J 0 U E N A L
FIFTH VOLUME.
NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY BY
GEORGE P. PUTKAM & Co., 10 PARK PLACE.
MDOOOLVI.
F
A 6
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 185C, by the
AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut
PRINTED BY E. HAYES, NKW HAVEN, CONN.
CONTENTS
FIFTH VOLUME
Page. SELECT MINUTES OF MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY ........... i-iii, xxxix-xliii
MEMBERS, ............................................. iv, xliii
LIST OF MEMBERS, Corrected to October, 1856, .................... xlv
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY AND CABINET, Aug. 1854 — Aug. 1855, . . . v-xxii
Sept. 1855— Oct. 1856, xxiii-xxxviii ART. I. — GRAMMAR OF THE MODERN SYRIAC LANGUAGE, AS SPOKEN IN
OROOMIAH, PERSIA, AND IN ZOORDISTAN, by Rev. D. T.
STODDABD, Missionary of the American Board in Persia, ... 1
MISCELLANIES :
L Letter from Rev. J. L. Porter of Damascus, containing Greek
Inscriptions, with Pres. Woolsey's Remarks on the same, .... 183
IL Armenian Traditions about Mt. Ararat, (by Rev. H. G. 0.
Dwight,) ............................................ 189
III. Remarks on two Assyrian Cylinders received from Mosul, (by
E. E. S.,) ............................................ 191
IV. Vestiges of Buddhism in Micronesia, (by J. "W. G.,) ........ 194
V. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES :
1. Bopp's Comparative Accentuation of the Greek and Sans-
krit Languages, (by W. D. W.,) ..................... 195
VI
Mft.
2. llernisz's Guide to Conversation in English and Chinese,
and Andrews's Discoveries in Chinese, (by M. C. White,) 218
3. Roth and Whitney's Edition of the Atharoa-Veda, (by
E. E. S.,) 226
VL Phoenician Inscription of Sidon, (by E. E. S.,) 227
VII. The Sidon Inscription, with a Translation and Notes, by Wil- liam W. Turner, 243
VIII. EXTRACTS FROM CORRESPONDENCE :
1. From a Letter from Rev. D. T. Stoddard, of Orumiah, 259
2. From a Letter from Rev. D. B. McCartee, M. D., of Ninypo, 260
3. From, a Letter from Rev. A. H. Wright, M. D., of Orumiah, 262
4. From Letters from Rev. L. Grout, in S. Africa, 263
5. From a Letter from Rev. A. Bushnell, in Equatorial Africa 264
6. From Letters from Rev. Dr. J. Perkins, of Orumiah, 265
7. From Letters from the late Rev. H. Lobdell, M. D., of Mosul 267
8. From a Letter from Rev. E. Webb, of Dindigal, India, ... 271
9. From a Letter from Rev. Dr. E. Smith, of Beirut 272
10. From a Letter from Rev. F. Mason, Missionary in Bur-
mah, 273
. 11. From a Letter from Prof. C. Lassen, of Bonn, 273
SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE, (by E. E. S.,) 274
ART. II. — ON THE NESTORIAN TABLET OF SE-GAN Poo, by Mr. A.
WYLJE 275
ART. III. — ON THE AVESTA, OR THE SACRED SCRIPTURES OF THE ZORO- ASTRIAN RELIGION, by WILLIAM D. WHITNEY, Professor of Sanskrit in Yale College, 337
ART. IV. — CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ATHARVA-VEDA TO THE THEORY OF SANSKRIT VERBAL ACCENT, by WILLIAM D. WHITNEY, Pro- fessor of Sanskrit in Yale College, 385
vn
MISCELLANIES :
Page. L EXTRACTS FROM CORRESPONDENCE :
1. From a Letter from Rev. A. II. Wright, M. D., of Oriimiah, 423
2. From a Letter of Rev. W. M. Thomson to Dr. DeForext,. . 425
3. From a Letter from Prof. C. Lassen, of Bonn 425
4. From a Letter from Rev. D. T. Stoddard, of Orumiah, . . . 426
5. From a Letter from W. W. Turner, Esq '.'. . 426
II. Ideas respecting an Alphabet suited to the Languages of
Southern Africa, by Prof. C. A. Holmboe, of Christiania, Norway 427
III. Notice of Die lonier vor der lonischen Wanderung von Ernst
Curtiut, (by J. H.,) 430
COMMITTEE OF PUBLICATION
FOR 1855—1856.
EDWARD E. SALISBURY, JOSIAH W. GIBBS, CHARLES BECK, WILLIAM D. WHITNEY.
AETICLE I.
GRAMMAR
MODERN SYRIAC LANGUAGE,
AS SPOKEN IN
OROOMIAH, PERSIA,
KOORDISTAN.
. D. T. STODDARD,
MISSIONARY OF THE AMERICAN BOARD IN PERSIA.
VOL. V.
ERRATA.
Page 9 (note), for " or at the end of a syllable " read " when con- nected with the preceding ; or as a medial, when connected with the preceding and separate from the following letter." " 193 for "siderian" read "sidereal." " 228 " " ancient edifice " read " an ancient edifice." " 231 " SX read *|X.
" 234 " " divinity of the Sidonians" read " gods of the Sidonians." read
IN VOL. iv. No. 2.
Page 343. For " Edward " read « Edmund." " xvii. Supply the name of John R. Bartlett in the list of Corpo- rate Members.
SELECT MINUTES OF MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY.
A Semi- Annual Meeting was held in New Haven, on the 18th and 19th of October, 1854. The President of the Society, Rev. Dr. Rob- inson, in the chair.
The following papers were communicated :
The Alchemy of Happiness by the Arabian Philosopher Mohammed Al-Ghazaly, translated from the Turkish with Notes ; by Mr. Henry A. Homes, of the State Library, Albany.
On the Identification of the Site of Ancient Pella, being a portion of a forth-coming new volume of Biblical Researches ; by Rev. Dr. Robinson, of New York.
On the Avesta, or the Zoroastrian Scriptures; by Prof. W. D. Whit- ney, of New Haven.
On the Armenian Version of the History of Alexander the Great, supplementary to a Paper on the Syrian Version;* by Rev. Pres. Woolsey, of New Haven.
On the Armenian Tradition as to the Resting-Place of Noah's Ark; by Rev. H. G. O. Dwight, Missionary in Turkey. With some re- marks upon Mr. Dwight's paper, by Prof. J. W. Gibbs of New Haven.
A Table of Scripture Proper-Names with their Equivalents in Perso- Kurdish, with an accompanying letter on the character of the language of the Assyrian inscriptions ; by Rev. H. Lobdell, M. D., Missionary at Mosul.
On the Alphabetic Representation of the Sandwich Island Languages; by Rev. H. Bingham, of New Haven. The Corr. Seer, also read extracts from a letter of Chevalier Khani-
koff, Russian Consul-General at Tabriz, to Baron von Humboldt, on
the variations of the level of the Caspian Sea.
* See Journ. Am. Or. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 357, ft
11
The subject of a change in the amount of the assessment, annually levied upon members of the Society, being taken up, it was moved by Rev. Pres. Woolsey, seconded, discussed, and unanimously re- solved : " That the members of the Society pay henceforth the sum of five dollars annually into its treasury, instead of two dollars as hitherto ; and that the amount required to constitute a life-member, be seventy-five dollars."
The condition of the library, and the expediency of its removal from its present place of deposit, having been brought to the notice of the Society by the Corr. Seer., the following resolution was offered by Dr. Beck, debated, and unanimously voted : " That it is the opin- ion of the meeting now assembled, that a removal of the library of the Society from Boston to New Haven would be, under the present circumstances, expedient and desirable ; and that the subject be re- ferred, for further consideration and decision, to the next meeting to be held in Boston."
An Annual Meeting was held in Boston, on the 23d and 24th of May, 1855. The President of the Society in the ehair.
Prof. Whitney made a brief report in behalf of the committee on the library ; and the subject of the removal of the* library to New Haven was taken up. It was voted : " That the partial report made by the committee on the library be accepted, and the committee dis- charged." It was also voted, without dissent : " That the library of the Society be removed to New Haven." The Librarian, together with Professors Salisbury and Gibbs, were appointed to carry into effect the vote respecting the removal of the library, and to prepare rules for the use of the same, and a catalogue of the books ; with authority to draw on the treasury for such funds as may be needed for these purposes.
On motion of Dr. Beck, it was voted : " That the thanks of the Society be communicated to Mr. Folsom for his faithful and useful services as Librarian during the period in which the library has been under his care in the Boston Athenaeum."
1U
The officers of the last year were re-elected, with the exception
that Prof. W. D. Whitney of New Haven was chosen Librarian in
the place of Mr. Folsom, in consequence of the vote of the Society
to remove the library.
The following papers were communicated :
A Report of what has been done in this country towards reading the Phoenician Inscription discovered at Sidon in January, 1855 ; by Prof. E. E. Salisbury, of New Haven. Communications on the subject, received from Prof. W. H. Green
of Princeton, Rev. Dr. W. Jenks of Boston, and Mr. W. W. Turner
of Washington, were submitted to the Society. Rev. Dr. Murdock
of New Haven also expressed his views ; and some remarks bearing
on the date of the inscription were made by Dr. C. Pickering.
Letter from Rev. J. L. Porter of Damascus to Dr. Robinson, con- taining Greek Inscriptions. With Remarks on the Inscriptions, by Rev. Pres. Woolsey.
On the Topography and Antiquities of Ccele-Syria North of Baalbek, being a portion of a forth-coming new volume of Biblical Re- searches ; by Rev. Dr. Robinson, of New York.
On the Sanskrit Accent, being a review of a work recently published by Prof. Bopp of Berlin on the Sanskrit accent as compared with, the Greek ; by Prof. W. D. Whitney, of New Haven.
Observations on a Tour in Kurdistan; by the late Rev. H. Lobdell,. M. D., Missionary at Mosul.
Remarks upon Two Assyrian Cylinders received from Dr. Lobdell of Mosul; by Prof. E. E. Salisbury, of New Haven.
Review of a " Guide to Conversation in the English and Chinese Languages" by Dr. Stanislas Hernisz ; by Rev. M. C. White, Mis- sionary in China.
Additional Remarks on the Division of Zulu Discourse into Words; by Rev. L. Grout, Missionary in S. Africa.
Some remarks were also made by Prof. Felton, of Cambridge, on the Present State of the Modern Greek Language and Literature.
Rev. B. J. Bettelheim, M. D., Missionary in the island of Loo-Choo, having been introduced to the Society, made some observations re- specting the Japanese language and literature.
iv
NEW MEMBERS.
The following gentlemen have become members of the Society since the publication of the last List of Members.
1. Corporate Members.
Rev. W. R. Alger, of Boston.
" A. N. Arnold, late Missionary in Greece.
" J. F. Clarke, of Roxbury, Mass. Mr. S. F. Dunlap, of New York. Prof. W. H. Green, of Princeton, N. J. Rev. A. L. Holladay, of Charlottesville, Va.
" F. W. Holland, of East Cambridge, Mass. Mr. H. A. Homes, of Albany. Rev. J. W. Miles, of Charleston, S. C. Prof. Schele de Vere, of Charlottesville, Va.
2. Corresponding Members.
Rev. J. W. Johnson, Missionary in China. Chevalier Khanikoff, Russian Consul-General at Tabriz. *Rev. H. Lobdell, M. D., Missionary at Mosul.
" D. J. Macgowan, M. D., Missionary in China. Prof. Max Miiller, of Oxford.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY, 9-21
The alphabet, 9 ; vowels, 12; modification of vowel-sounds, 16 ; some peculiarities of 2, Of, O, •*, and X, 18; talkana, 20; accent, 20 ; punctuation, 21 ; Nestorian manuscripts, 21.
ETYMOLOGY, 22-144
Pronouns, 22-27 : personal, 22 ; demonstrative, 22 ; relative, 23 ; interrogative, 24 ; indefinite and distributive, 24 ; suffix, 25 ; reciprocal, 27.
Verbs, 27-111 : conjugation of jLACf , 28 ; classes of regular verbs, 34 ; class first, conjugation of *fy*-^ , 35 ; verb with negative particles, 43 ; list of verbs of class first, 45 ; class second, 51 ; conjugation of hOXS, 52; list of verbs of class second, 57 ; irregular verbs of class first : first radical 2 , 60 ; second radical 2 or * ; 63 ; second radical iw , 66 ; first or second radical * , 66: third radical 2, 68; third radical X, 72; verbs doubly irregular, 74 ; irregular verbs of class second : verbs of four radicals, 78 ; list of such verbs, 80 ; causative verbs, 87 ; second radical iw , 89 ; third radical 2 , 90 ; third radical iw , 91 ; irreg- ular causatives, 92 ; synoptical table of irregular verbs, 94 ; pas- sive voice, 97 ; verbs with suffixes, 102 ; relation of modern to ancient verb, 10Y. Article, 112.
Pagei. Nouns, 112-127: gender, 112 : number, 114 ; case, construct and
emphatic state, 117 ; derivation of nouns : patrial, 118 ; diminu- tive, 119 ; abstract, 119 ; verbal, 120 ; nouns from foreign lan- guages, 125 ; composition of nouns, 127.
Adjectives, 127-131: gender, 127; number, 128; comparison, 128 ; derivation, 129.
Numerals, 131-134.
Adverbs, 134-140 : adverbs of place and order, 134 ; of time, 135 ; of manner and quality, 136 ; general remarks, 138.
Prepositions, 141-143.
Conjunctions, 144.
Interjections, 144. SYNTAX 145-176
Article, 145 ; relation of nouns to nouns, 147 ; adjectives, 149 ; subject and verb, 150 ; predicate nominative, 152 ; substantive verb, 152 ; object of the verb, 153 ; pronouns, 154 ; moods and tenses of verbs : indicative, 158 ; subjunctive, 161 ; subjunctive after particles, 165 ; infinitive, 167 ; participle, 170 ; substantive verb, 170 ; adverbs, 171 ; prepositions, 171 ; conjunctions, 172 ; phrases, 172 ; salutations, 175. SPECIMENS of the language, in poetry and prose, 177-1 80
APPENDIX, 180a
CORRECTIONS, 180 f
I
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
IT is an interesting fact that, although the Nestorians of Persia have for many centuries been conquered and out- numbered, and have had very little share in civil affairs, and their brethren in the Koordish Mountains have enjoyed only a doubtful independence, they have preserved to the present time a knowledge of their vernacular language. In Persia, most of the Nestorians are indeed able to speak fluently the rude Tatar (Turkish) dialect used by the Mohammedans of this province, and those of the mountains are equally familiar with the language of the Koords. Still, they have a strong preference for their own tongue, and make it the constant and only medium of intercourse with each other. This is the more noticeable, as in modern times, until within a short period, they had no current literature, and the spoken dialect was not even reduced to writing. Their manuscript copies of the Bible and other books were very scarce, and were carefully hid out of sight, covered with dust and mil- dew. Very few, if any, except the clergy, aspired to be readers, and still fewer were able to read with any degree of intelligence.
The first attempt worthy of record to reduce the Modern Syriac to writing, was made by Eev. Justin Perkins, a Mis- sionary of the American Board of Commissioners for For- eign Missions, at Tabreez, in the winter of 1834-5, in con- nection with the study of the language, under the instruction of the Nestorian Bishop Mar Yohannan.
The first attempt to write it in a permanent and useful form, was made by Dr. Perkins in the construction of school- cards, in the winter of 1836, after he and Dr. Grant had settled at Oroomiah. On the 18th of January of that year their first school was commenced. Says Dr. Perkins: "Seven boys
from the city attended. They all took their stand in a semi- circle around the manuscript card suspended on the wall, which Priest Abraham with my assistance had prepared ; and as they learned their letters and then began to repeat a sentence of the Lord's prayer, for the first time, with a de- light and satisfaction, beaming from their faces, equalled only by the novelty of their employment, I could understand something of the inspiration of Dr. Chalmers, when he pro- nounced the Indian boy in the woods, first learning to read, • to be the sublimest object in the world." — Residence in Persia, p. 250.
In another connection, Dr. Perkins, speaking of the pre- paration of the cards for that missionary school, says : "There was no literary matter for its instruction and ali- ment, save in the dead, obsolete language. I therefore im- mediately commenced translating portions of the Scriptures from the Ancient Syriac copies, by the assistance of some of the best educated of the native clergy. We first trans- lated the Lord's prayer. I well remember my own emotions on that occesion. It seemed like the first handful of corn to be cast upon the top of the naked mountains ; and the Nestorian priests who were with me, were themselves inter- ested above measure to see their spoken language in a writ- ten form. They would read a line and then break out in immoderate laughter, so amused were they, and so strange did it appear to them, to hear the familiar sounds of their own language read, as well as spoken. We copied this trans- lation of the Lord's prayer on cards for our classes. Our copies were few. We therefore hung up the card upon the wall of the school-room, and a company of children would assemble around it, at as great a distance from the card as they could see, and thus they learned to read. We next translated the ten commandments, and wrote them on cards in the same way, and then other detached portions of the Word of God ; and thus continued to prepare reading mat- ter by the use of the pen, for our increasing number of schools, until the arrival of our press in 1840. This event was hailed with the utmost joy by the Nestorians, who had long been waiting for the press, with an anxiety bordering on impatience; and it was no less an object of interest and wonder to the Mohammedans. They too soon urgently pressed their suit, that we should print books for them also ; and a very respectable young Meerza sought, with unyield-
ing importunity, a place among the Nestorian apprentices, that he too might learn to print. The first book which we printed in the modern language, was a small tract, made up of passages from the Holy Scriptures. As I carried the proof-sheets of it from the printing-office into my study for correction, and laid them upon my table before our transla- tors, Priests Abraham and Dunkha, they were struck with mute rapture and astonishment, to see their language in print : though they themselves had assisted me, a few days before, in preparing the same matter for the press. As soon as recovery from their first surprise allowed them utterance, ' It is time to give glory to God,' they each exclaimed, ' that we behold the commencement of printing books for our peo- ple ;' a sentiment to which I could give my hearty response."
The first printing in the Nestorian character was an edi- tion of the four Gospels published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1829, the type being prepared in London from a manuscript copy of the Gospels obtained from Mar Yohannan, by the eccentric traveller Dr. Wolff, several years before, and taken by him to England for that purpose. This volume is all that has ever been printed in the modern language of the Nestorians, otherwise than by the agency of our mission-press, with the exception of one or two small Papal tracts, published a few years since at Constantinople, with miserable type prepared under the supervision of the Jesuits in that city.
Since the arrival of our press in 1840, it has been busily employed in printing books for the Nestorians, in both their ancient and modern language, mostly in the latter.
Dr. Perkins has furnished the following list of our more important publications, arranged nearly in the order in which they have been issued from the press.
THE PSALMS, as used in the Nestorian churches, with the Eubrics, in Ancient Syriac. 196 pp. 4to.
INSTRUCTIONS FROM THE WORD OF GOD, in Modern Syr- iac. (Extracts from the Bible.) 77 pp. 12mo. . THE ACTS AND THE EPISTLES, in Ancient Syriac. 8vo.
THE GREAT SALVATION, a tract in Modern Syriac.
SIXTEEN SHORT SERMONS, in Modern Syriac.
A PRESERVATIVE FROM THE SINS AND FOLLIES OF CHILD- HOOD AND YOUTH, by Dr. Watts, in Modern Syriac.
AIDS TO THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPTURES, in Modern Syriac. 109 pp. 8vo.
6
SCRIPTURAL HISTORY OF JOSEPH AND THE GOSPEL OP JOHN, in Modern Sjriac. 316 pp. 8vo.
THE GOSPEL OF MATTHEW, in Modern Syriac. 192 pp. 12mo.
