public Library, New York, N. Y. Micro copies of articles in those magazines that are available may be obtained from the Library of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Techni- cal Bulletin
(March 31, 1937)
Specifications — Standard Electrical Characteristics for Two-Way Reproducing Systems in Theaters (p. 3).
American Cinematographer
18 (April, 1937), No. 4 Dodd Describes B-M's New Type 24-Inch Sunspot
(p. 134). L. E. DODD
Mitchell Announces New Sound Recorder (p. 138). Art Reeves Introduces All-Purpose Developer (pp.
142-143, 147, 172). General Electric Announces 100-Watt Lamp Giving
Continuous Flashes (p. 168).
Bell Laboratories Record
15 (April, 1937), No. 8 A New Noise Meter (p. 252). J. M. BARSTOW
Electronics
10 (April, 1937), No. 4
The Acoustical Labyrinth (pp. 24-27, 36). B. J. OLNEY
Efficiency of Horn Loud Speakers (p. 30). F. MASSA
10 (May, 1937), No. 5
Noise in Frequency Modulation (p. 22). H. RODBR
Filmtechnik
13 (March 27, 1937), No. 5-6 A New German Hand Camera — "Arriflex" (Neuartige
Deutsche Handkamera) (p. 49). W. MARTINI
"Phonorhythm" (Fonorhythmie) (p. 50). P. HATSCHEK
13 (April 24, 1937), No. 7
Fragen zur Raumdarstellung (Questions on Stereo- scopic Representation) (p. 61). G. TIMMERMANN Neuer Richtmikrofone (New Directional Microphone)
(p. 63) P. HATSCHEK
99
100 CURRENT LITERATURE [J. s. M. P. E.
Neue Sicherheitsvorschriften fur Lichtspieltheater (New Safety Recommendations for Motion Picture Theaters) (p. 84). W. GUNTHER
Kinobild mit Gluhlampenfeldern (Motion Pictures by
Means of Panels of Incandescent Lamps) (p. 88). P. HATSCHEK
International Photographer
9 (May, 1937) No. 4
New Economical Trick Shot Camera (p. 5). Twentieth Century-Fox Silent Camera Proven Success (p. 10). New Canady Recording Galvanometer (p. 19).
9 (June, 1937), No. 5 Color Make-Up (p. 27). "Preview" Moviola Ready for Use (p. 28).
International Projectionist
12 (April, 1937), No. 4
New Amplifier Features Reflect Rapid Progress in
Design (p. 7). L. CHADBOURNH
Projection Requisites of the Berthon-Siemens Lenticu- lar Color-Film (p. 18). E. GRETENER
The Push-Pull Sound Recording and Reproducing
System (p. 19). F. T. JAMEY, JR.
12 (May, 1937), No. 5
Film Scratches (p. 7).
A New Projection Tool: The Cathode-Ray Oscillo- scope (p. 12). L. P. WORK
Effect of New Recordings on Theater Sound Repro- duction (p. 16). L. CHADBOURNE
A New Zero-Current Meter for Projection Room Use
(p. 22). R. GARWIN
Kinematograph Weekly
242 (April 1, 1937), No. 1563
A New Color Process Employing Quarter-Size Images (p. 50).
Kinotechnik
19 (April, 1937), No. 4
Consideration of the Question of Satisfactory Illumi- nation in Projection (Betrachtungen zur Frage der gunstigsten Projektionsbildbeleuchtung) (p. 67). O. REEB
The Cameraman's Technical Demands of Raw Film, Studio, Printing Establishment, and Theater (Die filmtechnischen Anspruche des Kameramanns an Rohfilm, Atelier, Kopieranstalt, und Filmtheater) (p. 76). A. VON LAGORIO
Arriflex, A New Professional Hand Camera (Die Arri- flex, eine neue Berufshandkamera) (p. 85).