Tracts on FAITH, EEPENTANCE, THE NEW BIRTH, DRUNK- ENNESS, and THE SABBATH, by Mr. Stocking, in Modern Syriac.
THE FAITH OF PROTESTANTS, in both Ancient and Mod- ern Syriac, in separate volumes. 164 pp. 8vo.
SCRIPTURE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS, in Modern Syriac. 139 pp. 8vo.
First HYMN BOOK. 10 pp. 12mo.
THE DAIRYMAN'S DAUGHTER, in Modern Syriac. 136 pp. 8vo.
USEFUL INSTRUCTIONS, in Modern Syriac.
THE FOUR GOSPELS, in Modern Syriac. 637 pp. 8vo.
THE NEW TESTAMENT, in both Ancient and Modern Syr- iac, the translation being made by Dr. Perkins from the Pe- shito, with the Greek differences in the margin. 829 pp. 4to.
SCRIPTURE HELP OR MANUAL, in Modern Syriac. 192 pp. 8vo.
BUNYAN'S PILGRIM'S PROGRESS, in Modern Syriac. 712 pp. 8vo.
QUESTIONS ON BUNYAN'S PILGRIM'S PROGRESS, in Mod- ern Syriac. 99 pp.
Second SCRIPTURE MANUAL, and a larger HYMN BOOK, in Modern Syriac. 131 pp. 8vo.
THE SHEPHERD OF SALISBURY PLAIN, in Modern Syriac. 70 pp. 8vo.
THE YOUNG COTTAGER, in Modern Syriac. 98 pp. 8vo.
Smaller ARITHMETIC, in Modern Syriac. 24 pp. 8vo.
Larger ARITHMETIC, in Modern Syriac. 192 pp. 8vo. By Mr. Stocking.
A GEOGRAPHY, in Modern Syriac. 302 pp. 8vo. By Dr. Wright.
THE LORD'S PRAYER, TEN COMMANDMENTS and CATE- CHISM FOR CHILDREN, in Modern Syriac. 78 pp. 8vo.
A SPELLING BOOK, in Modern Syriac. 64 pp. 8vo.
THE OLD TESTAMENT, in both Ancient and Modern Syriac, the latter being translated from the Hebrew by Dr. Perkins. 1051 pp. large 4to.
SPELLING BOOK, with SCRIPTURE EEADINGS, in Modern Syriac. 160 pp. 8vo.
THE RAYS OF LIGHT, a monthly periodical, devoted to Religion, Education, Science and Miscellanies. Fourth vol- ume now in progress.
In press, an edition of the NEW TESTAMENT in Modern Syriac, and BAXTER'S SAINT'S REST.
Ready for the press, SCRIPTURE TRACTS, of the American Tract Society, and G-REEN PASTURES, an English work, con- sisting of a text of Scripture, with a practical exposition, for each day in the year.
Our schools have been gradually increasing in number, till the present year. We now have about eighty village- schools and flourishing Male and Female Seminaries. Of course, the number of intelligent readers is rapidly on the increase, and the modern language is assuming a permanent form. It should still, however, be considered as imperfect. It is difficult to give in a precise manner either its orthogra- phy, its etymology or its syntax, because the language is not to-day just what it was yesterday, nor just what it will be to-morrow. Until the publication of the Old and New Testa- ments, there was no standard of usage. It was difficult to say which dialect should have the preference. The same uncer- tainty in a measure still remains. If we assume that the dialect which is nearest to Ancient Syriac should be the standard, this will necessarily be unintelligible to a large portion of the people. We generally use the language in our books which is spoken on the plain of Oroomiah, unless there are obvious reasons for variation in a particular case.
Rev. Mr. Holladay, one of our missionary associates, pre- pared a very brief, though excellent sketch of the grammar of the Modern Syriac, about the year 1840. He also aided much in translating works for the press. His health and that of his family obliged him in 1845 to leave us for Amer- ica, where he still resides, near Charlottesville, Va.*
Much time has been bestowed on the preparation of the following grammar ; although, as it has been written with indifferent health and amid the pressure of missionary duties and cares, it has not been subjected to so thorough revision as it would have been under other circumstances. The Syriac has been written by Deacon Joseph, our translator,
* Mr. Holladay has kindly consented to superintend the printing of this grammar. . COMM. OF PUBL.
8
who has had much experience in labor of this kind, and is perfectly familiar with the grammar of the Ancient Syriac.
My design has been to trace up the language, as now- spoken, to the Ancient Syriac, and I presume no reader will complain of the frequent references made to Hoifman's large and valuable grammar. As some may find occasionally Ancient Syriac words written in a manner different from that to which they are accustomed, it may be well to sug- gest that the Syriac of the Jacobites, which has generally been the Syriac of European grammars, differs somewhat from the Syriac of old Nestorian books. The latter are of course the standard with us.
It may seem unnecessary to some to link in the Hebrew with the Modern Syriac, and I have had myself many doubts about the expediency of doing it. But, considering how many Hebrew scholars there are in America, who would take pleasure in glancing over the following pages, and how few of them are at home in Ancient Syriac, it seemed to me not inappropriate to adopt the course I have. The refer- ences to ISTordheimer's Hebrew Grammar certainly add little to the size of the work, even if they do not at all increase the interest of the reader.
Every thing serving to develop the Ancient Aramean of these regions is worthy of investigation. And it has occur- red to me, as not at all unlikely, that the Nestorians use many words, and perhaps grammatical forms, in their daily intercourse, which have never found their way into gram- mars and lexicons, and yet are very ancient, and owe their origin to the Aramean, which was once so extensively spo- ken in Persia and made even the court-language.' — Ezra 4 :
T Q /, 8.
I at first designed to give in an appendix an outline of the Jews' language as now spoken in this province. It is nearly allied to the Modern Syriac, and Jews and Nestorians can understand each other without great difficulty. But whether these languages had a common origin, within the last few centuries, or whether they are only related through the Ancient Syriac and Ancient Chaldee, we have not yet the means of determining. The discussion of this subject, which is necessarily omitted now, may be resumed hereafter.
D. T. STODDAKD.
Oroomiah, Persia, July, 1853.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
THE ALPHABET.
The letters of the alphabet are the same in number and bear the same names as in the Ancient Syriac, and generally have the same power. New forms, however, have been given to i^, f , A and X, as will appear by the following table.
Initial
Medial.
Final. Initial.
?
Cf
o
9
* f
4*
V
- a
Medial.
Final.
, Before final 2 ;
1 sometimes <
&
JO
a a
x
•>, x
$ Before final 2? ( sometimes $
The Estrangela is still employed by the Nestorians for the title-pages of books and other occasional uses.
The letters 2, a. f , £ and a, are never united with the succeeding letters, cf and o are occasionally written in
* 4 is used in some manuscripts as initial, medial, or final. The same may be said of 2 : but % can only be used as a final letter, or at the end of a sylla- ble ; never as an initial letter. ^ and 2 are used indifferently according to the fancy of the writer. A. L. H.
10
connection with the next letter : cf with 2 and o ; o with 2, A, *9, l and X.
3, ^,, a, A, £, X, are susceptible of aspiration as in the ancient language. A large point above the letter (daghesh lene of the Hebrew) which is often omitted, especially at the beginning of words, denotes that the letter is not aspirated in pronunciation. A similar point below shows that it is aspirated. It is to be noted, however, that £, unaspirated, is written without any point. When aspirated, it is writ- ten 4.
NOTE. — It would not be au easy matter to lay down the rules by which these letters are aspirated in Modern Syriac. Nor is it neces- sary to attempt it, as the aspiration is indicated in nearly every case by the point below the letter. Wherever one of these letters is unaspirated in a verbal root, it is unaspirated throughout the conju- gation, and vice versA.
3, when aspirated, has nearly the sound of the English w, sometimes inclining to v, and can hardly be distinguished from O. The latter must, however, be regarded as the weaker consonant. Cases will be mentioned farther on, in which 3 coalesces with the preceding vowel and loses its power as a consonant.
^, when aspirated, has the sound of gh (the Persian £), and is perhaps more deeply guttural than A, which seems to a beginner to resemble it.
i^ has the sound of the English j. Until the last two or
•P
three years, we used it also to express ch. See £.
t,
The aspirated a is not much, if at all, used in the province of Oroomiah. In the mountains of Koordistan, its proper sound is that of th in these, but it is said in one or two cases to have the sound of th in thin.
C7 has a more decided and full pronunciation than the English h, without approaching in sound to *» (hh). The latter cannot be distinguished in pronunciation from A. Their equivalent nearly is found in the German ch (Bach)'.
NOTE. — The Nestorians pronounce **, A, ^,. etc., with much
stress of voice, in consequence of which the sound of their language is at first unpleasant to an English ear. The Turkish of Northern Persia in this respect resembles the Syriac, and is very unlike the cultivated language of Constantinople. Whenever the Turkish is
11
referred to in the following pages, the reader will understand by it the rude Tatar dialect of this province, which has not even been re- duced to writing, and is therefore noted in the Syriac character.
O, used for connecting words and clauses (the Hebrew *l), is pronounced nearly like oo in hood, but with a more rapid enunciation.
f or X is equivalent to z in azure, or s in pleasure. These characters are rarely used.
A, unaspirated, has often the sound of k in kind, as pro- nounced by Walker, a y being quickly inserted after k.
A has the sound of ch in cherry and rich.
i is sometimes pronounced like !a, when it precedes 3 or j&, e.g. aJ3U2, a store-room; i Vni fl, to stagger; uk3LlX, lazy ; sJa&f, to swagger, etc. So in Persian. So in Eng-
// t
lish in the words imbitter, impatient. & is also occasionally written instead of i, as ^3»fcX, sound being regarded more
than derivation.
X, 2 and .*, are readily confounded by a foreigner in cer- tain connections, but are at once distinguished by a native.
* *
We may take as an illustration 2x»2, the hand, and 2aJLX, a
* * 4. ' • ''
feast ; or 2i2X, a jig, and H*\r, mud. The difference in these
words may seem slight, but, unless the ear is trained to make nice distinctions, a foreigner will be often misunderstood, even if he does not fall into ludicrous blunders.
j| has been used more or less to represent the/ and ph of other languages, but, as the Nestorians pronounce this sound with difficulty, and it never occurs in words truly Syriac, we have for some years past dropped it in our books. i| coa- lesces with certain vowels, as hereafter stated.
£. — When this letter is used, the syllable fills the mouth, as it were, more than when JB> is used.
JO. — A very hard k, which can be represented by no anal- ogy in English.
X, when unaspirated, is equivalent to the English t. ^ is a harder t, and sounded farther back in the mouth, x, if aspirated, has the sound of th in thick. This aspiration, so common in the ancient language, is quite lost on the plain of Oroomiah, but is retained in Koordistan.
12
VOWELS. Namet. Notation. Power.
P'tahha 4~ a in hat.
Zkapa a in father.
Zlama (long) - J betw*en f in. e
( and a in Aate
Zlama (short) — t in
R'wahha o o in
R'wasa O oo in »oar.
/
Hhwasa .» e in me.
i
NOTE. — The names of — and — in Ancient Syriac grammars are just the reverse of those here given, but, as it seems more proper to call — hard, the Nestorians follow the usage noted above.
P'tahha has generally the sound of short and close a. In the great majority of cases, when a consonant follows it (excepting 2, Cf, X, and cases specified on pp. 10, 11), which has a vowel of its own, that consonant is doubled in pro-
nunciation, e.g. ii£, these; 2^A, a wave; &-£,'£*, true;
m •> i i ' j»» »A
where ft, ^ and ft are each doubled.
NOTE 1. — There is no doubt that at least the Eastern Syrians for- merly used the daghesh forte, though, as now, without any distin- guishing mark. Compare Hoffman's Grammar of the Ancient Syriac, § 17, Annot. 1. Assemann states that in many cases _*_ is followed by a dagheshed letter, but this is not the usage now, except in
and tX&-», and then with questionable propriety.
NOTE 2. — It is perhaps unnecessary to state that 2, 91 and X, are letters too weak to receive the daghesh. The usage is the same in the Hebrew. Unlike the Hebrew, however, the Modern Syriac may
double *» and 9, and does so constantly, e. g. i3M*9, to envy; XM^O,
a i f i
to make alive; pronounced respectively bahh-hhul, mahh-hhee. So
V • 4* *• '
too utatX,. to wallow; 29bd, deaf; pronounced garril, karra.
13
^
NOTE 3. — A few words, such as )^AX**, Uonl. ?X?v*» (the
i * i it iii
'' * m '
first syllable) and 23u*3JC, derived from the ancient language, are
exceptions to the above rule. The sound of -j- in these words is like that of 1-, and the following consonant is not doubled.
P'tahha is lengthened, when followed by 2, Of or ^ as in
* t* ' the second syllable of lAiAio, where -f- is to be pronounced
»» i * i* i i i*
like — . So in 2ftCV3, light; ilXaa, an arm; TUXft, a serf.
Sometimes the sound of -r in a mixed syllable, beside the cases hereafter specified, nearly approaches that of short u,
e. g. 2aX2, pronounced uthra or utra.
Zkapa has properly the sound of a in father, but, in order to give uniformity to the spelling of like forms, occasional deviations have been made from this rule. Thus, we have
$ £ m $
h£QJ&3, I may heal ; »^Cf, I may be ; *&&, I may read or
^ " a u
call, although in the first -*- has nearly the sound of e in met, in the second, the sound of a in father, and in the third, the sound of a in ball.
NOTE 1. — It will thus be seen that the Nestorians have what Hoff- man (§11, 3) properly calls the more elegant pronunciation of-*-. So far as we know, this vowel is never pronounced by them as long o.
NOTE 2. — It may here be remarked, once for all, that several seri- ous difficulties are in the way of an orthography which shall per- fectly represent the sound of each word. Many words, as, for in-
stance, OOT and Jcf, have a different sound from what they had formerly; and yet, for the sake of etymology, it is considered impor- tant to retain the original spelling. It is often a matter of much doubt how far we are permitted to go in defacing the escutcheon of words, and obliterating all traces of their ancestry. One who had not fully considered the subject, might often think we were arbitrary, where good reasons for a variation may be assigned ; e. g. Anc.
aXS. 13X0. Modern 9&9, *pJB. i
The difficulty is still greater in regard to words which have been transferred from other languages, the Turkish, the Persian, the Koordish, and the Arabic. Even if we were thoroughly acquainted with these languages, as we are not, the words derived from them in Modern Syriac are often completely disguised, and years pass before
we successfully trace out their origin. Others are more or less cor- rupted, though not properly made over; and still others retain very much of their original form and sound. In the latter case, we intend always to refer to the language from whence they came, to ascertain the true spelling.
The varieties in dialect present another obstacle not easily sur- mounted. As familiarity is acquired with the language spoken, in all the dialects, reasons are often found for changing orthography which was supposed to be definitely settled.
Long Zlama. — The sound of -,- is not exactly that of long e, nor of long a, but something between these sounds, ap- proaching a little nearer to that of e than of o.
/Short Zlama. — This vowel, though generally i, sometimes approaches in sound to e. When followed by X, its sound
resembles — , e. g. ^ffftVSftt,, hear.
The same rule which has been mentioned for the doubling
$
of a consonant after -f-, applies also to — . Thus in 13ft, a
bear ; 2AMD, a hoof; JiX, smoke ; the 3, ba and &, are re-
spectively doubled in pronunciation. The fact that the daghesh must always, as in Hebrew, be preceded by a short vowel, needs no explanation.
It may be well to state, under this head, that Cf, ** and X occasionally admit of daghesh forte in the Ancient Syriac, after a short vowel, but not ft.
Rwahha. — This is long o, but is often undistinguishable in
pronunciation from e, which has the sound of oo in poor,
i
but at times inclines also to the sound of long o. When -*-
precedes, o should follow ; when -7- precedes, o should follow.
NOTE 1. — As the Nestorians generally use O and O, especially in
i
the neighborhood of Mosul, there is no doubt that the former corres- ponds to T in Hebrew, and the latter to sj.
NOTE 2. — Unlike 1 in Hebrew, O is so far an essential part of the vowel, that the latter cannot be written without it. The same re- mark may be made of .» in hhwasa.
NOTE 3. — Hoffman, § 13, 4, speaks of these vowels as sometimes u, but the Nestorians know no such usage. In the examples he
' $***«4 V ' A
adduces, %od ,%1&**1 ,VOA*« ,^O\,iB etc., the sound is as
• ;
given above.
15
Hliwdsa. — This is in sound like a very long e in English. The - has sometimes belonging to it another vowel, in which case it performs the double office of a consonant (y)
and a fulcrum for hhwasa, e. g. tj****, thought, pronounced hheyal ; ^»9, of us, pronounced deyan. The word X-2, in
which the etymology is preserved, is sounded thus : it. In the perfect participle feminine, 1st Class, we have, for ex-
ample, 2frA*a^, braided, pronounced as if written 2'fc^aA,.. And so of similar cases.
NOTE 1. — After — , .» is silent. This mode of spelling, adopted from the ancient language, has been in a great measure dropped. Thus,
we now write ^X*OC7, you may be, for ^OTL*OCf ;
you may see, for ^X**-*, etc. But ut&OU&3 and some other words transferred from Ancient Syriac, retain their original form.
NOTE 2. — There is a sheva in common use, as in Hebrew, though without any distinctive mark. Sometimes there are two attached to
two successive letters, e. g. wOfOJUk93, that in his heart, pro-
< //
nounced cFWlibboo. In a few cases the mark called in Ancient Syriac ^uLc&iO and placed above the line (Hoff. § 19, 1), has been used
for this purpose, but it is now dropped, as it is of no practical use to ourselves or the natives. The ear soon becomes so trained that it instinctively gives the sheva where it is called for. No one who has
spoken Syriac two months would think of pronouncing JAXdL, fuel,
yakdana, but, as a matter of course, yetfdana. So iSOJOS^t, ya?-
. i
cobh. Compare the Hebrew Sp^"1 .
The sheva was no doubt employed by the Nestorians of old, though, so far as we can judge from the disposition of the vowels in the ancient language, with less frequency than in the modern. Those grammarians who, according to Hoffman (§ 15, Annot.), wish to class " inter absurdos" any who speak of a sheva in Ancient Syriac, should properly themselves be classed there.
16
MODIFICATION OF V O W E L - S O U N D S.
The letters **, ^, X. £ and .0, and, to a considerable ex- tent, also d, !0 and a, modify the sound of some of the vow- els which are connected with them in the same syllable. The general tendency of these letters is to make the vowels joined with them somewhat like short u, though this is not the uniform effect. As it is essential to a correct pronun- ciation that this subject be understood, some examples will here be given to illustrate it. The sounds of course cannot "be perfectly represented in English. Observe that d=a in hate; d=a in saw; a, without a mark over it, =a in father ; a=a in hat; ee, at the end of words, = — . In some cases — may more properly be represented by simple e. e=+.
1. These letters with -J-, uJttOU*, fifty, pronounced likum-
she ; frt^"* \> turtum, to murmur ; ^Ms umman, with us ;
m A. ' ' ^ '
•vV^CttlO, mudtar, a ruler for parallel lines ; ZA&, nilkka, a
whale. Also with bo and a : »Vwn, mumfe, let them cause
i ~ i
to reach ; 'pL*ai9, Huryam, Mary.
2. With -£-, Nax*», hhudrit, thou mayest walk about ;
u
4 - ff ff 9 m f
£u^9, butna, she may conceive ; ^0>-», ewukh, we are ; i*9£9,
* *• «
Murya, the Lord ; JLV*XO, Jcur'yana, a reader.
These letters very often give -±- the sound of a. Thus we have ,7^ i'<, hhdtee, he may sin ; i*iy, tdshee, he may con-
ceal ; ,?Sft\S>, dloola, a street ; %&*, sdpee, he may strain ;
i1 -^
^3J9, kdree, he may read ; !*>*, rdma, high. i1
3. With — , no effect is generally produced.
4. With — , the vowel sound is in most cases u : uVT,^,
hhushle, I went ; t^yVf^; pdlut, he may go out ; 2xtt^, usra, ten ; ^*»», Musreen, Egypt ; l^Xbl£&, p'kudke, he com-
17
manded ; Jj»S9ft, rnmlee, he rose ; 2AMOO^V, toomumma, com- pleted. But X following --, lengthens it into -,-.
5. O and O are affected rarely, if at all.
6. - is in many cases unchanged. When, however, these letters are followed by + or * coalescing in the preceding
vowel -r (see next section under * -j-), the vowel-sound is not generally a simple one, as in other cases, but resembles the sound of ei in height, e. g. Vh*^, teira, a bird ;
fr '
eina, a fountain, an eye ; iJQSuS, Iceisa, a tree. So with
keimat, a price ; Z^»V, teina, mud. ~
FUKTHER MODIFICATION OF SIMPLE VOWELS.
1. 3 -r. — P'tahha followed by 3 has the sound of 5, e. g. ivSff , zona, time ; IkS^, gora, a husband.
2.o-r. — P'tahha followed by O does not often occur ;
never in our more recent books. But, wherever found, it has
/ i
nearly the sound of o, e. g. ^OJLXON, totishoon, search ye, now written ^^xVl^X. See - .
3. * -7-. — This has in general the sound of ey in they, e. g. ' ' * * '
eyga, then ; u£*2, eyrie, which of the two ; V*3; bey ta, a
i. 4.' * '
house ; ,7 i»>\, leylee, the night ; lv*X; sheyna, peace. Excep- ,. / i i i
tions, for the sake of etymology, are i5>w2, where, pronoun- ced eka; *\*^ = lit, there is not; ^-»2 = aJch, as. Vl**lU^, a capital city, is pronounced nearly peitahht. Compare also what is said above of M, ^, etc., followed by .*.
4. S& ', . — P'tahha followed by ^ has a sound varying be-
tween ow in now, and o, e. g. u*C7OJt%fc3, b'nowshoo or J'no-
« i» ^ ' ' '
s/too, by himself ; uJ»Tl^i, Nowtale, Naphtali.
18
5. 3-'-, O-*-. — Zkapa before 9 or O has the sound of o, and • •
is not distinguishable in the modern from 3 -f , e. g.
o-de, they may do ; wflbStx, o-re, they may enter ;
Yosip, Joseph ; i-ftOf, hoya, she may be ; 2f ObV., goza, a wal-
i* * nut ; 2&O&, dora, a generation.
6. .» -1-. — Zkapa before - has the sound of ey in ^Aey, and often does not differ from * -7-, e. g. $X*OCf, weyta, being ; ^&UXO, kreyta, reading. In such cases, .» may also have a vowel of its own, and be sounded like our y, e. g. %>»<&>
i*
k'seyyatee, covers.
7. 3-,-) O— , ^-r- — Short zlama before 3, O, or J^, has a
•
sound nearly like that of ew in Lewis, e. g. i*3a, honey, not exactly divsha nor doosha ; Zv3X, straw, not fo'una nor toona; kA>av*Ao2, ^e ocean; Z*9UAOJ), a Cyrenian ; JQ>OX^ObO, Cyprus; ^laflbO, quick, etc.
8. * -p. — This has been alluded to in a preceding note. See under Hhwasa.
9. 4° — If ° is followed by ^, the latter has either no
i i
effect on the syllable, or the sound is nearly that of ui in ruin, e. g. ^AJL^fta, a winnowing fan, pronounced rooshta (nearly).
It may be stated as a general rule, that **, X and a, prefer the vowel -f-, as in the ancient language and the Hebrew.
SOME PECULIARITIES OF 2, Cf, O, .» AND X.
2.. — It has already .been mentioned that 2 quiesces occasion- ally in -T, and lengthens it. It quiesces far more frequently in — , as in the final syllable of 2ao^, great, and a multi- tude of other words. 2 may also quiesce in — , as in the
last syllable of plurals, and in o, -, — . When it follows the latter, it lengthens it into — .' At times the 2 in such cases falls out, as in the preterite of verbs of final 2, e. g.
t*Sa9 = uAlM, I poured. i ,<* i n*
When 2 is preceded by a letter without a vowel, but has one of its own, it has a tendency to give its vowel-sound to
the preceding letter, and rest in it ; e. g. £*Z3, to be pro-
nounced not b'ennee, but bennee. So 2ofi3 = baha. So in Hebrew (Nordheimer's Grammar, § 88, 3). Compare also in regard to 2, Hoff. § 31, 3.
Of. — In the suffix u*C7O, neither of nor .» is sounded. At the end of words OT is generally quiescent, as in the Hebrew ; and we often feel at liberty, e. g. in words introduced from other languages, to substitute 2 for it, as really a better rep- resentative of the sound. This may account for our writing
the verb CP»-*, 0P^», he is, she is i^*, JjL*. ,< i i ,11 i •
O. — This may be, and is rarely, the initial letter of a verbal root. It is found often as the middle radical, and sometimes
at the end. Take, for example, ukOJto, to wail; iSOX., to repent; and *V*, to reprove; in all which cases it retains its
ti \
full consonant power. In OOOf, which is thus written for etymology's sake, the final o is not sounded, and the word
is to be pronounced as if 2 ft Of.
*. — This letter, when following O, does not flow into the
vowel-sound, but has a sound of its own resembling short e, e. g. 2x»&Vt, a wall, pronounced gooeda. Compare Hoff.
§ 12, 1, and ^23 and similar words in Hebrew.
X may in certain cases be treated as a quiescent, the Mod- ern Syriac agreeing in this respect with the Ancient, though in such cases it affects the vowel-sound, e. g. mVXaoJC, /
heard. Here, too, £t admits a vowel which y cannot take in Hebrew. So 2>a.Va, doing,
Some letters are otiant in Modern Syriac, being generally, if not always, those retained for the sake of etymology, e. g.
n
\,aS>4, etc.
'
20
The representation given above of the sounds of the Syr- iac language differs from that often made in grammars of the Ancient Syriac, e. g. Hoff. § 12, 3. There is, however, reason to suppose that the Nestorians understand the pro- nunciation of their language better than it is possible for European scholars to understand it. The Ancient and the Modern Syriac are now pronounced nearly according to the same rules, and there has probably been no essential change in these rules, especially in Koordistan, for a thousand years.
TALKANA.
An oblique mark drawn over a letter, not under, as in the Jacobite Syriac, shows that a letter is not sounded, e. g.
L- */ 0 *•*
^-»f2, pronounced azin; fex»9A), pronounced m'deta. Oc- casionally, other diacritical marks are used, as in the words ^o, ^to, which are explained in grammars of the ancient language, •
ACCENT.
It is almost a universal rule, that the primary accent is on the penult, and the secondary accent on the pre-antepenult. So strong is the tendency in this direction that a beginner in English will come and ask for the Pee-po'v-day, meaning by this the little book called "Peep of Day." It is, however, to be noted that, in the pronunciation of verbs, the auxiliary
%&GI is considered, in the subjunctive mood, an essential part of the word, though written separately. Thus, in
m
he might come, iACf ^X3, I might WASS, the accent is respec- tively on the syllables 2X and ^A. So too when the pro- nouns 2-kl, etc., are suffixed, e. g. jLi2 2&L VlS, / will see ; O^S bOL93 ^, if he seize him ; where the accent is respec- tively on the syllables 2f and J0>3. Compare >u2 9£o2 of An-
I* " t '
cient Syriac, which takes the accent on 9J». The auxiliaries jb^, X\OM, etc., do not follow this rule, e. g. »£
21
I am ashamed, has the accent on the syllable X~ , as if »£•» were not written.
PUNCTUATION.
Our system of punctuation is imperfect, compared with that of the English. The only characters we have intro- duced, which are not found in the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. § 23, 1), are the Greek semicolon inverted, as the sign of a question, the note of exclamation, and the parenthesis.
NESTORIAN MANUSCRIPTS.
Manuscript works among the Nestorians are sometimes very beautifully written, and the best type can never ex- ceed, and perhaps not even rival, them in elegance.
22
ETYMOLOGY.
PRONOUNS. 1. Separate Personal Pronouns.
U2, I (m. and f.). p~i or ui**2, We.
V\*2 or ^tl*2f Thou (m.).
or »^»OTU-2. You. or U2, Thou (f.).
He>it -i, They.
h* Of, She, it.
NOTE. — It will be observed that there is no distinction of gender in the second and third persons plural. Not so in the ancient lan- guage.
These personal pronouns, with the exception of oof, and ual, are not used in the objective case. And these,
especially the first two, are generally accompanied by the noun to which they refer. Compare the usage in the An-
cient Syriac with »^i2 and ^2 (Hoff. § 41, 3), and in He- brew (Nordh. § 8.59, f note).
NOTE. — O07 and h*Cf are sometimes spoken, both in the nominative and objective cases, as if written »£O2 and ^*2.
2. Demonstrative Pronouns.
These are 2c/2, this (m. and f.), oof, that (m.), Jof, that(f.), U2, these (m. and f.), and ***2, those (m. and f.).
23
Remarks. i 1. It is probable that 111 is a corruption of the ancient
, and t*l2 of »^*Cf, MJ>Of. See, for the distinction made by
i V I'
the Maronites in these words, Hoff. § 41, Ann. 4. It will be remem- bered that some personal pronouns are also used for demonstratives in the ancient language.
2. In Tekhoma, the people say iboC7 for this, and 2C7ioOCf for that. On the plain of Oroomiah, the first of these is used for that,
f *
and the other for that yonder. In Bootan they say Z*&2 for these,
', 1 1
and JLOfOi2 for those. Whenever Bootan is referred to, it may be
i i
be remembered that it is at the western extremity of Koordistan, and farther removed from us than any other district of the Nestorians.
The plural pronoun X&2 is also sometimes prolonged in Koordis-
'''** •** • «' • * *
tan, by the addition of iOf, 2oV», or A*CV»> into lofri 2OM2 or
2, without a change of signification. 2cV*2 is heard at times
,' H I' t> I
in Oroomiah.
There seems to be a natural tendency in language to make demon-
stratives as emphatic as possible. Compare in Anc. Syriac jAOfOOf, in Hebrew STTJt, ° &vi6f in Greek, derselbe in German, cet homme la in French, and this ''ere, that ''ere in vulgar English.
3. It is Avorthy of note, that the ancient feminine
times heard corrupted into w»&2, and that too on the plain of Oroo-
miah. We also sometimes hear u»X2. Both u»32 and wX2 are
' > *t * >
used with masculine as well as feminine nouns. 2 ACT is also used
in such expressions as M- 2 5 Of, it is so (it is this) ; 2 A Of 7VUX3, on account of this, etc.
4. OOf is pronounced sometimes with the sound of ow in now,
and sometimes, and often er, simply as long o. h*Of is pronounced sometimes with the sound of ay in aye, and oftener as a in fate. They have always, however, the sounds of o and a when used as demonstratives.
3. Relatives.
a is the only relative, and is of both genders and num- bers. So it is in the ancient language. The use of this rela- tive in grammatical construction will be explained in the Syntax.
24
4. Interrogatives.
These are ^b or u££9, who f (m. and f.) (ancient ^ib) ;
whose ? w&O&B what ? u&*i which of the two ? (m. i* i it
* i j
and f.) (ancient Zv-»2) ; and Z>B^, ACM; much, or how many ?
as in the ancient language.
NOTE 1. — In one part of the plain of Oroomiah, in Salmas, in Ga- war, and perhaps other districts, ud& is prononuced -**rr. u»3O£0
' 9 * ' '
is very generally contracted in vulgar usage into 30£0, TLO£9 or
* " ' '
O£0, especially when preceding a noun. ^**T t*L»2, which of them?
I ail
is vulgarly contracted into iminey. We hear also rarely ft2 (m. and f.) instead of u»i-*2 ; compare the ancient feminine form 29u*2. In
Bootan, for which of the two, they say u4£X*2, which is no doubt a
' '
contraction of **4^9 u&*i.
all
NOTE 2. — h£o in the ancient language is sometimes applied to
', • things. See Luke 8 : 30, ASait ^0. So in the Hebrew ^ttttj''53 ;
but we find no such usage in Modern Syriac.
NOTE 3. — The ancient >bo, what, is retained in the common idiom
h\*y? qLlKS 2^O, what to thee from us ? i. e. what have we to do
^i // ^^<
with thee ? Of course we may substitute any other suffixes. So too
we have in daily use such expressions as 5^*3 w^ ZoOf >bo, what
to me a house? i. e. of what profit to me ? Z^MwO2 kj^ wOOf ISO ... t, i ^ i i
ZS'XX, what may be to us so many sheep ? In some parts of the moun- '' " * * -, ',
tains, 2op9 is used to denote what, wdO£9 perhaps = w&2 l*O.
* *
5. Indefinite and Distributive Pronouns. These are tS*A, any one, every one (vulgar AOA, perhaps derived from aJ^aV. ^9 or ^o ^A, any one, every one; J^ tS^, each one. We often hear also iocfa Ao, whomever, or whatever, you please, literally, any one that may.
NOTE. — It may be hardly necessary to state that j^; as in the kindred languages, is written defectively, and is to be pronounced kool,
25
6. Suffix Pronouns.
These are few in number and simple in their form, and are in general the same for verbs, nouns and prepositions. The following is a list of them.
a. Personal Pronouns of the Objective Case. u* * '
, me. k*i-> , (— us.
4* thee(m.). ' , \
** ^ fe\ *^° you.
uA thee (f.).
Cf, wCTO him. », »,
them.
The suffixes ^O and »^Cf are confined to verbs. u>OU» and
' * . ' <•
are used only in Koordistan. ^OOV* is a common suffix in Bootan.
It will be seen that the suffix of the first person singular, having a vowel, must always be sounded, unlike the corresponding suffix of the ancient language. The modern differs from the ancient (Hoft'. § 42, Annot. 1.) also in having verbal suffixes after the third person
' ' s
plural. Beside ^O , +$9f , we have what is equivalent to a suffix in the forms given farther on, under the head of Verbs with Suffixes.
6. Possessive Pronouns.
These are the same in form with personal suffixes of the objective case. Thus, for example, with 5^*3 a house :
My house W.TU3 Our house *^*3 j «*
ii i i ) i
» i ' less frequently.
Thy house (m.) <»OIU3 , ., ,
/( f ; Y our house *£>AOTU9
Thy house (f.) u^U3
His house u*CfO*USI ,
' ) Their house JTU3 Her house Of OIU3
26
In the same way the suffixes are applied to the plural, e. g. wZUAZia my houses, ^aV&zia thy houses, etc. When the
noun, as in this case, terminates in a vowel -sound, final 2 is dropped, to prevent the hiatus which would otherwise occur in the pronunciation. When the noun terminates in a con- sonant, no change is made by its reception of the suffixes.
NOTE. — In our books we have often written 07 as a noun-suffix for
. ', •' |L I
3d pers. sing. masc., and 07 for 3d pers. sing, fern., e.g. 07*1*3
-Si. ' •* '
his house, CT*\*3 her house. We now substitute for these, in all
nouns, u»C7O and OfO , in accordance with Oroomiah usage. OV^2 >
• 4* ' ' ' '' "•
OVjkA, etc., retain the other suffixes. 07 and t*O7O are botli used in
•• »
Gawar; the first only in Tekhoma and Tiary. In Nochea and
Teklioma, we find only Of' ; but, on the other hand, this is not used at all in Gawar. In Tekhoma and Tiary, the suffix t*OV* is the noun-suffix for 3d pers. plural. In Bootan, ^OOW (m.) and M0%/ (f.). We, however, employ now only b*' as the noun-suffix of 3d pers.
plural. We have also, in such expressions as ZX&ld cUO3t3.
»' > dropped the suffix which is employed both in Ancient Syriac and in
Chaldee. (See Jalm's Grammar, § 28.) It is not in accordance with present usage, and we now substitute 1 for the Of. The expression 2^0 Oh* CP*ft will be referred to in the Syntax.
Emphatic Possessive.
Sometimes the suffix, for the sake of emphasis, is separa- ted from its noun by a preposition, e. g. **-? JS3 the father of me (and not of you\ fe&*3 2X3 the father ofthee, etc.
NOTE 1. — Compare iA*9 in Ancient Syriac. This form, which is always emphatical in the Modern, is by no means uniformly so in the Ancient Syriac. (Hoff. § 122, 6.)
NOTE 2. — Such forms as .*Sw3 nTl^OA^SO, John 4 : 34, tjjl
*
, 2 Cor. 5:19, or »O.icT '»ft>*1 ^-? ,^OOV3, Matt. 3 : 1, cannot properly be admitted in the Modern Syriac. It may, how-
27
ever, be remarked here, once for all, that in the translation of the Old Testament from the Hebrew, and of the New Testament from the Ancient Syriac, idioms have been designedly more or less introduced which are not in accordance with vulgar usage.
7. Reciprocal Personal Pronouns.
\Lf"*A* 'A*
myself. *J^*X, or ^i\ ourselves.
thyself (m.).
^ao.'i.V yourselves. thyself (f.).
himself. t t , ,
«J*liX, or »>M^ themselves. herself.
The word Zii^ soul (Persian o^?-), which is thus con- nected with the suffixes, corresponds nearty to self in Eng- lish. It may indeed have two different significations in the
same sentence ; e.g. t*&X£ iii^w?/ own soul, fefX&X^ i*V.
iky oion soul, etc.
i'x^* is also used in connection with the suffixes, but with a different meaning. If we wish to express the ideas : "by myself," " by thyself," etc., 1x5^4 receives the suffixes, and has the preposition 3 prefixed. Thus, >*ac^v3 ly myself,
4* ''*«*'
declined like t*vX» above. Compare the use of £x£$i and 2M&&J3 in the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. § 127, 1), u;c3 and n«n in Hebrew (Nordh. § 873), and uiD3, etc. in Chaldee (Jahn §15).
VERBS.
The roots of verbs in the Modern Syriac are in many cases identical with those of the corresponding verbs in the an- cient language; but the terminations and inflexions, and the general scheme of conjugation, are different. Indeed, it is interesting to observe how the Modern Syriac, like the Mod- ern Greek, and other languages, has broken up the original form of the verb, and employed new auxiliaries, both in the
28
active and passive voices. These changes will be discussed hereafter. It is sufficient to remark, here, that they have been so great that it is useless to keep up the old distinc-
tions of jtf 5, 35, etc. ; and that the object will be better accomplished by classifying the verbs as now used, without any reference to the scheme of the verb in the ancient lan- guage.
Without attempting a complete analysis of the modern verb, it is intended to give the paradigms of those classes and forms of verbs which commonly occur, both on the plain of Oroomiah and in the mountains of Koordistan.
As the verb in its simplest form is always found in the third person singular masculine of the future, this will be called the root or stem, and the other forms will be derived from it. For greater convenience, however, we shall begin with the present indicative, after giving the infinitive and participles.
The auxiliary and neuter verb, the verb of existence Zoof to be, is given below, inflected both positively and negatively.
INFINITIVE, iocf, jbcV to be.
Present Participle, X»OOV3) Perfect Participle, Z-»OC7, J
Being. ) Having been
INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense.
I am (m.\ , , ,
4bOt» h\d«jl We are.
Iam(f.).
Thou art (m.). , " ' »joi"-» ^*V**^ You are.
J*XA- wTli<! Thou art (I1.). i
DOT He is. > , -
u fc u£ They are.
wOT She is.
29
Present Tense, negatively.
fat I am not (m.). ,
f f <»O-» X-
Z*2 I am not (f.). •
Thou art not (m.). , * •' ',
JTLOJ Z-i JTUk2 Thou art not (f.).