July, 1937] CURRENT LITERATURE 101
Outline of Film Standardization (Grundlinien der- Nor-
mung im Film) (p. 91). W. RAHTS
19 (May, 1937), No. 6
Color-Film and Projection (Farbfilm und Projektion)
(p. 121). W. PAPE
Ufacolor Process (Das Ufacolor-Verfahren) (p. 125). G. IGNATOW
Mirror Reflecting Device on Motion Picture Cameras (Die Spiegelreflexeinrichtung bei Kinokameras) (p. 129). G. SEEBE-R
Floodlights and Spots with Fresnel Lenses (Schein- wefer und Spots mit Stufenlinsen) (p. 130). G. O. STINDT .
Distortion as Produced by the Variation in Illumina- tion along a Scanning Slit (Der optische Klirrfaktor von Lichtspaltanordnungen ) (p. 132). A. D. JOTZOFF
Motion Picture Herald (Better Theaters Section)
127 (May 1, 1937), No. 5
How the New Developments in Sound Affect Mainte- nance (p. 28). A. NADELL
127 (May 29, 1937), No 9 Theater Acoustics Today: Auditorium Form Factors
(p. 41). C. C. POTWIN
Photographic Journal
77 (April, 1937) (new series)
Photographic Progress During 1936 (p. 193). G. E. MATTHEWS
Progress in Colour Photography (p. 224). D. A. SPENCER
The Story of the Cartoon Film (p. 229). E. A. DYER
Increase in Technical Facilities for British Film Pro- duction (p. 233). I. D. WRATTEN Developments in Kinematographic Apparatus (p. 238). R. H. CRICKS Studio Lighting for Kinematography (p. 245). B. LANGLEY Negative-Positive Processing of Dufaycolor Film (p.
250). G. B. HARRISON
D. A. SPENCER
Photographische Industrie
35 (March 31, 1937), No. 13
High-Speed Camera Taking from 16 to 80,000 Pictures per Second (Der Zeitdehner der Technik fur 80,000 bis 16 Aufnahme in der Sekunde) (p. 391).
35 (April 7, 1937), No. 14
Stability Testing of Motion Picture Films by Artificial .Aging (Haltbarkeitsprufung von Kinofilmes durch kunstliche Alterung) (p. 417).
35 (April 14, 1937), No. 15 Film Fires (Einiges iiber den Filmbrand) (p. 443). W. NAUCK
35 (April 21, 1937), No. 16 Sound Recording by the "Phonorhythm" Method (Die
102
CURRENT LITERATURE
[J. S. M. P. E.
Tonbildaufnahmen nach dem Phonorhythmiever- fahren) (p. 467).
35 (May 19, 1937) No. 35
Die Bezugsebene fur Distanzeinstellung bei Schmal- film-Kinoapparaten (The Relative Plane for Focal Setting in Substandard Motion Picture Cameras) (p. 581).
Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers
25 (April, 1937), No. 4
Characteristics of American Broadcast Receivers as Related to the Power and Frequency of Transmitters (p. 387).
Multiple Amplifier (p. 421).
Frequency Modulation Noise Characteristics (p. 472).
Radio Engineering
17 (April, 1937), No. 4
Equipment and Methods Used in Routine Measure- ments of Loud Speaker Response, II (pp. 16-18, 25). The Isochrometer (p. 22).
17 (May 1937) No. 5
Equipment and Methods Used in Routine Measure- ments of Loud Speaker Response (p. 22).
La technique cinematographique
9 (March, 1937), No. 75
A New Optical Projection Printing Process for Lenticu- lated Film in Color Motion Picture Photography (Un Nouveau Procede de Copie par Projection Op- tique de Films Gauffres pour la Cinematographic en Couleurs) (p. 881).
9 (April, 1937), No. 75
Qu'est-ce que la Solution Thomson-Houston-DeLassus? (What Is the Thomson-Houston-DeLassus Solu- tion?) (p. 903).
L'eclairage du film dans le lecteur de son (Optical Systems for Sound-Films) (p. 911). .
La Cinematographic Francaise
19 (April 30, 1937), No. 965
L'Effet Photo- Electrique et Son Application aux Cellules (Photoelectric Effect and Its Application to Cells) (p. 1).
Television
10 (April, 1937), No. 110 We See Scophony's Latest System (p. 196).