<
OCf He is not
. wCf She is not
We are not
You are not
They are not
NOTE. — In these forms, .* has a vowel (hhwasa), whenever pre- ceded by a consonant ; when preceded by a vowel, it receives talkana. OOf is an exception, as it is followed by Z^-»- Otherwise, the rule seems to be universal. •' '
When .» has talkana over it, it still comes in for its share in the pronunciation, changing the character of the vowel which precedes it.
Thus, kjL* Z*2 is pronounced as if written tdOyAl, kdOu VT^-^**
* r * .4 " . * "
as if h.ftnflf \S^?; etc., the .» coalescing with the preceding -*-. (See previous remarks on the sound of .» -*-.) The auxiliary TLA Of is some-
* x» Is
times written ZOOT, and sometimes Z^OVi and the same remarks apply to this ^ also.
In some mountain-districts, iV.* is used for Zi^, and inBootan u_i, through all the conjugation of the verbs. Thus, Zv or **J> ?^> \><V*1 they are going out ; Zv- Z-^N-ZS or /Aey arc coming, etc.
Imperfect Tense.
0 Zii I was (m.).
* x , oOT ^ 14 I was (f.).
OO4BT
Thouwast(m.). f x OOOf Thou wast (f.).
O07 He was.
.
wOf She was.
We were.
You were.
•
OOOf t*&4 They were.
80
Imperfect Tense, negatively.
was not(f.).
t
odor t
2— t OOf He was not
i) Thou wast
not (m.). * ^ 's- - , ^ '< ^ ,' You were
i " TT > / ^. *^ n ~ . v ^*' *-^^ ** ^*B" *^^^ ^**V «rt*
. » mL not
>>£ j 1 hou wast
, not (f.).
OOOT Z^ "A? They were not She was not
There is generally an elision in the pronunciation of this tense, which is so very prevalent that we can hardly call it
a vulgarity. The final 2 of the pronoun JA^, in the first per- son singular, and the letters OM are not sounded. Thus, we have the pronunciation anin wa, anan wa. So when any
other word which ends in a vowel precedes »^> • for exam- ple, iAOT ^ft-» JiioX / was there, is pronounced tdmin wa.
This elision is not confined to the first person singular. In the second person, the sound is atit wa, atdt wa, and in the first person plural dhhndnukh wa.
Of the negative form, the first person singular is pro- nounced (ana) ley in wa, leyan wa; the second person, ley it wa, ley at wa; and the first person plural, kyukh wa.
Preterite Tense. ut2tOOT X&4 I was (m. and f.). ^AOCJ tV.u? We were.
Thou wast (m.). , . , , ,
fr^AOJkOOf ^OTX**^ You were. Thou wast (f.).
2^OOT OOT He was. , f
'' '' ^O^OCI wJ4 They were.
kf * i' •
^OOT wOf She was. H
31
Preterite Tense, negatively.
The negative is formed by inserting i-i (not i^) between the pronoun and the verb, in all the persons and in both numbers, e. g. i^ftOf !•* OOf Ae was not.
I was be-
NOTE. — "When uOOf is not used as an auxiliary, it has the sig- nification I became, I was born (cornp. ylvofiai). A similar remark ap-
plies to the perfect and pluperfect tenses, iocf, thus employed, is
i* conjugated as a verb with final I, having for its present,
I am becoming; and for its imperfect, ^JttO coming.
Perfect Tense.
uOu X»OCf Jii I have been (m.).
^« '
* x * **
^^* &-OCT W I have been (f.). i
Thou hast t been(m.). ^ y
Thou hast •
been(f>>
OOT He has been.
- wCT She has been.
You have been.
They have ,^
Perfect Tense, negatively.
£> is to be inserted before hOu, and t»OCf comes last in ,• ^ a i
order. We thus have X»OCf taJ & %il. This is inflected
I ^ H ,<
regularly, except that there is some elision, which has been spoken of under the Imperfect Tense. Pronounce leyin weya, etc.
Pluperfect Tense.
Ihad
been(f.).
32
ZOO) Zocr OOT He had been. , , Th hfld
She had » been.
been.
Pluperfect Tense, negatively. is to be inserted before hA*, and Z-»OC7 to be placed
•• * , * " x v '
last. We thus have Z-OC7 Zocf tuO^ ZV The direct form is / v a ,i
to be pronounced weyin wa, welan wa, weyit wa, wetdt iva, and the first person plural weyukh wa. The negative form is to be pronounced leyin wa weya, leyan wa wetd, etc.
NOTE. — In Tekhoma, the people say ioc? i/ftOf, which, corre- sponds in form nearly to the ancient pluperfect ; but they use it rather as an imperfect.
Future Tense.
HOOT Vl3 jkj I shall be (in.). , ,
;" , " ^AOT X\3 fi— ^ We shall be.
V; I shall be(f.).
Thou wilt '
Zocf Via OCf He will be. , . ,
t>' f " m btOCT *\3 Mkljl They will be.
Z-OO? Vl3 Jof She will be. '
a
Future Tense, negatively. This is wftOf Z^ Zif, inflected as above in the different per-
sons and in both numbers.
NOTE. — As this future in Syriac is rarely, if ever, used to express determination, but denotes only simple futurity, "shall" is employed to translate it in the first person, and "will" in the second and third. / will be, that is, / am determined to 6e, would be expressed by some
* * " ' intensive, as, e. g. ^ftCf *13 ft Of.
33
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
I may be (m.).
4) ACT We may be. I may be (f.).
Thou mayest be (m.).
^jft^OCf You may be.
Thou mayest be (f.). '
He may be. f
w*OOf They may be. She may be.
NOTE 1. — The pronouns will hereafter be omitted before the dif- ferent tenses, and in all the paradigms.
NOTE 2. — This tense with Jj> and J^ is often very much clipped
in pronunciation. Thus we hear J0C7 Jj>, Joe/ J^, Z-OC7 Z^t,
,i |i ,i
etc.
Imperfect or Pluperfect Tense.
e or
have been (m.).
,, , ,, ,, OO07 ^*Cf We might be, etc.
Jo Of k*OC7 I might be, etc. (f.).
f JhJOCf Thoumightest, °OCf «f**V*f^ You might be, etc.
JOOT He might, etc. ? x ,
t '' t OOCf uOOf They might be, etc.
i-OOT She might, etc.
IMPEEATIVE MOOD.
i x
k* OOf Be thou (m. and f.). *^£9OCjf Be ye or you.
» i'
General Remarks.
The preceding verb not only may be an auxiliary to other verbs, but is sometimes an auxiliary to itself, e. g. in the imperfect, signi- VOL. v. 6
fying I was becoming — i'ocT ^^L» i-b<ft3. So too in the expression 1*O07 iJadf iOCT i!* ^ z/"/te should not be, or i/" Ae had not been,
born.
It may be difficult to account for the precise form of kjOu>,
^ « /
etc. It seems, however, pretty clear that they are made up of O, the principal letter in ioof , the old verb of existence, or, better, of 6 of
the pronoun OCf , which was used so much in the Anc. Syriac to ex- press the idea of existence, having the talkana on it (H. §121,2, c.), and fragments of the personal pronouns. See in this connection a very interesting statement of the relation of the corresponding pronoun KS.JI to the corresponding verb Srli in Heb. (N. §647), from which it seems certain that they had a common origin. It is not so easy to say whence comes the - which precedes. In Bootan, they use for
the second person plural present ^OiX-OCT. which gives us a *. It
can hardly be doubted that 1*** and ij»-* are really c£»»» and CP*».
f i1 i i , i' i >
As to Z'l->, it is probably a fragment of »_Oi2. Compare the an- cient *Qtl2 *-*«*0T with the modern Z>-> kt&i. The resemblance in n i
sound is very striking, and the signification identical. CLASSES OF VERBS.
There are two great classes of verbs in the Modern Syriac, which are always distinguished from each other by their mode of inflection, and sometimes by their general signifi- cation. Each class embraces several varieties. These vari- eties might indeed be designated as distinct classes ; but it is thought best to enumerate only two classes, because the general resemblance to these leading forms is discoverable in all the other varieties.
CLASS I. REGULAR VERB.
The first and most numerous class of verbs has almost invariably but three radical letters, as i^Vffr, tdxB, &UCD,
the verbs which respectively denote "to go out," "to finish," and "to support" or "prop." The peculiarity in the mode of conjugating runs through nearly all the tenses. Verbs of this class are usually, though by no means uniformly, intransitive.
35
Let us take as a model, t0kS , which signifies to finish (intransitive).
INFINITIVE, flb to finish. Present Participle,%aa*£a ) Perf. Participle, ,ljBLa..3, ^ ft ,a
Finishing. ) Having finished.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
I am finishing (m.).
*
am finishing (f.).
Thou art finishing (m.).
&C l£ 1&3 are
Thou art finishing (f.). * finishing.
He is finishing.
ou • c • \.- She is finishing.
. * - JjjVdg We are 2JB*&9 I am finishin f.. finishing.
*•' »&*? SBC
The present tense of this class is always formed by prefix- ing the present participle to the present tense of the verb of existence, in its several numbers and persons. The pre- sent participle is formed by prefixing short zlama with 3 to the first radical, making zkapa the vowel of the second radi- cal and also of the third, and adding the quiescent 2 to the third radical.
The present tense of any other regular verb of this class may be formed by precisely the same process.
NOTE 1. — If the first radical be 3 or ^,the sound of the pre- formative 3 in the present participle is scarcely heard, though always written, and in vulgar pronunciation it is entirely omitted. Indeed, in
the rapid enunciation of the people, many other verbs, and especially
$ $ those beginning with £0. drop this 3. Thus we have ;Lj*nX^ft3
anointing, sounded m 'shahha, iThaifrftff becoming meek, sounded m'kakha, ^X3Lk3 doing, sounded wada, etc.
NOTE 2. — This tense is often vulgarly contracted into prakin, pra- kan, etc., and the remark applies to any verb of this class.
36
Imperfect Tense.
- were
* was finish~ ^* ^T finishing.
ing (f.). Thou wast
. * x ' V" ,*^- A- You were
**^ ' finishing' — was fin"
" She was fin- °OOr ^^^f finishing.
From the present tense is formed the imperfect, by add- ing the auxiliary loC7. In the third person singular, £007 takes the place of J^*, i^**, instead of being added to them; and in the third person plural, dCOT takes the place of fc.
NOTE 1. — The elision spoken of in connection with the imperfect
tense of the verb iOCT to 6e, takes place here also. Thus, the »'
first person singular masculine is pronounced biprakin wa, or prakin wa ; the first person feminine, biprakan wa, or prakan wa ; the sec- ond person masculine, biprakit wa, or prakit wa; the second person feminine biprakat wa, or prakat wa; and the first person plural, biprakukh wa, otprakiukh wa.
NOTE 2. — Instead of this form, we occasionally hear i»^OCf
, in which case t*^O07 seems to he equivalent to 2OOT »_9^. / i' a
may be thus used with the present participle of many verbs, but it is not necessary to allude to it again as a regular tense.
Preterite Tense.
I finished (m. and f.). Bx We finished.
Thou finishedst (m.).
You finished. Thou fiuishedst (f.).
He finished. , ,
>0.\.D X«J They finished. She finished.
37
This tense has no preformative letter. A short zlama is inserted between the second and third radicals, and the fol- lowing terminations are subjoined: t*\, 1 sing. m. and f. ;
, 2 masc. sing. ; »\\ , 2 fern. sing. ; 2-i , 3 masc. sing. ;
m i
, 3 fern. sing. ; , 1 plural; fc^ft, 2 plural; » plural.
NOTE 1. — In Bootan, the third person plural (m. and f.) is u&iflx£ ; and so in all verbs. This usage is not confined to that
" ' i '4
district. We also have sometimes O^Bx£ for ^^fcXDxS^.
NOTE 2. — When the last radical is ft or a. the terminal Jt is dropped. Thus, from t^rS t° grind, we find the preterite —
not ••A^.^V . fVoiu ajQii to saw, we have the preterite w9
i a « i
When the final radical is ^ , this is not doubled in pronunciation.
Thus, from Ai^J3 to kill, Ave have the preterite uS^d. This rule applies to the preterite of all verbs of both classes.
Perfect Tense. &1A4 I have finished (m.). We ]iaye
I have finished (f.).
Thou ha^t finished (m.). fa ^^ You have
Thou hast finished (f.> * l''ft >\ ^ He has finished.
iLT iA-aJ* Tfiheyuha/e
She has finished. fimshed'
This tense, like the present, is a compound tense, and is formed by prefixing the perfect participle to the present tense of the verb of existence, exactly as the present parti- ciple is prefixed to it to form the present tense.
The perfect participle, in all regular verbs of this class, is formed by inserting * after the second radical, and adding
1 to the last radical, if masculine, or 2N , if feminine. It will be noticed that the participle takes 2( in the plural.
38
Pluperfect Tense. I had finish-
I had finish- OO^ &* 'V* f(> * finished.
Thou hadst
finished(m.). '• ^ 'S^ " . ^ - M You had
mu_.. u-oJ OOCT ^IU U<-^B finighed>
' She had fin- °OC^ ^f**t finished.
ished. This tense is formed by adding the auxiliary JJacf to the
respective persons of the perfect tense; JjftCf taking the place of Z-W^ and 2^ in the singular, and fa* in the plural, as in the imperfect tense.
NOTE. — In pronunciation, the same elision is made as in the im- perfect tense. Thus, we have prekin wa, prektan wa, etc.
future Tense. I shall or will perish (in.). ^3X^ Vl3 We, etc.
I shall or will perish (f.). Thou, etc. (m.).
You,etc.
Thou, etc. (f.). / //
JB±& Via He, etc.
She, etc. u,O jJ^ Vl3 They, etc.
To form this tense in regular verbs of this class, zkapa is almost universally used with the first radical, and the sec- ond radical is included in the first syllable; but the third person singular masculine is an exception, as the first sylla- ble in this case is a simple syllable, not including the second radical. The terminations subjoined to the third radical are
; (
^ , 1 masc. ; ^ , 1 fern. ; X , 2 masc. ; »*X , 2 fern. ; the vowel — between the second and third radicals of 3 sing. masc.; ^', 1 pi. ; ^>N», 2 pi. ; and «, 3 plural.
39
NOTE 1. — In some parts of Oroomiah and Koordistan, \X2J is con- tracted to 3. Instead of A", the termination ^ is often vulgarly given to the first person plural, making it ^JEJ JL£. Instead of the termination ^*X«*,we sometimes hear ^OIVO , making the second person plural ^OJXA«04hS. On the plain of Oroomiah, this person is in some villages pronounced ^AiX*.DX9, which is probably a contraction for
NOTE 2. — Instead of the personal pronouns being prefixed to this tense, we occasionally find them suffixed, thus :
Vl3 1st sing. masc.
t**»2 4U3lS 1X9 1st plural. a'±& 1X3 1st sing. fern.
XflJtS *X3 2nd sing. masc. t> a
2nd sing. fern. k*il uh0Jb& Vl3 3rd plural.
We have rarely, if ever, written any of these forms, except for the first person singular. If »**, as has been assumed, is a fragment of uhll they, it is often very improperly joined by the ignorant villag- ers to a verb in the singular, e. g. t*&2 J3'l*& *X3 he will finish.
The pronouns may in the same manner follow other tenses besides the future. Thus, in the present, we hear 111 *&* }JB±&3 I am finishing, ^jCXil IXdOu* ]LQ\&3 thou art finishing. The accent coming before — , lengthens it. Pronounce biprakeyweena. The .» in
uftJ gives the preceding -*- the sound of ey. *• //
These remarks apply to all verbs. The similarity between the an- cient and modern language in respect to these forms is worthy of no- tice. Thus, in the ancient, we have Z^ ^iX or i'i-SZX , i'i^ Z^9 ,
I m '' >' f f
kiu^ MXd, e.tc. The relationship, however, of the ancient to the ' (l
modern language in the inflection of the verb will be discussed far-
ther on.
40
Second Future Tense.
I shall have finished (.nO
-OOT 1X3 1st fern. 2nd masc.
2nd fen,. * •** ™f pta*
3rd masc. / Iflw^B u*OCf X\3 3rd plural.
5j. A- ^ i-ftCT 1X9 3rd fem. " ' i a
This tense is formed in all verbs by prefixing the first future of the substantive verb to the perfect participle.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
The Modern Syriac verb, as used in dependent clauses, resembles sometimes the subjunctive of the Latin, French, or German, and sometimes that of the English grammarian Murray ; but for the sake of greater brevity, not to say sim- plicity, these varieties will be considered together under the common title of Subjunctive Mood.
The verb assumes the same form in the present tense of this mood as in the future tense, the auxiliary *to3 being
generally dropped and %&VI being added to form the imper- fect tense.
Present Tense.
I may finish (m.).
<J3'x3 1st plural. 1st fern.
2nd masc.
ȣIUB\3 2nd plural. 2nd fern.
3rd masc.
»OVS 3rd plural. 3rd fern.
Though this tense is properly used in dependent and hypo- thetical clauses, by prefixing JA or **l to it, it becomes a
generic present. The particle ZA is used in Salmas and Oroomiah, while wl is the common prefix in Koordistan. "We thus have ^O*3 ia / am in the habit of finishing ; ^S»3 i* I am in the habit of going out, etc. This iA or «-»2 is used with all the persons and in both numbers.
On the other hand, 'pLd, derived from the ancient ^^O, prefixed to this tense makes it a preterite, equivalent to k&JB*&, e. g. ^O*& 13LB I finished. This is but little used out of Oroomiah, and is used there for the sake of euphony, in cases where the regular preterite does not readily take the suffixes. Thus, CUXiJCO ^3LO I supported him, would be pre- ferred to d.^2 lAsbUD.
"When Z^ (not Z-*) is prefixed to this tense, it is also a generic present, or a future, the idea being expressed nega- tively, e. g. IxjiX, ^flJbS i\ / am not in the habit of finish- ing quickly, or / shall not finish quickly. These statements apply to verbs of both classes and all varieties.
NOTE 1. — In telling a story we sometimes hear a native vulgarly use the form %S almost exclusively, as his "narrative tense." It seems then to have the force of our English present, " he goes," " he tells," " he does so and so," and to tlie mind of a Nestorian gives a sort of vividness to the story.
NOTE 2. — Before verbs whose first radical is 2 or .*, %& has the
^ I1
sound of A with a simple sheva, e. g. ^.2 iA , pronounced Matin.
Second Present.
_OOf I may be finishing (m.). , , , ,
." , £OaJ&9 <%00f 1st plural.
1st fern.
2nd masc. ,,
XaJbAa ^OIUOCT 2nd plural. 2nd fern.
3rd masc. , ,.
%tt*AS wOOT 3rd plural.
Z-OCT 3rd fern.
42
This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary, etc., to the present participle.
Imperfect Tense.
ZOOT ^JO XS I might finish (m.).
O'OCT &l'*£ 1st plural. 1st fern.
2nd masc. ,r ^ ,,
OOC7 ^OYLhOaJa 2nd plural. 2nd fem.
3rd masc. » ,
OOCT uhDatS 3rd plural.
3rd fem. With ZA or k-1 prefixed, this tense denotes a past action
'' ' I A' •* ' * *i
habitually performed, e. g. ISkAV^ iocf kdxa ia Tze was in
the habit of finishing quickly. So too with Z^, the idea being expressed negatively.
Perfect Tense.
? ft >TbS ^OCf 1st plural. 1st fem. '' '
2nd masc. , . ,
? K .1^0 ^oxVrfOOf 2nd plural. 2nd fem.
ZOOT 3rd masc.
7 ft >\ ^ t* 007 3rd plural. %,0 ,V^ Z-007 3rd fem.