C. FORSCH
S. JASIENSKI
A. VAN DYCK D. E. FOSTER
L. A. KUBETSKY
M. G. CROSBY
S. V. PERRY
S. V. PERRY
J. DE LASSUS ST.-
GENIES
C. NORDMANN
J. P. CORTEX
C. TEVES
July, 1937]
CURRENT LITERATURE
103
Scanning Faults and How to Remedy Them (p. 200). G. PARR Transformers for Television Scanning (p. 209). G. A. V. SOWTER
The Design of Vision- Frequency Amplifiers, II (p. 220). P. NAGY
10 (May, 1937), No. Ill
Magnetic Scanning Defects and Their Causes (p. 268). I. G. MALOFF The First Acorn Valve Receiver for Vision Signals
(p. 273). The Design of Vision-Frequency Amplifiers, III
(p. 279). P. NAGY
HARRY PFANNENSTIEHL
Harry Pfannenstiehl, a member of the Technical Staff of Bell Tele- phone Laboratories, and of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, died suddenly on May 29, 1937, of heart trouble, from which he had suffered for several years. He was born in New York City on April 24, 1887. His father was Adolph L. and his mother, Anna N. (Dossen-
H. PFANNENSTIEHL
bach) Pfannenstiehl, both of whom were born in Germany, but who had moved to the United States during their youth.
In March, 1911, he joined the Engineering Department of the Western Electric Company with whom he continued until 1925, when the Bell Telephone Laboratories was formed. He had been with the Laboratories continuously until his death, thus completing over twenty-six years with the Bell System.
In April, 1913, he was transferred by the Western Electric Com- pany to their branch in Antwerp, Belgium,- where he was employed for about a year and a half. 104
HARRY PFANNENSTIEHL 105
Since the World War, Mr. Pfannenstiehl- had been engaged in a considerable number of special developments for the Western Elec- tric Company and Bell Telephone Laboratories where the design of equipment has involved unusual problems with respect to ingenuity of operating mechanisms, choice of materials for dynamic properties, or extreme precision requirements. In the early developments of the printing telegraph, he played a very substantial part. He was principally responsible for the mechanics not only of telephoto trans- mitting and receiving machines of 1925, but also of the recent tele- photo equipment used by the Associated Press.
To the commercializing of sound picture apparatus, he contributed by responsibility for much of the design of studio sound recording machines and of theater sound-projecting equipment. In this work he made a specialty of devices for driving the film uniformly; and many of the improvements in sound quality that have resulted from the recent perfection of these machines are attributable to his skill.
Mr. Pfannenstiehl contributed many papers to the scientific litera- ture, several of which have been published in the JOURNAL of the Society.
HIGHLIGHTS OF THE SPRING CONVENTION
HOLLYWOOD ROOSEVELT HOTEL
HOLLYWOOD, CALIF.
MAY 24-28, 1937
As Conventions come and go it would seem that each is more successful than the preceding. However, it can be safely stated that the recent Convention in Hollywood was by far the most successful of all that have been held by the Society on the western coast, and it is doubtful whether any other Convention has ever exceeded this one in point of interest, attendance, and participation. The number of paid registrations was greater than at all previous conventions, and the at- tendance at the technical sessions, from the first session on Monday morning to the last session on Friday evening, was indicative of the increasing interest of the Hollywood engineers and technicians in the activities of the Society.
The evening sessions were especially interesting and capacity audiences were attracted to each one. The gratitude and appreciation of the Society and the Board of Governors was expressed by President Wolf in his closing remarks on Friday evening to the Society officers on the West Coast, to the Board of Managers of the Pacific Coast Section, and to the officers of the Research Council of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences. One of the highlights of the week was the special Thursday evening session of the Academy Research Council, ar- ranged through the courtesy of William Koenig, Chairman, and Nathan Levinson, Vice- Chairman of the Council. The Society is also greatly indebted to Gordon S. Mitchell, Manager of the Research Council, and the members of his staff for their excellent cooperation and generous assistance.
TECHNICAL SESSIONS
The Convention opened at 10 A.M. on Monday (May 24th) with a brief presi- dential address by Mr. S. K. Wolf; several Committee reports, including the comprehensive Progress Committee's Annual Report; and two papers on applica- tions of motion pictures.