This is formed by prefixing the auxiliary, fc-ocf, etc. to the perfect participle.
Pluperfect Tense.
™-ve
!* A-. '
2nd masc. , ,, ' 2d
8»dfem. ^ 00er ** ' °* P*"*
3rd masc. ., ,
xtJLa^ obor «ocr D;;rrdal
fler X^OOf 3rd fern. '' '
This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary, etc. to the perfect participle.
IMPERATIVE MOOD. Finish thou (masc.).
Finish ye. Finish thou (fern.).
The imperative is formed by inserting o between the sec- ond and third radicals, and giving the plural its appropriate termination.
NOTE 1. — Sometimes we have the following imperative : uOOT
XBJ&9 be finishing, and the plural lbj&3 ^ObBOOf; but this a n |i
is not common.
NOTE 2. — When the middle radical is 9, it is not ordinarily pro- nounced in the imperative ; e.g. bOOAX, pronounced shook. When the middle or final radical is O , to avoid the coming together of two
O's, one is omitted in writing, e. g. the imperative of hV^Ji^is kVj^V ;
t ', it *"**»*
of 0X1 it is oVl , etc.
»v . »>
VERB WITH THE NEGATIVE PARTICLE iS OR i^.
i1
Only the first person singular of each tense will be given, as the other persons can be easily supplied by the learner. As every verb in the language makes its negative form pre-
44
cisely like t£x£, the subject need not be alluded to here- after.
I am not finishing. ZoCf »_Qw Z-^ I was not finishing.
\ I did not finish.
>A.i 1^ I have not finished.
Z0C7 |ual lik I had not finished.
,<
^ I shall not finish.
i»
I did not finish.
NOTE 1. — For the pronunciation of the imperfect and pluperfect tenses, see previous remarks on the elision of OM. Thus, the imper- fect is pronounced leyin wa bipraka, and the pluperfect leyin wa preka.
NOTE 2. — It will he noticed that the future, in taking the negative,
drops its preformative &3. Sometimes, however, t<Bx£ "•* ^ is used as an emphatic future, e. g. tXtt? 1X3 Z-^O ^^ T13 1\ neither will I come, nor will I eat.
NOTE 3. — The proper negative of ^,0X3 ^3Ld is given above, hut
hOl^ 1^ pLd is allowable.
' 4$
NOTE 4. — The subjunctive takes i^ before its different tenses, •which are not inverted. Vulgar usage sometimes employs i^ in-
1S, f
stead of £j> with the subjunctive.
NOTE 5. — Though the inversion of the present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect indicative, as a general rule, takes place only with the particle i\. sometimes the inversion takes place without that parti-
cle. For example, i /?\\<V''1 Vuo^ u»30>aoJJ why are you going out?
VERBS USED INTERROGATIVELY.
The verb (as in English and French) takes no new forms in an interrogative sentence ; and the interrogation is known only by the inflection of the voice or the sign i placed at the end of the sentence,
45
PASSIVE VOICE.
This will be most advantageously considered, after we finish the paradigms of the Active Voice.
VERBS OF THE FIRST CLASS CONJUGATED LIKE
ttk*.
It is to be understood that when a verb is marked "1 or 2," the verb is either of the first or second class, its signifi- cation remaining unchanged. On the other hand, " 1 and 2" denotes that the verb is conjugated in both methods, but with a change of signification.
It is not to be presumed that all the regular verbs of the first class are given here, or that any of the following lists are complete. An effort has, however, been made to collect as many of the verbs in common use as possible.
Although one meaning is placed opposite to each verbal root, this is by no means a dictionary. Frequently a verb is used in four or five or more significations. Only one, or at the most two of these are noted down.
to become lean, to thrive. 1 and 2. A3b9 to be scattered. 1 and 2.
dO9O to scatter (seed). 1 or 2.
5 to be or become useless I or idle. 1 and 2.
to conceive.
< to be pressed (with busi- \ ness).
to bruise, crush.
to be defloured. 1 and 2. to diminish (intr.). 1 and 2.
to dry (intr.). to kneel.
to lighten (flash).
5 to be or become cooked. ) land 2.
to fashion ; mingle.
J'
to braid.
to blaspheme. 1 or 2. to stack up. to move (intr.).
46
f to circumcise. k9f to buy.
(to laugh. The present is
] x % tA3f to struggle (in fight).
( generally tAw ?-^rti>^f.
to conquer. ^~* to °PPress-
to lose the bark. 1 and 2. \*9 to fil1 (to &e brim)-
to full (cloth). ^?f to look sullen.
to grasp firmly, wring. **ff lo sing-
to steal. *J3f to weave, knit
to snatch. f *f to become ready. 1 and 2.
4 * to efface, scrape off. ^?* to scratch (as a board)-
t0 S'rip °,ff ^S leaves)' be ^»f to scratch (with the nails). stripped off. /»
to slip. ^f to rise (as the sun).
to grind (in a hand-mill). , , to mjXj confuse (fc and
^ to shovel off, sweep away v » i mtr.).
(as a river). ^^ to COIlfine) shut up>
to slide. , '' ,
bjArf* to start (with fear). to draw.
to walk (around).
to sacrifice. 30t>*« to become white.
to seize or hold. 3tS,** to pound, to beat.
to lock, to bar. AJ>^^ to milk.
• //
4. i. *
to thresh. i\y\*« to err.
to lie down, to sleep. ^Ut** to dream.
d to leak (as a roof). 1 or 2. t£i^»*» to change (intr.).
to be seared. 1 and 2. ^il \ *\ £™™ > t0 6SCaPe' to touch. J3Lj»^< to lock ; to set (as fruit).
to argue. >J.SOU» to bear, to be patient
to
47
be or become sour. i*1 > Vi to ask for.
XV> X| to sink down. 1 and 2. tXtttdL to dip (tr. and intr.). to drive away, to beat up (as eggs).
t0and°intrfOWn'etC'
f XTM
\.
to prohibit, keep back.
to wean.
to be deficient.
to embrace.
to dig.
to reap.
to honor, praise.
to spoil (intr.).
to expend. 1 or 2.
to arrange in order.
to scoop out.
to be singed. 1 and 2.
to grin.
to be or become sharp.
to think.
to be worthy.
to thresh, pound up.
to seal.
to be boastful.
to crush, break in pieces, to grind.
J_^
/ „
to grow fat.
to thrust in.
< to migrate, remove from ( place to place.
to anoint, to paint (as eyes).
to be or become faint >^j»A to seize by violence. >iA.Vft to split
to be or become mature.
to sweep.
to prune (vines). \&A to fold. See iSAk
to be or become hungry.
to deny (as one's religion).
to be or become angry. 9 XSk to thrust through.
to climb.
to be evident
to write.
to tie a knot
to flash.
to put on (clothes).
to be fitting.
to beckon, wink, etc.
to lick.
.y K^ S to Peck up (food) ; to em- l broider.
to mix (liquids).
to be found. 1 and 2.
to be or become meek.
to pluck.
to rub off skin, to be bald.
to be or become bitter.
to scour, to be polished. '"*M to anoint iriJiUO to stretch out.
to tell a parable. 1 or 2.
to bark (as a dog).
to reprove.
to hew.
to vow.
to pine away.
to shy (as a horse).
to abstain from meat, etc.
to sift.
to be or become ashamed. A V[1 to drop (as water), to keep, to pull or root out.
to blow (with the mouth).
to fall.
^.Sa to shake (as clothes). tSkfci to plant XdLl to be slender or thin. &CX& to peck. i^tti to peck at
to drive (a nail).
to paint 1 or 2.
to skin.
to drain off (tr. and intr.).
to kiss.
to make an onset a*tU to fall (as leaves).
to trust
to worship.
to fill up (tr. and intr.).
to be or become quiet
49
)S»X3
»,&&
to plunder. to redden, blush. XVJCD to support, prop. to need.
to become empty. 1 and2. to Wait
to be or become weary of. . . *d to be beautiful, land 2.
to reproach.
to deny.
to bolt (as flour).
to scratch, trace.
to suck in.
to comb.
to undo, pull down.
to do. to pass. to spin.
See under to be baptized. to dwei|
to dig out to flee.
A &
^i a
to reflect. 1 or 2. to open out, become flat to be or become crooked. j to work" Present^ parti- ( ciple may be .HjujV!^.
to£°out- land2- to be crookedj deceitfuL
to fight to exuit
to command. 1 or 2. to blosgom>
to flee (ag gleep>
to fly.
to tear, wear out to TOb uge friction>
toburstout, tomake burst. to cut
p. 63.
XdLi
n" mtr.). to separate (tr. and intr.).
to rend. 1 or 2.
to stretch (out).
5 *» ^2°r become sorry-
^ to be or become straight ^1 and 2.
to melt (intr.). 1 and 2. to open.
50
to wind (tr. and intr.).
to scorch, as food (intr.). to squat
to be or become mad.
-.
M to string (as peppers).
to receive. 1 or 2.
\J3LB to complain.
//
. * a>SlD to bury.
to joint together.
5 to be or become holy. I 1 and 2.
$ to put on (the outer gar- \ ment).
'V\n to km.
to gather (grapes), to turn aside.
to lose tbe bark (as a tree), 1 and 2.
to tremble, to stone, to be numb. M*O9k to be broad. >^i.i<a> to run.
to have mercy on. I or 2.
to be far.
( to ride. Future some-
• •* •
( times kAt33 P*3 . ^ // • «
to be or become soft, to kick, stamp. X03 to dance.
•6
to delineate, to boil.
to let, let go. to C0nfuse, to be confused. 3<XX to leap.
"
to be or become warm. to spread out to pluck.
to be crushed, to crush.
w
. *
•\ »*^M to twist
to pinch.
to be wrinkled or puckered.
to fold. 1 or *
«99J9 to partake of the sacrament AjJt to be dislocated. 1 and 2. • // "
A *-** to bite. hBLXX to be parboiled. 1 and 2.
^bXO to win ; to overlay. iJL, V\X to break.
// «
MXO to sweep, rake. 1 and 2. M»flJt to overflow (intr.). 1 and 2.
"T
\9 //
51
to be or become palsied. >fV\X to perish. 1 and 2. to level. I or 2. t&JiX to perish, be lost 1 and 2.
to be pleasing to. u*^X to spill (intr.). 1 and 2.
to take. *&\ to mould or be mouldy.
^»
^^ to meet'
TL^X to sneeze. a
i '
JkBX to weigh (tr.). uk^X to be reformed. 1 and 2. 33 X to crumb up. ^3X to be mended. 1 and 2. to be buttoned. 1 and 2.
to sag down.
4h9Jt to partake. 1 or 2. t,D\t to eat out
to transplant 1 or 2.
to be or become silent
to be or become numb.
to break. " f >(0>tiX to thrust
" , XftX to remember.
to fall down (as a wall).
to be or become thick. to wither (intr.). to press out (juice).
NOTE. — Some verbs of four radicals are included in the above list, as they are in every respect regular, except that the second radical takes -J- in preference to — (according to the analogy of the ancient language) in the present participle. Thus we have
.^%*4^riri*T dreaming, ? %v tTi^i^f withering, ^V^^*** press-
i a t, i t. " * ' "
ing out.
CLASS II. REGULAR VERB.
Verbs of the first class are very often intransitive. On the other hand, the majority of verbs of the second class are transitive. A number of verbs, which, when conjugated according to the first class, are intransitive, when conjugated according to the second class, become transitive. For ex-
52
ample, >!^\fc , if it conform to the preceding paradigm, de- notes to go out; but if it conform to the following paradigm, to bring out or to cause to come out. The same is true of J39L& : when conjugated as a verb of the second class, it denotes to finish, in a transitive sense, or to save.
It is, however, to be remarked that a few verbs are used indifferently as verbs of the first or second class, without any change of signification. Thus XttL^ , following either paradigm, is transitive, and means to command. More rarely a verb is intransitive in either conjugation, as tA\3 to leak,
which is properly of the first class, but used in some dis- tricts as if of the second class.
Verbs of the second class have regularly three radicals. A to is prefixed to the root in all its inflections by the peo- ple of Tiary, Tekhoma, Nochea, and the western slopes of the Koordish mountains, but is not heard on the plain of Oroomiah. It has been for a number of years omitted in our books.
The rules for the formation of compound tenses being the same in all verbs, it is unnecessary to repeat them. The two conjugations do not differ in this respect, but in the form of the infinitive, the participles, the preterite, and the imperative.
To form the present participle from the root, the first radical takes -^- when the root has -*• , and -r when the
root has -J-. If -?- is the first vowel, O is inserted after the the second radical ; and when -f- is the first vowel, * is in- serted. The third radical takes — with final i. We will again take hOatS as the model.
INFINITIVE Ooa to save.
t
Present Participle. Perfect Participle.
saving. X0aa4, 3s-030b£ having saved.
53
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
I am saving (in.). , i f
*A^ iOOXS 1st plural. 1st fern.
2nd masc. f ,
»^*V^ lO&a 2nd plural. 2nd fern.
3rd masc. . , ,
ti* XflOXS 3rd plural. 3rd fern.
Imperfect Tense.
OOCf Kjfi XdOX 1st plural. I was saving (f.). •'
2nd masc. x ^ , , ,
OOCT ^iC JJSOaJ^ 2nd plural. 2nd fern. ''
3rd masc. , • , f
OOCT JJSOaJa 3rd plural. 3rd fern.
The same elision takes place which has been repeatedly noticed. We are to pronounce parookin wa, etc. Notice this in the pluperfect.
Preterite Tense.
I saved (m.). kX03a4 1st plural.
^ i a i
2nd masc.
+*•** VOaO^ 2nd plural. 2nd fern. " '
3rd masc.
^ok03&^ 3rd plural.
3rd fern.
// i
This is formed like the corresponding tense in verbs of the first class, except that o is inserted after the first radical.
$4
Perfect Tense.
« * • A.
>L030h9 I have saved (m.).
44^ Ufto4 1st plural. 1st fern. ' '
2nd masc. ,,
»£"•* 2-OaoS 2nd plural. 2nd fern.
3rd masc.
£l* UfeOJd 3rd plural.
3^03*4 3rd fern. '' '
n i
The perfect participle is formed by inserting o after the first radical, and giving the last radical the vowel -*- with final 2 .
NOTE. — In some cases, -JT is inserted between the second and third radicals, as, for instance, ?V •-**** having envied. This vowel
always appears in the feminine participle.
When the root takes —'— instead of — , the perfect participle, with scarcely an exception, takes this — between the second and third radicals, and the same vowel appears also in the future ; as
^V»n*J *\3 / will envy. By inspecting the catalogue of verbs of
this class, it will be seen that this usage is founded on the principles of euphony. For example, verbs whose second and third radicals are the same, take this vowel ; and also verbs whose middle radical is O .
If it should be objected that J3OX to repent, and similar verbs, with
radical O, have -*- in the root and — in the perfect participle, it may replied, that, although -*- is written in accordance with the rules of the ancient language (Hoff. § 12, 1), the sound is that of
-;-. Thus 90^, tVof.
U II
Pluperfect Tense.
1^8^ ,
O O OT <-flJ Ufa 0£ 1st plural. 1st fern. '' '
2nd masc. , ,.
ObOT ^OIX- XflaOJS 2nd plural. 2nd fern. '' '
3rd masc.
OOOr XOaO^ 3rd plural. 3rd fern. " '
Future Tense. I will save (m.). ^9X9 ^\3 1st plural.
This is inflected like the corresponding tense of the first class. Those verbs, however, which have -,'- in the root, or -- in the perfect participle, have the same vowels here also ;
e. g. 39£0 to return (tr.), cause to turn, has its perfect par- ticiple 2a?0to, and its future Jfr» *Xia.
Second Future Tense.
1st fern. •' ' 7
2nd masc.
Z
2nd fern.
3rd masc.
X 3rd fern. '' '
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. I may save (m.). AQ\& 1st plural.
This is inflected like the corresponding tense of the first class, and takes -J-, as well as — -, between the second and third radicals, whenever the future takes them.
Second Present Tense.
' * ''A ''
A0OX3 uttCf I may be saving (m.). ' "
AAOT 1st plural. 1st fern.
2nd masc. , .
XOOXS ^ftlUftCT 2nd plural,
XBOX3 wlUOOf 2nd fern.
X00X9 JjftCT 3rd masc. , ,
''( , , '' , )LDokS MOOT 3rd plural.
2430X9 J-OCf 3rd fern. '' '
Imperfect Tense. I might save (in. i. obc/ ^3X9 1st plural.
This is inflected like the corresponding tense of the first class. Like the present tense, its vowels depend on the vowels of the future, to which they always conform.
Perfect Tense.
Z0*04 fcOCT 1st plural. 3OS <-»OCT 1st fern. •' '
2nd masc.
Ifl^Oja ^bn-OCf 2nd plural. 2nd fern. '' '
3rd masc.
UOZOA 4-OC7 3rd plural. 3rd fern.
Pluperfect Tense.
1st fern. 2nd masc. T 2nd fern. " 3rd masc.
oooy MOOT
X^OOT 3rd fern. " '
IMPERATIVE MOOD. M*\A save thou (m.). *.
'It i °r . * I save ye'
> »id 9^1? save thou (f.). ^OkMLOXS j
It is to be particularly noted that the verbs marked i in the following table make the plural imperative by simply
adding *jO to the singular. Thus, ^\*»3 envy ye, ^BftV.
57
answer ye, etc. The second form given above, ,oJ
may be used with other verbs, but is not so common, and is now omitted in our books. iV*lt^ forms its imperative plural thus : %j>V'tV^, .
VERBS OF THE SECOND CLASS CONJUGATED LIKE
NOTE. — r, following a verb, shows that it conforms in every re- spect to >fl^^ ; i, that it takes —'— in the present participle, — in
the perfect participle, etc. Verbs are not repeated in this table which are used as verbs of either class, without a change of signifi- cation, and which have been given already in the first table.
to strip off bark, r to spy out. i to tempt r to wallow, i to be dizzy, t
to cultivate, r 3X3 to scatter (tr.). r
m I
to glean, t to envy, i to search, r
\ V) *1 to render vain or idle, r J3LxX,to look, r
t
to heal, r
to deflour. r to degrade (tr.). r to ask a question, r <?X3 to bless, r
to support, nourish, r to lie. r to sear, r
to cook, r
to do skilfully, r
to wrangle, r to answer, t
to provoke, t to make ready, r to help, i
H I
to believe, i to beget, r
68
to sell, r to join, i
to disturb, be disturbed, i
to defile, or become defiled, "* ^ with milk, etc., during fast, i
• $
f 3f to prepare, r
to incite, r
to become cold, r
to ask after one's health, r
YIX** to renew, i
• *
to rule, r
to wash, i // i
h^M* to be or make strong, i ** >
to escape, r to singe, r
to play, r and t to indulge, i to bury, r
to drive away, r to hem ; to brush up. r 9hA to roll up. r
rto carry (away), r i^* 1 This root is also •^**^ ,
to blot t
to find time ; to supply, r
to return (tr.). i
to love, i
to heat (tr.). i
to find, r
to blacken (tr.). i
to cover, shut r
to bow (tr.). £
to pay a debt i
to teach, r
to smell, i
to nurse, t
^AJBOiO to apply (attention), t // /
2
hflUQMa to cause to ascend, r to cool (tr.). i to burn (tr.). r to raise, i to chisel out t to cool (tr.). i to cause to hit. t to lift up. r to kindle (tr.). i to place, r
to raise (the dead), r
59
>ttL9jtP to empty (tr.). r >j>iBUfP to ornament, r to maim, i
to wonder, r
to vex or be vexed, i
to gape, i to atone, r to muse, r to bring out r Mid to cut out r to gaze at r to stretch out. r to translate, r S to chew the cud, to digest.
> ""C to be or become sober. to refine, i
i>T>X to entice, r
«\XX to be or become foolish, i
3 XX to send, r
to long for. i to praise, r to strip, despoil, r to be or become quiet, z to dislocate, r to parboil, r
X to perform a burial service.r to be or become peaceful, i to make overflow, r
f XX to be acquainted with, i
iiLx }
7 „ / r . . ' f to be partaker, r and z'
X0 to anticipate, r to make holy, r to promise, i to happen, i to look, r to peel, r to squeeze in. i
to glorify, r
to repent i >fVi\X to cause to perish, r to destroy, r to finish. 7 to sigh, r to prop, r to spill, r
ul^X to abandon, r
• j M^X. to make, r
to button, r
60
A verb of four radicals may follow this paradigm, e. g. ? to shed tears ; X being regarded as a quiescent. A few of the above roots beginning with to are really causa-
tives, a weak radical, as. for instance, 2 in the case of ASto ,
// i
having fallen out. The rules for the formation and conju- gation of causatives will be considered hereafter.
IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FIRST CLASS. FIRST VARIETY. FIRST RADICAL i. Root tXftj to eat.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. $Z 3^313 I am eating (m.). 1st fern. 2nd masc.
2nd plural. 2nd fern. ' ''
3rd masc. " U- iJOZS 3rd plural.
3rd fern. ' ''
• f
The only irregularity here is owing to the 2 . This is heard but faintly, if at all, and the — is lengthened to — .
Imperfect Tense.
2JBCT ^ J^aiS I was eating (m.). OOCT . Preterite Tense.
I ate. M>^ We ate.
I •!
Perfect Tense. have eateru "* "^
The perfect participle, by the aid of which this tense is formed, is regular ; but the first radical is silent, as well as in the preterite.
61
Future Tense.
The future tense is regular, and the imperative also, ex- cept that in the latter the 2 is not sounded. It is written
v * ' v ' "i
k^Odf eat Ihou, ^jLAAftj. eat ye.
NOTE. — It will be understood, both in regard to this and the fol- lowing varieties, that those tenses which are not mentioned are per- fectly regular.
LIST OF VERBS WITH INITIAL 2.
to enter. t-f to go. kULflO to go up.
to say. 9JQ9? to bind. *X0£ to cool (intr.).
n a a
The verbs SO? and 9£9J are entirely regular; i. e. they conform to the preceding paradigm. The same is true of Af 4! , except in the future, where \ is for the most part not sounded (see Hoff. § 27, 4, a), and in the imperative, which is If in the singular, and *^£a£f in the plural. Compare the imperative of the same verb in the ancient language, Af , uAf , etc. In the modern, we often hear <joA^f go
" J. ', L » • ' t ('
thou, just as ^Ut JSf in the ancient, and Tlp"^^! in the He- brew. This suffix is used with the imperative of but few verbs; e.g. AvV^, , *±JbJL , ^ax etc. The idiom will be referred to farther on, when the relation of the modern to the ancient verb is discussed.
Future Tense of t-Skf?.
I will go (m.).
^>f?^» 1st plural. 1st fern.
2nd masc.
^OIlAf; 1X3 2nd plural. 2nd fern.
3rd masc.
uj£f{ A3 3rd plural. 3rdfem.
62
NOTE 1. — With a negative preceding, I is not sounded in com- mon conversation (e. g. Mtf j i^), and three syllables are reduced to two.
NOTE 2. — In Bootan, we have the following form of the future, which is well worthy of a place in our grammar, as it throws light on the relation of the ancient to the modern language.
tAf I VlS 1 sing. (m. and f.). i*f I Vl3 1st plural.
f i a
2nd masc.
~ x . ^OAoAf ^ I\3 2nd plural.
f j 119 2nd fern.
//
f t Via 3rd masc. 4.54 "4.
, Af f Vl3 3rd plural. 3rd fern.
NOTE 3. — On the plain of Oroomiah, the verb t&*»!k is generally
4. 5 "
used instead of tJtf jl in all the tenses of the indicative, except the
" s * •
future, and in the imperative. The present tense is ^Ou !?it*«'X3
*• * * X "
(in some villages u&* IX^l'ff ), the preterite »jJt«« , the perfect ^oJZX>~ , and the imperative >3LOb» . This is no doubt the an-
cient *X*»ft to crawl, and, sometimes, to move one'* self. We occa- sionally hear in the mountains the future bX**3 Via. It would have been better to write the preterite »j>X^a, and the perf. part.
>L&***3 , had the thing been originally understood. As to the drop-
' • «t * ^i *t •'
ping of ft, compare ,7*\M with the ancient 2£u», »Su«9 , and the
i1 n i
corresponding words in Hebrew.
In regard to 9UQBJ , JtiJtt*} , and AJO} , there is some ques-
tion whether they should stand here, or be classed with the second variety. If we regard the usage on the plain of Oroomiah only, it would seem that they ought to be con- sidered as verbs with medial 2. The present participle is almost always spoken in this province as if written
;'aJj&3, 3AJM, and ixlfiia, I e. like 2X&9 ; and the futures are often *iv*XD TL9 , ^flUHD T13, ^tn,6 Ad , i. e. like
63
^t >H 'fcva. On the other hand, the usage in Koordistan makes them regular verbs with initial 2 , like t^»a? . The ancient root of xtti is also xfit)^ . We have therefore pre- ferred to class them here. It should not be unnoticed that when .JvJQO Via, etc. are not used in Oroomiah as the fu- tures of these verbs, we have instead «^>ftu *13 , ^ttta > iia ,
etc.
SECOND VARIETY. MIDDLE RADICAL 2 or •*.
The middle radical in this variety inclines sometimes to 2, and sometimes, especially in Koordistan, to the sound of * . (See HoflF. § 33, 3, 5.) Nordheimer is probably correct in saying (§ 397), in regard to such verbs, that the root prop- erly consists of two strong immutable consonants, in which the fundamental idea of the verb is contained; and that between these a weak letter is inserted to complete the usual form. This falls out often, as will be seen hereafter, in the causative form, and always in the reduplicated form.
For the sake of uniformity the roots are now all written with medial 2.
Take for example Jt>LS to
remain.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
X2$. f x % $ .
Ou* ZX*£» I am remaining (m.). Aft, i ?3t*3J3 We are remaining. n n ^ a
This is regular, if we consider * the middle radical.
Preterite Tense. I remained (m. and i'.). >\3C^ We remained.
Whether the second radical here be called 2 or * , it is not at all sounded, and instead of uS>af>^ or kAjtJ^, we write
Perfect Tense. I have remained (m.). fijbu ?.X*^ We have remained.
64
The participle, which would regularly be 3JJ*»^ or is contracted into >Usu£, the feminine of which is 5j
I w
Future Tense.
^•tfc3 Via I shall remain (m.). f f
" , . <t>.fl A3 1st plural.
^t*£ Zia 1st fem.
V\xj£ Via 2nd masc. ,
^OTUX*^ Via 2nd plural. 2nd fem. '
3rd masc. , «
uti^ Z13 3rd plural. 3rd fem.
The vowel — here forms a diphthong with the following * , excepting in the third singular masculine.
IMPERATIVE MOOD. AAS remain thou. ^OJCJXa remain ye.
Here the middle radical falls out, and we write as above, instead of tXjfli^ or
VERBS FOLLOWING THE ANALOGY OF
to make water. faJU* to sew.
* ~ i
4h>L» to curry (a horse), to judge. / " f
*&\+* to he or become hot to make fine or small. "
. . * • kS2*» to hathe (of females).
3 f Sft to return. »
to look.
to tread.
*
to venture. 9£f to increase. «
a2f to swell. aia to invite.
65
to scratch.
to measure.
to be or become black.
to bow.
to be alienated.
to be paid (an account).
to curse, to blame, to make dough.
to suck (the breast). to die.
M»}Jl to rest < to nod.
to sting, to bite.
to be or become old. to ordain.
to weed.
to be or become narrow.
to be or become cool, to lose the savor.
to dawn.
t° hunt or fish. to fast.
to drain off (intr.). to listen to, to obey.
to fade (as grass).
to rise. (Imp. ^DObO .) a i
M^O to bruise or become bruised.
• £
3X0 to chisel out. X.LO to hit
,.* >»f a to be high, to rise.
to sprinkle. to spit
to go down (as a swelling). to rub. to long for.
to kindle-
to fasten ^ eyeg>
to finish (tr. and intr.). to come to one's self.
a^> is almost always on the plain of Oroomiah pro- nounced in the present as if written fcl*3. In some dis- tricts it is regular.
66
to be worth, as spoken, is quite anomalous. The present participle is Z*3t^3; the preterite, »V*t^; the per- fect participle, l*f\j ; the future, t^3\ *X\a , ^»n^ 'ha ; the
imperative, tSojL.
• / '
has its future often, perhaps generally, irregular: . In the third person singular masculine, it has aX* *\3. Its present participle is £5uS.
hO2a has its present participle J-daia, and, were it not for its etymology, might be classed with verbs with initial 2 . Its future is also sometimes h
VEEBS WITH MEDIAL X.
Under this variety may properly come verbs with medial X . They differ somewhat, but not essentially, from the preced- ing. Take, for example, t*^*\i to thrust in. The present participle is j^>Vi\,*t (a) or 3e^\i*1 (£>). The preterite is ^£j»^^r ; the future, ^>*ASy ; the imperative, gfti^, . Some of these verbs have two forms of the present participle, marked (a & Z>), some only one. In Koordistan, the future is not «*jj£3 T13 , but
Like ^>V, , inflect
a to sweat (a & 5). 9^3 to hew (a & b). i^Xa to tremble (&). * HI, a
to taste (a & b). ^&JkA to shut (a). tXXa to rouse (b). tobear(«&i). JQX^ \ *[%$** ±±* to cough (a & b). to fold (a). *** to darn(a).
THIRD VARIETT.
This variety is characterized by the transposition of * , which is sometimes the first and sometimes the second radical.
Example, i?VV> to kam.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. hdOu V£u^9 I am learning (in.). <jO-» >Lau>J>S We are learning.
It will be seen that this tense is perfectly regular, except that - becomes the second, instead of the first, radical.
Preterite Tense.
»j>jSA>.T I learned (m.). AAjt.^ We learned.
i a ^ i a
Here - becomes again the first radical, and is silent.
Perfect Tense.
I have learned (m.). , ,
^Du ,7ft, >V . We have learned.
I have learned (f.). i
The only irregularity is that the first - is not sounded. Future Tense.
>AV,» Vl3 I shall learn (mA <jVVi ^3 We shall learn. ^ a a ^> a
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Learn thou. ^OJOJk Learn ye.
It will be seen that the ^ is not sounded here.
NOTE. — In some villages, and perhaps districts, the future is spoken
like the future of verbs with medial 2 or .» : thus, h^fji nSt , etc.
^ « «
If this were generally the case, we should with propriety call this
one of that class of verbs, its root being ^?^ , its present partici- ple, preterite, and perfect participle, being written like the correspond- ing forms of tXZ^ . Indeed, there is no special objection to writing them so now, and considering the future irregular, as generally spo-
ken. We should then have the preterite tuVaul , and the perfect
k V "
participle £au^. These remarks apply also to the verbs which
follow.
68
to bring forth (young). ^X* to lengthen or be long,
to hasten. *XX* to inherit
to be distressed. £ITL» to sit
«
to burn.
FOURTH VARIETY. THIRD RADICAL 2. Example, Ja» to pour.
INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense.
-*•* '' ' .*•*
2-»99t9 I am pouring (m.). <«OM >L»3X9 We are pouring. i> * a ' a
This tense is regular, with the exception that, two alephs
** 4m
coming together, as in 22a&9, according to the analogy of the ancient language, 2 is changed into .. .
Preterite Tense. u^ft9 I poured (m. and f.). t^3A We poured.
I !>' V I l>
The radical 2, when it becomes a medial instead of a final letter, as in this tense, ought, according to the analogy of
the ancient language (see Hoff., paradigm of J^^), to be changed into *. This, however, is not the case. The 2 serves merely to lengthen the preceding — into — , and, being itself not heard, is not written. Thus, instead of
we have uAaa .
i f
Perfect Tense.
''*
I have poured (m.).
4^Ota* X*S? We have poured. I have poured (f.). •' "'
Instead of the regular perfect participle, which would be , the first and second radicals take — and form one syllable, the 2 being changed into * , as in the present par- ticiple.
69
Future Tense.
* '' L- »^? *X3 I will pour (m.). m, s
<oa iXfl We will pour. ^»39 Xia I will pour (f.).
The first syllable of this tense, in the masculine singular and the plural, is simple, not including the second radical ; and the third radical 2 is dropped, except in the third per-
• f
son singular masculine, 2aa , where it appears as the final letter. In the feminine, 2 is changed into - .
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
This is quite irregular, making hBX& the standard ; but in the singular it is exactly like the ancient. In the singu- lar, 2 becomes - ; and in the plural, it is dropped:
* I m
u*39 Pour thou. *^£B3ft Pour ye.
'
VERBS FOLLOWING THE ANALOGY OF
As a number of these verbs are both of the first and sec- ond class, they are noted here just as in the table of regular verbs of the first class.
29J9 to rave, talk wildly. JoA^ to vomit.
"i* i1
,? V*1 to weep. J^V. to flow (out).
i1 i1 t,
^3towear(out)(tr.andintr.). , c to be or become pure. 1
*7- I and 2. to build, to count ,
to resemble. 1 and 2.
to create.
f
IflCT to become. to foam up. 1 and 2. '' f
i*0 to be pleasant to. to beg, be a beggar.
< to
C
to be or become naked. ^ iQ crack (ag glasg) (i
£111 u &+ |i i
2
to lean (down). llf to commit adultery.
70
? iiio
to rejoice.
to see.
to sin.
to be or become sweet
to keep (intr.). 1 and 2.
to be supported (by).
to incubate.
to go to stool
to broil (intr.). 1 and 2. to sleep.
to drive (an animal). Z&^fe to be or become hid. land 2. >' ^
»' «. m.
to be seared. 1 and 2. to stop.
to go out (as fire).
4. 5 to be or become covered. I land 2.
to be or become short
_,£ $ to be or become covered. t I land.2.
?SLT to lap up.
to devour greedily, to lap (reg.).'
to strike, to arrive.
to fill (tr. and intr.).
^
same as ivS , to count i1
to wash (clothes). to be able. to wipe.
to leap. to butt to forget.
to bathe.
to dart
to be or become blind (reg.).
to hate.
to dip out (as water). 1 and 2.
to be or become bad.
to be difficult 1 and 2. to rain. 1 and 2.
to search after.
to separate (inb-.). 1 and 2.
to be delivered. 1 aad 2.
to burst out
to be lukewarm.
to be or become broad.
71
to descend. 1 and 2. ioi to be or become drunk.
, J.
to pour out, run out.
to rend. JL^a \ to be °r become loose-
^T £ and 2.
• ' to gather (tr. and intr.). iSUt to be like. 1 and 2.
$
to be or become hard. ?ftt to be spread. 1 and 2.
i1
to parch (as corn) (intr.). jVj- to 1 and 2. ,!*'
to scorch (intr.). Zj>X to be or become quiet
i*
to gain. ZvX to faint 1 and 2.
' become loose'
to gripe.
to drink.
(bread).
to call, to read. v
Z-»X to suspend. •>* 5 t° be or become thick or •'
hard- J»X to repeat. 1 and 2.
to be or become weary. ifX to stick (intr.). 1 and 2.
i>
to be pleased with. ?AX to be or become wet
i>
Notes on the Preceding List.
is quite irregular, and, were it not for its derivation, might
perhaps better be written 2cU> . The present participle is i-OU3 ;
* »' » x «
the preterite, wJ^OU ; the perfect participle, X»OJA ; and the future,
The future feminine of this verb is either t^V. *X3 or
,i it. ,- i i' all of which have -'- in the root.
. This is sometimes, though vulgarly, pronounced in the present JM*£&3 , and in the preterite t>\>*» , as if from ^ilSfl
72
to suck. The future, or rather the present subjunctive, with iA pre- ceding (^£&O ZA ), is generally pronounced kamsin.
Those of the preceding verbs which have medial A, make their
perfect participle irregularly, as X*O*d from 7.0>id , except
i i»
the peculiarities of which were noted in the first paradigm.
FIFTH VARIETY. THIRD RADICAL X. Root \*OA to hear.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. I am hearing (in.). {tOw ?»V>>3t3 We are hearing,
'
The present participle is only irregular in this, that the third radical, being a quiescent, coalesces with the preced- ing vowel, and * is then inserted, which takes the final 1 '. We, however, often hear >V^ftS3, and the infinitive ^aaXj>, which should not be considered a vulgarity, as it is nearer the ancient language than the ordinary form.
* Preterite Tense. >AS.»X I beard (m. and f.). \S.«AT We heard.
I H ^ I H
Perfect Tense.
,? > VfHLX I have heard (m.).
^)0h* Z*^OkX We have heard. I have heard (f.).
The perfect participle takes — as the vowel of the first syllable, which includes the second radical. The X is not sounded, and the last syllable is 'jL.
Future Tense.
Afrit Via I shall hear (m.).
AJaflOL TL3 We shall hear, ^Vint 119 I shall hear (f.).
73
The peculiarity of the future consists in this, that the second radical is pronounced as if doubled, the first & be- longing to the first syllable and the second to the second syllable. The X affects the adjacent vowels, but is not sounded separately. This peculiarity is not found through- out Koordistan.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
< . Hear thou. »^MlXSflLX Hear ye.
Like kikMlX , conjugate
to bore (a hole). JkJXl to bubble up.
to swallow.
to be satiated.
to assemble (intr.). land 2. . ^ 1,1 tJ*J>aj to step, march.
to shave. L
bV.BLa to crack (mtr.). // /
• it
to fear. tV'XS to recompense.
a i
to sow. ,
Wk9k* to dye.
"5 • '
to ferment. . -
A\Lff to break off (tr. and intr.).
to sink (intr.). 1 and 2.
to adhere to.
to be sick. Of four radi- « > cals but regular, except ^^X to make a breach. m the root. // ,
Notes on the Preceding List.
in the future feminine follows the paradigm of the fourth variety, thus : ^.?f "3 , ^>^?f "3 . The masculine has not the peculiarity of sound of w^MLX . All the preceding verbs except AjJI , and even this in some districts of Koordistan, may in the same way take + in the future feminine.
VOL. T. 10
74
The perfect participles of >VJU and A3UD have sometimes been written 2*^904 and 3LjA*30JD , to express more exactly the sound ;
but there is not sufficient reason for this deviation.
Some of these verbs with final X are both of the first and second class, and some of the first class only, as noted above.
VERBS OF THE FIRST CLASS DOUBLY IRREGULAR.
One who has made himself familiar with regular verbs of the first class, and the different varieties already given, will have little difficulty in learning the conjugation of those verbs which are doubly irregular.
Some of these have both initial and final 2 .
• • '*
Root * 3J. to curdle.
Present Participle. u2 Preterite,
,. , 2-»32 Perfect Participle. . ". " V Future.
eft) to)
/• Imperative.
•' ^— £ • ' 4._
The future is sometimes w*a «3 masc., M» *US fem. \i i a ^ i a
^4v? to come, is inflected in the same way, except that the imperative is ^X in the singular, and «^9N in the plural. We also occasionally hear <?oA 2x for the imperative sin- gular. The ancient language has the same imperative, the initial 2 being dropped.
In Salmas, Gawar, and perhaps other districts, the root of this word is corrupted into 2-*2 : present participle i**A3 , preterite uJkA, perfect participle %& or I*a2, imperative
• . ' »* ' tf
UA . In Tiary, & is substituted for X throughout the con-
jugation: we thus have iliiS, wJkXJ, etc. Indeed, the
'''''. substitution of & is not confined to this word : e. g.