The customary Informal Luncheon was held at noon in the Florentine Room of the Hotel, during which the members of the Society were addressed briefly by President Wolf and Major Nathan Levinson, of Warner Bros. Studios, Raymond Hatton, well known comedian, and various members of the Board of Managers of the Pacific Coast Section. An official photograph of the delegates was made on the Patio immediately following the luncheon.
The highlight of the Monday afternoon session, which dealt with studio mat- ters, was probably the paper describing "A New Viewpoint on the Lighting of Motion Pictures," by G. Gaudio, well known cinematographer of Hollywood. In arriving at his new view-point in lighting technic, Mr. Gaudio first traced the de- velopment of the studio lighting art to show the gradual evolution of the technic into its present-day form. Other papers, as listed in the program printed on the following pages, completed a well-rounded session on the engineering problems 106
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and developments in modern motion picture studios. - The paper by L. Fermaud, describing "The London Film Studios at Denham, England" was particularly in- teresting in this respect.
The evening of Monday, May 24th, was devoted to an all-Technicolor program of recent feature and short subjects, including the new release A Star Is Born. This entire session was arranged through the courtesy of Mr. G. F. Rackett, Vice-President of Technicolor Motion Picture Corporation.
The morning of Tuesday, May 25th, was devoted to the problems of color motion pictures. Considerable interest was shown in the papers dealing with the new Agfacolor process and color-print processes. In connection with the latter presen- tation, by O. O. Ceccarini,' a comprehensive exhibit of color-stills by various studios and leading color photographers throughout the country was on display in one of the parlors of the Hotel during the entire Convention.
The afternoon session was marked by a particularly interesting paper by H. E. A. Joachim, of Dresden, Germany, describing "Twenty Years of Development of High-Frequency Cameras." The latter part of the afternoon was devoted to a symposium on transmission meters, and provided considerable technical ma- terial on up-to-date methods of recording and measuring sound transmission characteristics.
One of the most outstanding — some would perhaps say the most outstanding — sessions of the Convention was the one held at the Universal Studios on the evening of Tuesday, May 25th, at which a complete demonstration was given of "How Motion Pictures Are Made." A complete description of the proceedings of the evening will be published in a forthcoming issue of the JOURNAL, but it is well at this point to register the thanks of the Society to those who worked so hard to make the evening an outstanding success. Thanks are due particularly to Mr. Charles R. Rogers, Vice-President in Charge of Production, and to Mr. Homer G. Tasker, Sound Supervisor of the Universal Studios.
About 450 or 500 delegates and their friends assembled at 8 P.M. on one of the sound stages, where they were welcomed to Universal by Mr. Val Paul, Studio Manager. Then followed a paper by Mr. Robert Presnell, Associate Producer, in which were described the methods and problems involved in preparing stories for production. With particular reference to a scene in the forthcoming picture, One Hundred Men and a Girl, starring Deanna Durbin, a paper by John Harkrider, Supervising Art Director (presented by Michael Fitzmaurice), discussed the problem of "Set Design from Script to Stage." An artist and an architectural member of the studio demonstrated with crayon and pencil how the preliminary sketches are made in planning the sets to conform to the ideas of the authors of the stories. Then followed a paper by Bernard Brown, Chief Music and Dubbing Mixer, on "Prescoring for Song Sequences." The procedure as described in the paper was demonstrated by an actual recording of the voice of Miss Deanna Durbin singing a song to a playback orchestral accompaniment which was later to be dubbed into the picture shot on the stage designed by the artists as described above.
Adjourning now to the projection stage, the members were treated to a complete demonstration of how motion pictures are photographed. A complete crew of cinematographers, lighting men, director, and actors (Mischa Auer and Deanna Durbin) all participated in demonstrating the procedure, to the accompaniment
108 FALL CONVENTION [J. s. M. P. E.
of an informal description of the procedure by Mr. Tasker. When the shot was completed, the group again convened on the sound stage and saw the projection of the completed picture which had been photographed and recorded as here de- scribed. (It is hardly necessary to state, of course, that the finished scene, as projected, was not the actual one shot during this evening's session; such would have been impossible in view of the time required for processing, etc.)
Concluding the evening, various shots were projected to show the effects upon the "mood" of the picture of various kinds of background music, as discussed by Charles Previn, Musical Director, and to demonstrate also the manner of rough cutting and editing pictures, as described by Maurice Pivar, Supervising Editor. A particularly interesting demonstration was given 'by Edwin Wetzel, Dubbing Mixer, during which he went through the actual procedure of mixing a number of sound effects into a picture that was projected first with dialog only and later with the sound effects added.
The morning of Wednesday, May 26th, was devoted principally to acoustic < and sound, one of the outstanding papers of the session being the one on "Recent Progress in Acoustics," by V. O. Knudsen. The papers on an "Improved Noise- Reduction System," by Hasbrouck, Baker, and Batsel, and on "A Device for Direct Reproduction from Variable- Density Sound Negatives," by M. J. Alber- sheim, aroused considerable interest among those attending the meeting.
The afternoon of Wednesday was devoted to a visit to the Studios of the Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation at Beverley Hills, during which the members were escorted throughout the lot and the various stages.
The Semi-Annual Banquet was held in the Blossom Room of the Hotel on the evening of the same day. The evening was devoted in its entirety to dining and entertainment, as it was felt that the rigors of the long technical sessions war- ranted dispensing with formalities on that evening.
Thursday afternoon (May 27th) was devoted to papers and presentations deal- ing with laboratory and projection problems. A paper by Captain J. G. Bradley, dealing with the "Changing Aspects of the Film Storage Problem," contained in- teresting information on experiments recently conducted with regard to the in- flammability of film in storage cabinets. A paper by J. M. Nickolaus on "Toning Positive Film by Machine Methods" described the procedure followed in toning the recent feature The Good Earth at the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios. The session included also papers on the design of a densitometer and the measurement of density and graininess, which aroused considerable discussion, and on the ap- plication of pH. control to photographic fixing baths and other solutions.
Another outstanding session of the Convention was held on the evening of Thursday at the M-G-M Studios at Culver City; namely, a meeting of the Re- search Council and the Technicians Branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences, to which the members and guests of the SMPE were invited. An outstanding presentation of the evening was the paper on "The Work of the Committee on Standardization of Theater Sound Projection Equipment Char- acteristics," by J. K. Hilliard, Chairman of the Academy Committee. This paper described the work of the Committee in connection with the establishment of theater equipment characteristics. The evening concluded with the projection of a number of scenes from outstanding films, illustrating sound quality, special effects, and unusual photography.
July, 1937] FALL CONVENTION 109
The morning session of Friday, May 28th, was devoted to an apparatus sym- posium and miscellaneous papers on magnetic recording, the use of infrared nega- tive, laboratory equipment, etc. The afternoon of Friday was devoted to a group of papers on 16-mm. and 35-mm. sound recording and reproduction, including the report of the Standards Committee, and a description of the new SMPE 16-mm. Sound Test-Film, by M. C. Batsel. A new 16-mm. sound projector was described and demonstrated effectively by E. C. Fritts and O. Sandvik and examples of very fine class A push-pull recordings were demonstrated by G. L. Dinunick.
The closing session of the Convention on Friday evening, at which Mr. Ralph R. Beal, Research Supervisor of the Radio Corporation of America, presented a description of the RCA system of television, was attended by perhaps 450 or 500 members and guests of the Society.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
As pointed out previously, the success of the Convention was due to the efforts of a large number of officers, members, and friends of the Society. Credit is due particularly to the efforts of Mr. W. C. Kunzman, Convention Vice-President; Mr. H. G. Tasker, Past-President; Mr. J.I. Crabtree, Editorial Vice-President; Mr. G. E. Matthews, Chairman, Papers Committee; Messrs. H. Griffin and J. Frank, Jr., in charge of projection facilities; Mr. W. A. Mueller, Chairman; and Mr. L. A. Aicholtz, Secretary, West Coast Local Papers Committee; to the Board of Managers of the Pacific Coast Section; Mr. K. F. Morgan, Chairman; Mr. G. F. Rackett, Past Chairman of the Section, and Executive Vice-President of the Society; Mr. G. A Chambers, Secretary-Treasurer; and Messrs. J. O. Aalberg and H. W. Moyse, Managers. The officers and members of Los Angeles Local No. 150 I.A.T.S.E. are particularly to be thanked for their generous assistance in con- nection with the projection of all the motion pictures throughout the entire Con- vention session. Appreciation is also expressed to the American Society of Cine- matographers for supplying a number of papers by members of their Society.