75
a house, for #fc*S . Moreover, in some places we hear
as the perfect participle, which is quite as near as any form
to the ancient.
Some verbs have initial * and final 2 .
Take for example ZiflL to swear.
f f " f Present Participle. — V^*V Preterite. Perfect Participle.
> Imperative.
Thus conjugate ij« to lament, and iL* to 5«&e. The pres- ent participle of the former is like the first form given, i. e. &*S>*f . that of the latter is like either the first or the second form, i. e. It+^y or J*J^J3. In some parts of Koordis- tan, 2do2 and X&? are the roots, instead of ^Ou and Compare ZB^ and 2-** in the Ancient Syriac.
Somewhat different is the root £t!X* to know.
Present Participle. »J>^X< Preterite.
Per/ecf Participle. * , " {. Future.
u» , ' > Imperative.
*-£*H-) NOTE. — The 3 of the future is pronounced as if double (see the
future of ki*SftX), and in Oroomiah is almost hardened into Xr.
t "
Many of the Nestorians lazily pronounce ^-X* fc-aOJ» what do I
76
know, or how do I know ? mood-yan, there being little, if any, dif- ference, whether the speaker is a man or a woman. This tense is also habitually shortened in other connections by some of the people.
The verb i*.* to live, is perhaps more regular in the mod- ern than in the ancient language (Hoff. § 76, Ann. 1), but has some peculiarities. It is thus inflected :
Present Participle.
Perfect Participle.
UM» ]
Imperative.
$ i
Like the preceding, inflect 1+fB to make a fence; 2*0 to be
set on edge (as the teeth) ; the latter regular, except the -',-. The verb )V^i to search after, has been generally written in accordance with the usage in Koordistan, and is inflected as follows :
Present Participle. »S>S>V, Preterite.
i a '
Perfect Participle. " Future. -
> Imperative.
This, however, is very unlike the usage in Oroomiah. As here spoken, it is an anomalous verb of the second class, and is thus inflected : present participle ^flA^, (or r) ; preterite »SftS»fty,; perf. participle >?i»S>fl>V^ ,
future »-&6jL ^Cia , ^ftSiVb, Via ; imperative
There are a few verbs of four radicals, besides those enu- merated with regular verbs, which in general conform to the verbs of the first class.
Take for example X»CT^ to thirst. •' -T
Present Participle. u^Cf^ Preterite.
Perfect Participle. " \ Future.
}
> Imperative.
j
x » x 4*
Like 2-»Cffr*, inflect 2-*cj^ to /to;me. i> -* i' »
i
As another example take i*i*3 to ms/L
.' i
i Present Participle. u»jt^h9 Preterite.
Perfect Participle. ", ', " Future.
v Imperative. )
A
Thus inflect Z*^J< to ^^«^; ^*^*^ to become smooth, Z*^5o to
•• '* * i1 / »» i1 »
churn, i*Xa to graze, and Z*^Jt to plaster. i' i i' i
In regard to i*^9 , it may be remarked that, while the present participle, as used in Koordistan, conforms to the preceding paradigm, on the plain of Oroomiah we generally hear it thus :
As another example we may take 2-»2 to be or become
i> >» iveary.
78
Present Participle. tr>S?V^ Preterite.
i ,< t,
^O\a)
, X*2-V. Perfect Participle. " '* "[Future.
' * Ja
v <
-)
> Imperative.
The root *A3of-» to gwe, like its predecessor *30%* in the Ancient Syriac (HofF. § 73, Ann. 4, and § 80), is singularly irregular. Being in constant use, it should, however, be made very familiar.
4
Present Participle. uuk3cV* Preterite.
Perfect Participle. ", ^ , " \ Future.
', V Imperative.
It should be remarked that the perfect participle resem- bles the perfect participles of the second class rather than those of the first, and the preterite is often pronounced as
if written >*j>3gfrOu. In some districts the preterite is
IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND CLASS. FIRST VARIETY. FOUR RADICALS.
Verbs of four radicals are far more common in the Mod- ern Syriac than in the Ancient or the Hebrew. Many of these, however, are produced by a reduplication of biliteral or triliteral roots, and are exceedingly expressive. The idea
is often that of repetition, as in iM^»V^ to bruise in pieces, to trample, tX&Utto to grope, X^xS to whirl,
79
to creep, and numerous others. Still ofteuer, per- haps, the idea is that of repeated sound, as in acfSOT to roar ivith laughter, AoAo to tya^, X«*XM to snore, k&JB>&JQ to cluck.
The second radical is included in the first syllable of the root, as well as of all its inflections.
As an example, take /tfttocf to speak.
INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense.
1st masculine. , <'• "j •• :
*flJ 2*0ft*90r 1st plural. 1st fern. •' ' '
2nd masc. , ^ (
»^*\^ 2£BO4bOC7 2nd plural. 2nd fern. •' '
3rd masc. f x ,
'* ' Z&* >LS0Att90T 3rd plural.
ZMOttOCT 3rd fern.
The present participle has -'- as the vowel of the first syllable, with its corresponding A in the second.
Preterite.
ti I spoke. kJk^94b9OC7 We spoke.
This differs from >*J>.daoJ^ only in having one consonant more in the first syllable, rendering it a mixed syllable. , Perfect.
w iJDtoDOC7 1 have spoken (m.). , x
^OM jMAiDOOf We have spoken,
I have spoken (f.). /< »
Future.
w» te8 OT A3 I shall speak (m.). ^Ott90T A3 We shall speak. ^ a a i a ^ // » «
Imperative. • ii
Speak thou. ^O£0£0CT Speak ye.
80
Like
a
to be bashful.
* f 3* to become cheap.
* // i
to delay (tr. and intr.). n i
L jLi ' . A.3A.3 to creep.
** " * '
^ to enlighten, to become
i light.
,
to prick.
, inflect i
>dJL£kX to foam up.
//• ;
>TxV to be leprous. ^ a i
^TtA/YA to growl. n i
JQ3kX9kV. to grow. *
to whiz. to
to enlarse or
larged.
^V to grow fat and be antic.
". ', \j*t»S*<i S to make to wallow, to
>jJ3Lj>*1 to confuse or be confused. •*(. wallow.
to twinkle.
iViift ** to dazzle or be dazzled.
^ // i
9b£&3 to crown. // i
m j
ktk9LbL3 to bubble up.
to scatter (tr. and intr.).
to roar.
to assail.
to stir up.
to make bud, to bud.
to tumble (tr. and intr.). to hum, coo. to abhor (with t£9 ). to rust (tr. and intr.).
to torment or be tor- mented.
, C to make to sing (as quin- tXAJUkx ine does a sick man's " ' ( head), to sing.
$ to be two-sided, ride I tlie fence.
to make trot, to trot.
^ to thin out, become £ sparse.
to shelter, to find shelter. to make or be bloody. to make fine or small. to wound or be wounded.
to pine away.
9 Odd to rock (tr. and intr.). a "
L^li $ to make a clatter (of ;, -, \ words).
^B3A to apply (remedies).
< *'
kMdSI to become late. « ' "
81
to demolish, to neigh.
to laugh aloud. a i
f Of O to buzz, to wail.
to whisper (as the wind).
• "• ' \.--<
3 A3 6 to have a diarrhea.
i JCPOJOO to make whine, to whine.
V M! S to make subject, become
k^^2J0 < i •
vTV " ^ subject. V il < to litter, be littered (as a ^",T» I room, a field, etc.).
to become pale.
to make tinkle, to tinkle.
to tear off, be torn off.
to ring (tr. and intr.).
to swagger.
to batter.
to strut.
to breathe hard.
to make faint, be faint.
to push.
to clasp.
t£f XM to push, to gnaw.
$ to make to gnash, to £ gnash.
to snore.
to reckon.
$ to make to rattle, to ) rattle.
to defile ceremonially or be defiled.
h9>f to make mighty, be mighty. ^// i
*33f to make yellow, be yellow.
. . •
3f 3f to bray. H i
to injure,become injured.
( to wash away, be wash- \ ed away.
^ to excite fever, have \ fever.
11
to crush or be crushed. •VS'Sy to delay (tr, and intr.).
(\l\i to hum.
d V d V f to flicker or make to ^>M\i flicker.
to murmur.
to move (tr. and intr.).
to make heavy, be heavy.
L ( to sputter, to make sput- //T, it, (• ter.
.^1 j to shiver in pieces (tr. 7**^ 1 and intr.).
to arm, to be armed.
^ j to tear in pieces, be torn 1 in pieces.
to throw.
82
Y**^ to parboil, be parboiled. ^ I? to gnaw.
to let down, to sink down. • to tear, be torn.
to chink (intr.).
to swi"g (tr> and intr')- to roll (tr. and intr.).
to toss about
to tingle (as the ear).
to tear (tr. and intr.).
to clap.
to defile, be defiled.
to rattle (in speech).
to scream.
to have mercy.
r^of^gir*6
to wither (tr. and intr.).
to gather up.
5 to wrap in a vail, to wrap ] one's self in a vail.
to scare away.
S* •»>« >i ^ to crack open (as the „ , 1 earth).
to make glitter, to glitter.
to snufT around.
to speak.
lo make lame, be lame.
to make appearj to appear. to abstain from food. to make glitter, to glitter. to freeze (tr. and intr.).
i ^ to make gprout, to sprout. \/T> »
<3SaJk>3 to take a fine. ^77»T
to mock.
to forbear, be reluctant.
to blister.
to borrow or lend on usury.
„ ,
\ffi| A.%* to be lazy. a i
to preach.
to make pant, to pant
XC. to constrain.
to make green, to green.
to make P°or' be P°°r' to rest (tr. and intr.).
t0 reProve' to fix a price.
t0 build*
i to give one a start (on a
I journey).
to listen*
83
^
to be or become hushed. biOu>X to make cloudy, be cloudy.
to cry. wjJBLX to make wise, be wise.
^ H i
to wrangle. t^99bX |
* n i *
5 to cause chills, to have I chills.
to make bold, be bold.
to defile.
to miscarry.
to arrange in order.
to sprinkle.
to growl.
to make ancient, be an- cient
to whisper. to feel after.
Xx, <j j to make stagger, to stag- . ( ger.
to laugh out
( to lay waste, become
to proclaim the gospel.
j to make a Mohammedan \ or become one.
to grope (after). to whistle.
to make to sob, to sob. to groan, to be a stranger, to hesitate.
| to reconcile, become re- 1 conciled.
to visit.
( waste. to beseech.
to undo, destroy.
to whirl (tr. and intr.).
to crumb, be crumbed.
, A
•< maKe to escape, to
\ escape.
to twist (tr. and intr.). to
to gaze.
to pour or flow out.
to make to smart, to smart.
A , ,,.
>>> g^ \ to come down (from
, ( f
to sob from pain. //
father to son).
sA, 9UBD to make totter, to totter. i\)ihi\) IS to cut up, to be cut up.
* a i ~ // ~ i
^aLCPaJCD to stun, be stunned. i\,O^JO to make light, be light
H i H i
9JOOXC9 to scream. >5ittLaLP to cluck.
84
• to wrinkle, be wrinkled. wflXtiJt, to empty out
// »
* -n u • n j n«*n*^to make to clatter, to to wrinkle, be wrinkled. h&XOLX j cjatter
unifjXO to buffet, be buffeted. 9OV3*VX to make proud, be proud. a i n t
• ' mm'
4J3 Xd to make or be ready. 3>T3bX to make spout, to spout
n i n t
OmJOmtJO to caw. ,
" ', *\*H\JV to guide.
>3LOaJJ to gather up. " . ',
" J kJQ3U*.>X to pant for breath.
39hXD to venture (intr.). " , !
" \ 9bttUkX to disciple.
>X,dLXg to rattle (as rain). ' " ,'
to whine.
to make tardy, be tardy. to make smoky, be smoky. to sprinkle, be sprinkled. to chastise.
to stamp the foot.
to search.
to make neatly.
to knock.
i- 1 j
C • <•
t0 Crawl>
to brood'
to make thin, be thin.
to tremble violently.
to alter (tr. and intr.). to alter (tr. and intr.). to blacken, become black. to crush in pieces. to soil, be soiled.
*.ii.X \ to shake about (tr" and XT* ,1 mtr.).
to make faint, be faint
to sob.
to glide (as a snake).
to besmear with tallow, be besmeared.
to trim a candle.
( to make stumble, to j stumble.
to make pale, be pale. to stitch together.
Notes on the Preceding List.
As »^OV9 lias a talkana over the Cf, it may be considered as a verb of three radicals, following the paradigm of hBXS* , second class.
and 9Jk3aJ3, though having five radicals, differ so little a i H i
from the preceding model, that they need no special illustration.
^3LS>\X may in some respects be considered as a verb of three radicals, having its perfect participle ZSftJ>^OX, and its future
VERBS OF FOUR RADICALS WITH FINAL 2.
Take for example !? tex * to understand.
3<*O^?SiQ Present Participle. i> i »
In Koordistan, instead of the above, we have i-Oiox As to the substitution of O or .* for 2 , see Hoff. § 33, 3.
ui^OlO^ Preterite. i ,i »
The 2 is here dropped, but lengthens — into — •.
Perfect Participle.
In this participle - is substituted for 2 , and takes, in ad- dition to its own appropriate vowel, the vowel -- .
Future.
Here the 2 is dropped in the masculine singular and in the plural, but .» is substituted for it in the feminine singular, just as in the perfect participle.
', \ Imperative.
aaJH
«' I '
NOTE. — This verb evidently has a relation to the ancient
»
but perhaps a still nearer relation to the Persian f& . In Bootan we hear it thus : present participle, 2£o2&3 ; preterite, inVilfti^ ; perfect participle, ?<ML»,^ ; future, *SQ>& \3 ; ^ having the sound
I ^ It H
off.
86
VERBS INFLECTED LIKE
i> /
» t i i
7*t »*1 to paw, dig into. t&V* to show favor (with
,• i ft
to clean out,becomeclean. ,? VfiJiP to despise.
to howl. JJOOJCP to twitter, to peep.
i' »
to paw into. ^9JkX to deceive.
*• '
to go round, surround. ^f XS to cut up.
to switch, be switched. ^9tS to rinse.
i' i
I
to bedaub, be bedaubed. <•"* to search.
j gutter!11 K°°rdiStan' to roll up or be rolled up.
to long after (with »bO ). iBa^X to snap (tr. and intr.). • i1 •
to plaster. iXaJL to fag out, tire out
i' i
m >
to forget >UCDAX to nourish, be nourished.
NOTE. — ^3hft£a , which is inserted in the above list, does not
f 7, I
differ in pronunciation from the others, which end in 2 instead of X; but the X is retained in writing out the different tenses.
When o is the second radical, from a kind of necessity, one o is dropped in the preterite and perfect participle. Thus, if we take iiObi to beseech, the present participle is 3.00101 ; the preterite, »j>aoa (instead of uJjaooi ) ; the
perfect participle, 2*iO& (for Z*iOa»); the future masculine,
* v_ ' ' . ' * ' * \,»
^104 T13 ; the future feminine, ^*iOi *V3 . From what has
been said in the Orthography, it will be evident why -*- is here used in the present participle, instead of -'- .
Like 2&oi, inflect to chirp. 2*0* | tocae t0
I1
to acknowledge. S.'XteO to mew.
swpa to bleat
'
87
CAUSATIVE VERBS.
"We are now prepared to understand the formation of Causative Verbs. Some of the simple verbs of three radi-
cals already given may be used in a causative sense, as ^**»
to strengthen, or to cause to become strong. Verbs of four radi- cals have still oftener a causative signification ; but the ordinary method of forming causatives is by prefixing io to the three radical letters, and then considering the verb as one of four radicals, and inflecting it accordingly. Thus,
iVyiVf^, when of the first class, means to go out; when of the second class, to put out or bring out; and iV^V'Vyi (which is inflected like ^J*i9C7), to cause to come out.
The verbs which thus form causatives are very numerous, and comprise the majority of those of three radicals in the preceding lists. The mode of formation is quite regular, with the exceptions hereafter to be specified ; and the mean- ing bears in almost all cases a close relation to the meaning of the first root. A few causatives have been placed in the
list of verbs conjugated like ^*S»CT. These are either not used in Oroomiah at all in their simple form, as A-»£>!0 to listen; or the signification of the simple form is much changed, as iVyT'V'p to accompany, or, better, to give a start to (a trav- eller), from >^yt& to stretch out ; or the causative form, as generally used, is neuter : e. g. ^£^9 to appear.
m i NOTE. — k»Xdbo was inserted in the list of verbs inflected like
t J»« /
, with the idea that it was not properly a causative of any verb in the Modern Syriac. But it may be the causative of ~5JQ
s t -^ " '
(a verb of the second class) to squeeze in. Compare 4^X0 in the Ancient Syriac, and V^p in the Hebrew, to tear asunder, "to bite in malice."
When the last radical of the ground-form is 2 , the caus- ative verb follows the conjugation of froa^ instead of
Thus, from Wh3 to weep, we have ?A3UB fo
* i< i
to weep ; and so of a great number of others.
Verbs with final X do not differ in the causative form from verbs with final 2 , except that X is retained in those
tenses where 2 is dropped, and slightly modifies the sound.
# '
Thus from tih£0k& we have ^aax&a , of which the present
a i a i ,
participle is lA±AJO>3tio ; the preterite, uJk6k*aX6£0 ; the
perfect participle, £*^»X.O£9 ; the future, ^.aootii Vl3 (masculine), j+^SAXia n.3 (feminine).
There has been perhaps an unnecessary irregularity in regard to verbs with initial 2. Thus, from wkAJ and ao?, we have >J»a,l!o and AOybo; while from J8UCPJ, AJO}, and x»2 , we have wtilfi3£9 , >Xflba , and x&bo . As 2 is heard very feebly, if at all, it is best, for the sake of uniformity, to drop it altogether, and treat these causatives as verbs of
three radicals, second class. The other verbs with initial 2
, i
have no causative form. The future of aoJLbB, though spelled regularly, is often pronounced morin.
Yerbs with medial 2 of the first class sometimes drop the 2 entirely, as ftlba from ft^f , in which case the causative is inflected like a verb of three radicals, second class. But it
is far more common, at least in Oroomiah, for + to be sub-
i stituted for 2, throughout the conjugation : e.g. ^JtoB, of
which the present participle is jftOMttD. Here the verb is regularly conformed to the paradigm of *p9Hoiff , and no- thing more therefore need be said on the subject.
Verbs with medial X retain the X, and are conjugated like *J*A.
Verbs with initial - , when used as causatives, are quite irregular. AJ>->, XflL, and >3Xi, become respectively > A. vf» , xtt&, *9&£o, and are conjugated like verbs of the
89
second class having three radicals. £IA£o (to place), however,
when it denotes to cause to sit, to locate, retains the * trans-
* * '
posed; thus, »3UAio. >XX* becomes >VVD and will be
noticed farther on. iiflu becomes i&9 JSO or 2£9O£o , the lat- ii ii • i«
ter conforming nearly to the Ancient Syriac. See under i*3hS. *J>xi, *J»-*, fcA**> <«aJ, *l5L», transpose the .» and
ft H ii .» M • / H ii
become respectively i^»!X*> , JU^kao , MM^S , 4*9£0 and
m , a i //<_>«» ^*H i
X*3bSo, and are regular in conjugation.
Z*>x£ to understand, has for its causative ^JxA^a , and is distinguishable from ^tfVAStt to cause to cut, only by a slight difference in pronunciation.
OTHER IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND
CLASS.
VERBS WITH MEDIAL X.
One of these, and perhaps more, is inflected as a verb of the second class, viz. 5*X- to revile.