Acknowledgement for their generous assistance is also due to P. Mole, Chairman, Local Arrangements Committee; Mrs. K. F. Morgan and Mrs. P. Mole, hostesses; and Messrs. C. W. Handley, E. Huse, and G. F. Rackett, for their assistance in connection with transportation, hotel accommodations, banquet, etc.
Among the companies and studios that should be thanked for their coopera- tion in providing various facilities of the Convention, and for their great cordiality in receiving the members at the studios, are the following: National Carbon Company; International Projector Corporation; National Theater Supply Cor- poration; Raven Screen Company; Electrical Research Products, Inc.; Bausch & Lomb Optical Company; General Electric Company ; Mole Richardson, Inc.; Enterprise Optical Company; General Electric Supply Company; and Dicta- phone Products Corporation, all of which collaborated in making available the equipment used during the technical sessions. Universal Studios, M-G-M Studios, and Twentieth Century-Fox Film Studios are to be thanked for enter- taining the delegates and making available the facilities of their plants. Thanks are due also to the Fox West Coast Theaters, Warner Bros. Hollywood Theater, and Pantages Theater for supplying passes to members and guests during the week of the Convention, and to Warner Bros. Studios for supplying the enter- tainment features for the banquet
PROGRAM*
SPRING, 1937, CONVENTION, HOLLYWOOD, CALIF. HOLLYWOOD-ROOSEVELT HOTEL
MONDAY, MAY 24th
9:00 a. m. Business and General Session. G. F. Rackett, Chairman.
10:00 a. m. Opening Remarks by President S. K. Wolf.
Report of the Convention Committee; W. C. Kunzmann, Conven- tion Vice- President.
Report of the Membership Committee; E. R. Geib, Chairman.
Report of the Papers Committee; G. E. Matthews, Chairman.
"Progress in the Motion Picture Industry:" Report of the Progress Committee; J. G. Frayne, Chairman.
Report of the Historical Committee; E. Theisen, Chairman.
"Soft X-Ray Motion Pictures of Small Biological Specimens;" H. F. Sherwood, Kodak Research Laboratories, Rochester, N. Y. (Demonstration.)
"Educational Film Progress and Problems;" S. K. Wolf, Erpi Picture Consultants, Inc., New York, N. Y. (Demonstration.)
12:30 p. m. Informal Luncheon.
Studio Session. K. F. Morgan, Chairman. 2:00 p. m. "The London Film Studios at Denham, England;" L. C. Fermaud-
London Film Productions, Ltd., Denham, Middlesex, England. "The Evolution of Special- Effects Photography from an Engineering
Viewpoint;" F. W. Jackman, Hollywood, Calif. (Demonstration.) "Special Engineering Problems in a Motion Picture Studio;"
W. Strohm, Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corp., Hollywood,
Calif. "A New Viewpoint on the Lighting of Motion Pictures ;" G. Gaudio,
A. S. C., Hollywood, Calif. (Demonstration.) "Recent Developments in Motion Picture Set Lighting Equipment ;"
E. C. Richardson, Mole-Richardson, Inc., Hollywood, Calif. "Light-Weight Stage Pick-Up Equipment;" L. D. Grignon, Para- mount Productions, Inc., Hollywood, Calif.
8:30 p. m. An all-Technicolor program of recent feature and short subjects. TUESDAY, MAY 25th
Color Session. J. A. Ball, Chairman.
10:00 a. m. "Color Print Processes;" O. O. Ceccarini, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, Culver City, Calif. A comprehensive exhibit of color
* As actually followed at the meetings. 110
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stills by various studios and leading color photographers through- out the country was on display during the Convention by the following contributors:
APEDA STUDIOS PAUL A. HESSE STUDIOS
New York New York
O. O. CECCARINI HEWETT & KEENE
M-G-M Studios, Hollywood New York
DEFENDER PHOTO SUPPLY Co. WILLIAM G. HOUSKEEPER
Rochester South Orange, N. J.
JAMES N. DOOLITTLE CHARLES H. MILLER
Los Angeles Chicago
EASTMAN KODAK Co. NICHOLAS MURAY
Rochester New York
GENERAL MOTORS CORP. PAGANO, INC.
Photographic Div., Detroit New York
STEICHEN New York
"The New Agfacolor Process;" J. L. Forrest and F. M. Wing,
Agfa Ansco Corporation, Binghamton, N. Y. Report of the Color Committee; J. A. Ball, Chairman. "Advanced Technic of Technicolor Lighting;" C. W. Handley,
National Carbon Co., Cleveland, Ohio. "Some Lighting Problems in Color Cinematography;" T. T. Baker,
Dufaycolor, Inc., New York, N. Y. (Demonstration.)
Instruments Session. Douglas Shearer, Chairman.
2:00 p.m. "Twenty Years of Development in High-Frequency Cameras;" H. E. A. Joachim, Zeiss-Ikon Aktiengesellschaft, Dresden, Germany.
"A High-Precision Sound-Film Recording Machine;" H. Pfannen- stiehl, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., New York, N. Y.
"A Dynamic Light-Valve;" E. Gerlach, Klangfilm G. m. b. H., Berlin, Germany.
"A Laboratory Flutter-Measuring Instrument;" R. R. Scoville, Electrical Research Products, Inc., Hollywood, Calif.
"Power Level Indicator for Sound Recording;" F. L. Hopper, Elec- trical Research Products, Inc., Hollywood, Calif.
Symposium on Transmission Meters.
4:00 p. m. "A Transmission-Measuring System Utilizing a Graphic Recording Meter;" W. W. Lindsay, Jr., General Service Studios, Holly- wood, Calif. •
"A New Instrument for Producing Automatically a Graphic Record of Audio-Frequency Characteristics;" A. D. MacLeod, Tobe Deutschmann Corporation, Canton, Mass. (Demonstration.)
"A Continuous Level Recorder for Routine Studio and Theater
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[J. S. M. P. E.
Measurements;" G. M. Sprague and J. K. Milliard, Metro- Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, Culver City, Calif.
"A Curve-Plotting Transmission Meter;" L. A. Aicholtz, Universal Pictures Corporation, Universal City, Calif.
"A Curve-Plotting Transmission Meter;" L. D. Grignon, Para- mount Productions, Inc., Hollywood, Calif.
8:00 p. m. Studios of Universal Pictures Corporation, Universal City, Calif. ;
Special Evening Demonstration: "How Motion Pictures
Made." Homer G. Tasker, Chairman. Assemble on Stage 10. Motion Picture Cartoon.
Welcome to Universal — Val Paul, Studio Manager. "Preparing a Story for Production;" Robert Presnell, Associate
Producer. (Story conference, shooting scripts, scheduling players,
and equipment.) "Prescoring for Song Sequences;" Bernard Brown, Chief Music
and Dubbing Mixer. (Demonstration.) "Set Design from Script to Stage," illustrated by the set used for
remainder of this program; John Harkrider, Supervising Art
Director. Presented by Michael Fitzmaurice. (Demonstration) Adjourn to production stage. "Production Handling of Lighting Equipment;" Frank Graves,
Superintendent Electrical Department. (Demonstration.) "Lighting a Long Shot and Close-Up;" Joe Valentine, Director of
Photography. (Demonstration.)
"Sound Pick-Up on a Long Shot and Close-Up;" Joe Lapis, Pro- duction Mixer. (Demonstration.) "The Director's Problem;" Joseph Pasternak, Associate Producer.
( Demonstration . ) Return to Stage 10.
Projection of "dailies" made in the demonstration above. "Editing Motion Pictures;" Maurice Pivar, Supervising Editor.