Present Participle. w30^At» Preterite.
i n i 3»
XXr Vl3 )
Perfect Participle. " 7 " I Future.
, " , }• Imperative.
'
The causative of 9hX» is aA^a to cause to revile.
P res. Participle. b»XSk(*O»tt Preterite.
i >„ •
Per/. Participle. ^ ^T v_ " [• Future. 12
90
VERBS OF THREE RADICALS: THIRD RADICAL 2.
These are mostly inflected as verbs of the first class, but not all of them. As an example of the second class, we
may take ?*Vfl> to deliver.
, Present Participle.
2*£OJQ», Perfect Participle.
Preterite.
"
Future.
Imperative.
In Koordistan the present participle is t*oJ3u8) ; and it is to be understood that in all verbs resembling this, * is there substituted for o .
Like ).^JO, inflect
§ to select, collect 3ftA to cover.
(•
to uncover. Z5aJ> to cover.
. i to make pure.
to liken, to winnow.
to meditate, to spell, to narrate.
to keep (tr.). to broil (tr.). to conceal, to aear.
to weary.
to make alive.
to prophesy>
to render difficult. 25bi to patch.
to divide (tr.). to deliver (from).
Z^ ~ to pray. .' -*
^ t
2-3 r to strain.
91
?
to parch (tr.). ZVX to depart.
to throw. 2 XX to begin.
ZflX to liken. ZiA to tell.
to spread. Z^A. to cause to adhere.
Notes on the Preceding List.
is a causative from Z-*ZV^ to become weary. ?n»fr8 , a caus- ative from Z**» to fo'w, and Z Via are irregular by having •* in
the perfect participle and the future feminine, thus : ; and in the future,
I
If we do not distinguish between Z**^0 in the future
i i' i
and subjunctive and ZJ*£Q to s<rz'A:e, we shall be likely (in prayer,
for instance), when intending to say "0 Lord, revive (or quicken) me !" to say " 0 Lord, strike me !" i^3 in the perfect participle is
•' ' ',+ m
often written as well as pronounced JLSO3.
VERBS OF THREE RADICALS : THIRD RADICAL X .
These verbs, when inflected as verbs of the second class,
do not differ essentially from the paradigm, of verbs with
.»
final 2. For example, A&ftV^ to assemble (transitive).
Preterite.
« r?( Participle. v * <
It will be noticed that X is retained throughout, and that the perfect participle and future feminine singular (in one form) take — as the second vowel.
92
• Like bka&\ inflect ^t&do, a causative from ^aL> to know;
I " t. "ml " • '
Aa>SD to make smooth ; £t9£0 to pasture, from i*Xft to qraze ; "i, ' , ' » > r > ,. , y
and >fr>t*B to cause to plaster, from 3L*^>X to plaster.
HI l> I
The irregular verb 2a2 to curdle, of the first class, has for
• * '' its causative 2aji» , and is thus inflected :
Present Participle. uM^O^O Preterite.
* Perfect Participle. ." ', " [Future.
J
j
Imperative.
^4 ' *
So inflect ZBJia from IS- to 5a&e. The verb ^Mu to swear,
i' i i> t »•
besides the causative £BO£O , already noticed, sometimes
i1 i
makes its causative in the same way. Thus we have i
inflected like
t
The anomalous verb X»Ji9 to cause to come, to bring, which
*' ' • '
is doubtless derived from the ancient 2Au&9 , may also be
classed here. As used on the plain of Oroomiah, it is thus inflected :
i* Present Participle. 7 V >;1.0Jtt Preterite.
Perfect Participle. " ', " \Future.
, \ Imperative.
]
»
As used in Koordistan, its root is %*^9 , which is evi- dently from the Afel form of the ancient verb (Hoff. § 78, 3). It is thus inflected :
J V Present Participle. uJt*lA£0 Preterite.
)
to <3
Perfect Participle. " ', " \ Future.
*» /
, ' " J > Imperative.
)
The irregular verb 2-*O to flame, has 2op^9 for its caus- ative, and is thus, inflected:
Pres. Participle. »«CfrJ>Oi9 Preterite.
i i> i
^etiteVia)
: " A it. " f Future.
'» r Imperative. }
The irregular verb i»iJJ to t^/sA, has 3Vafr9 for its caus- ative.
;.OVO.aao Present Participle. ^^30^9 Preterite.
> H i
Perfect Participle. , "',."}• Future.
1^*3*0 1X3
» K i H '
I V Imperative. «4%* \
^
NOTE. — The verb of existence \*} there is, \* there is not, is
i i
used in the Modern Syriac differently from the idiom of the Ancient. It will be referred to again in the Syntax.
94
c3
^a
CJ
to
OJ
I-3
^^H
fe f-> £ ^ o £1
O b*-
3*1 V7f . •£ *« *)
•« A <$ *5 d
O D ~<J J -O
n ~ >1
a a
a a
a
a a
.i;
*1
1 15
.1
\"^»- \"^
«
^1 " " .3, ^
•5 "A . *^ * «A
a a
I 4 1 1 ^T d'
W.**tflr
51
,3
^:$
§ ,1 1 -^ t -2 .H ^ ^ A
«>4. *^* ». "!> -sii
xv *^i *^»
ci
95
•I
S~
PH
-
\7f J 4.5
«A
mm
\«>* \ t
.n - fj
3
«
-
*•» >
t~4J-~2 «14
Il-Vi.
J'J'J
vf * A -fc -* \
ih
*A »*
J
-"4 *
t .
<i> ' -
CM
S 1 -3 j^3 S-^'I I 3-3.3
i't^.iH-1 1-iJll
1 A £ J •* **•* •«* "** -^ "•*
J -
3
Pret
1
•^
11 -B--X5--J
a -i .3
a n- 5
3
-K--^i-wa
a. Is
a a
97
PASSIVE VOICE.
The Passive Voice, especially as formed by the first method given below, is very little used in the colloquial dialect of the people of Oroomiah. This results probably from the warmth of their feelings, which instinctively prefers a direct mode of expression. Where we should say "You will be delivered," they say "(Such a person) will deliver you;" for "You will be beaten," we generally hear the expression " They will beat you ;" and so in a great number of cases. In the mountains, the passive voice is freely used in conver- sation ; and, as it is employed also in our preaching and our books, it is desirable to become well acquainted with it. This is, however, an easy task.
There are three methods of indicating the passive voice, which will be in turn considered.
Method 1st.
The passive voice of any verb may be formed by prefix- ing to its perfect participle the inflections of the root «*!» ,
in its different moods and tenses. This root properly means to remain; but, when thus employed as an auxiliary, it is equivalent to the verb of existence. Let us take for exam- ample the passive voice of X»*sb to strike, the perfect parti- ciple of which is V**** » ^***^a and the infinitive passive
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. I am struck
(m-)« ^ ^ -^A^ ^«!d We are
1st fern. etruck"
2nd masc. ,. f f
i***S9 ». pri- ,1Xi>i9 2nd plural. 2nd fern.
3rd masc. , ? f
^fciix^O X^* ?*"** 3rd plural. 3rd fern.
13
98
"We have been accustomed to drop the S of the present participle of this auxiliary.
Imperfect Tense.
I was struck
** We were stnlrk
^ 2 d
"
3rd
,^x 3rd
*B fem<
Preterite Tense.
I was struck (m.> ^^ We were
1st fern.
2nd masc. , ...
Z»**» ^.%AVa,a 2nd plural. 2nd fern. '' "
3rd maso. , .
U-.S9 ^aikX^ 3rd plural. 3rd fern. " "
Sometimes woof is used as the auxiliary, and we have
' '' , etc.
Perfect Tense.
I have been
struck (m.). , ^ *, ,^ We have
-iir ^f**T 7 ^T"^ been struck.
1st fern.
2nd masc. ,. ,
i**fc» *0«- 5-3U= 2nd plural.
2nd fem- "
3rd masc.
3rd plural. 3rd fem. " "
99
Pluperfect Tense. I had been
1st fern. •' " _,r t , >
We had been struck.
'2nd mnsc.
2nd fem.
3rd masc.
3rd fem. «' " 0 , •' ' ,
3rd plural.
Future Tense.
&i
In this tense either the future of the verb kXiS or the future of the verb ioof may be employed. The significa- tion in either case is nearly or quite the same.
8ha111,be 7 struck (m.). ^^^ 4k Vg We shall
1st fem. S " be struck-
2nd masc. ,, s
Z<M^9 ^lU&iB 1X3 2nd plural. 2nd fem. '' "
3rd masc. , .
i*-*» «Jt*Bl\a 3rd plural.
3rd fem. '' " '
//
In the same way inflect
NOTE. — There may possibly be, at times, a difference in the significa- tion of these futures, arising from the signification, on the one hand, of kXi^ to remain, and, on the other, of %AC1 to become. Thus :
<3 he will be or continue in a state of holiness.
2OC7 \S he will become sanctified. f »
100
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Here either ^t*9 or »^0f maybe used, as in the future tense. Thus we have, for the present, ZM*^B ^X*a or ?><«"o ^ftCT ;
for the imperfect, V»<*!» £ioc7 ^C»a or 3>«**o iacf «^0f , in a perfectly regular manner.
It is to be particularly observed that, where a verb is used in both the first and second classes, with the same sig- nification, the shade of meaning in the passive will de- pend on which perfect participle is used in its formation.
To illustrate : JS*3 , as a verb of either the first or second class, means to scatter seed, to sow. But >LdL**3 Z**^ means it was sowed or scattered, as if by itself; while J-df OJ3 jjJt^ means it was sowed (by some individual). The signification is sometimes, however, such that this distinction cannot be
kept up ; e. g. jiBuat^ ?Wfl and TJKXSn^ ;\ar£ he was
i i< a i ,' a
grieved or sorry, there being in neither case reference to the agent causing the sorrow. JJMJLB 3AA^ and Z3k30>B JJ*X^ he was received, on the other hand, must both of them indi- rectly refer to the agent.
Where the same word is used in both the first and second classes, with different meanings, of course there is a similar
distinction in the passive ; as, Xl**^X ?S>.t.fl he was lost,
i I* "
he was destroyed,
NOTE. — It has been sometimes supposed that J% >\*1 in the ex- pression j\ »*\*1 3 Vt *i , is a perfect participle. But as <hX9 is of the second class, and such a participle does not belong to verbs of the second class, this expression should be translated, not, he was made blessed, but, he was a blessed individual, ?^ -Si*T being an adjective.
NOTE 2. — Sometimes the verb &T& is used as almost or quite equivalent to the verb of existence, although the perfect participle of
101
* X * ^
another verb is not joined with it. Thus, 4&9 f&* IJLtS I have
^>u > // <
remained in doubt, or / aw in doubt, may be employed wherever
I*OL* A.O3 would be allowable, and vice versa, v«^ ^S,
Method 2nd.
There is a curious form of the passive, in daily use among the people, in which the verb /•!$ to come is employed as an auxiliary, and the infinitive active of another verb is joined with it in a passive sense. We will take for illustra- tion as before the root ?-M.*O to strike.
i'
i->*\ J3 I am struck.
I was being struck. I was struck.
kdOu 3-»*\^ I have been struck. ^ a i
I had been struck. I shall be struck.
The subjunctive so much resembles the indicative, that it need not be written out.
Sometimes this form, especially in Koordistan, is a pas-
$ $ i 4
sive of capability, as, for example, >L»»Vfc\ 2x2 ^ if it can
be struck, i. e. if it come into the position in which it may be struck. This is perhaps the primitive idea of this form. There is, however, another mode in Oroomiah of expressing
the sentiment, viz. : Z**lso %A91 ^ , where >?»*»^3 is used as
I* "
we should use strikable in English, if such a word were
L.% $ 5
allowed. So JJ^PLX ix>07 ^ —if it be takdble. i< //
Method Brd.
4 ^, 5 .
Instead of the form i*—So k»A^ ^36*a , the perfect active H ^ a i
is often used in a passive sense. For the preceding, we thus
s t
have ^Ou i»**io I have been struck. The explanation of this
102
probably is that the perfect participle is passive, as well as active, in its meaning, while ^oJ is merely a verb of exist-
ence, / am .... having been struck. The pluperfect active is also frequently used in the same way for the pluperfect
passive ; thus, JjftOf ^A^ X***£o may signify / had struck, or I had been struck.
VEEBS WITH SUFFIXES.
Although the suffix-pronouns of the Modern Syriac are few and simple, it requires much practice to use them readily and accurately in conversation. It will be desirable there- fore to examine the subject carefully.
The verbal suffixes do not diifer, except in one or two instances, from those used for nouns and prepositions. A list of them has been already given. It will now be shown how these pronouns are suffixed to the verb in its different inflections.
Root ^BJQ*3 to heal.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. ^ A £.ix^Aj»ial I (m«) arn neal"
ingthee(m.).
am heahn "
oJ nf*ftvn>,m>i \ Mm healing ^r* a\ hi
m him.
When the person speaking is a female, we have the same forms as above, except that »^* is throughout substituted for ^*.
£ j Thou (m.) art , , , „,,
3 1 t, i ^» 1 hou art heal-
,M Thou art heal-
I iner him, , , „,,
, mu. n_— iV* *' ..kLZ«.MJ Thouartheal-
ing them.
103
« ' x Here, as before, if the nominative be feminine, uILQu is to
be substituted for
MOJQia$Heisheal- , ,, ~l ing us.
/l thee(rn.).
f is l^al
thee(f.).
him. y
HeishealinS ^ ing them.
If the agent is a female, iifc- is to be substituted for
-7^7- -Jingthee(rn). , ^a^QMa\ We are L .^.X «K<4 ) We are heal- ^C , *~^ 5 healing you.
a}\ngtiiee(f.). L jwiL ( We are heal- ing him. ^_^ ^^m^^Weareheal-
ing them.
croJS90»3<
ing her. &
•*. .^^ Ij.j.i \ ^r^T
$L,
^ ,ng thee (f.).
\ They are heal- «* /. ' _. * ( They are heal-
jing me> U
\They are heal-
f They are heal-
u ! ing them.
ing her.
One who has familiarized himself with the preceding suf- fixes of the present tense, will have no difficulty in using the suffixes with the imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and second future tenses. In every case the suffix is to be joined with the participle, and not with the auxiliary. Take
.
104
* X X ' *
as examples XftCT (A- t*C70£OOJQ&3 / was healing him,
he has healed you, OOCf i« » • . ' , . ' i i
had healed me, 97OJOJCDO3 iocT 113 Ae «n7Z Acwe healed her.
Preterite Tense.
The regular preterite, >>V.'»<T)O3> since its appropriate terminations so much resemble the suffix-pronouns, does not admit of their use except in a single case. In the third person singular masculine we may have cjXiflJBMkS he healed him, Cf being substituted for the terminal 2.
When it is desirable to employ suffixes with the preterite, the form ^OttoS ^3Ld is much used in Oroomiah. While
the suffixes of this tense are, in the main, like those of the present, imperfect, pluperfect, and second future, it takes
in many cases a sliding letter S, and uses for the suffixes of the third person singular Cf , and Cf * , and of the third per- son plural ^ and J&O1 . The future tense follows this form of the preterite in every respect, and so too those tenses of the subjunctive which resemble the future in their form,
except that, where ^ACf is used, the pronoun is placed after it, and always takes the sliding letter ^ .
i.) healed * 1. thee (m.). • _ _ * .^ -_ »i ^ L , , , ,
^L^i ^Li.3^LJ^^^j ^^L^9 I npn Pn vmi
' ' T healed *^Tir T^ ^T
\ l ( tt
thee (f.).
^OJO I healed him. %^4JttU(&3
I V I healed them
^3LD I healed her. i>lVfcfl>*1 *pJB ) (more rarely).
I II I
When the verb has a feminine nominative of the first person singular, we have, instead of the preceding form,
etc.
efahet »* A.\aB>3 /BLO (more rarely).
105
When the agent is a female, the form is »*^ w
i
etc.
He healed me. A ^LttkS *Ld { He nhaealed
^ i a i ' U8<
urf M.M terf M He healed
»A9 XO j thee K). , , , He healed
, ^ ^^ , , '
^OLO ) (mote rarely).
« , * a i '
The form is the same as the preceding, when the nomina-
£ £
tive is the third person singular feminine, >1iftfi>3 being sub- stituted for ^3Lft>3 . "When the verb ia in the plural, whether it be of the first, second, or third person, its suffixes are similar to those of the second and third persons singular ;
tit' V' ' * '
e. g. Oj^t ASOJB&3 '/BLO we healed him, |A »^fe£OJ&a ^BLO
•' ^ Li ' f I ' ' '
ye healed us, nAJA M&&A9 *pLO they healed thee (f.).
Where ^ is employed as a connecting letter, the suffix is generally written separately from the verb, though this is not essential.
There is a very common form of the preterite, in which the pronoun, instead of being suffixed, as in the preceding examples, to the verb, is embraced within it, and precedes the terminal letters. The perfect participle of any verb being known, the pronoun is to be suffixed to this, after the
final 1* has been dropped, and the terminations •«, feOA, ma>\ , etc., added to form the different persons. After i~
•
we have simply **, <p*, etc.
The pronouns are as follows, and are evidently fragments of the separable personal pronouns.
4,7- me. &•!— us.
X— thee (m«). Nf- thee(f.). *-- her. .»£-- them.
The pronouns for the third person singular masculine and the second person plural are wanting ; but this gives
VOL. V. 14
106
rise to no practical difficulty, as the idea may always be ex- pressed by ^AlSaa *ftJB with the appropriate suffixes. From Zd&AXxa, its termination being dropped, we have £OJDO9. Adding to this the pronoun of the first person, with the terminations given above, we then have :
c Thou (m.) healedst I me.
« Thou (f.) healedst * I me.
He healed me. She healed me.
By a similar process, we have :
,*j» Z\£OJCDOb9 I healed thee (m.). i n i
Z-^ \ZQJCO&3 He healed thee. She healed thee. I healed thee (f.).
\aamnol He healed thee.
i i
She healed thee.
I healed her.
1 Thou (m.) heal- l edst her.
< Thou (f.) heal- * c edst her.
He healed her. She healed her.
I < Thou (m.) heal- ( edst us. L
I J Thou (f.) heal- *"
< edst us.
\ You healed c me.
J They healed ( me.
$ We healed I thee.
, They healed thee.
X^UfflOJ \ Vi • <
ftl He healed us.
^lftL"1^^ She healed us.
We healed her.
You healed
hen
*> I w. •*<**« ^ They healed
^^^Yt*^^*? ^ You healed us>
They healed US<
107
I healed them. (.S^aftffloa j We healed
^» i (. them.
o^auoo3 J Thou (m') hea1'
7""^ ( edst them.
?> n^fllCt) Q,3 He healed them.
JA J.^-. j They healed
T^.VfcOal She healed them. ' * them-
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SUFFIXES OF VERBS.
It should be understood that all the suffixes given above may be used in precisely the same manner with verbs of both classes, whether regular or irregular. Some of these forms, however, are not in universal use among the peo- ple. For instance, in Tekhoma, instead of the expressions
s ' * • ' * ' *
OfO£OOJQk9, we hear
Nor do any verbs there admit of the
suffixes w#OfO and CfO . The form >VfcQ>*1 ^OLd is never used
i i ^ a i
in the interior districts of Koordistan. In its place we may hear the form of the preterite last given, which includes the pronoun within itself; or, in case the idea could not be expressed by that, as " I healed you (pi.)," expressions
such as .^xdoJ^ >»j>aai,iB)aa would take its place. • a i a i
There are other local peculiarities in the use of the suf- fixes, such as t*OfoAv« they saw; him, on which it is unne- cessary to dwell. The usage in our books has of late years been quite uniform. It may, however, be remarked that the suffixes u^i, ^flA^, etc., are found much oftener in the written than in the spoken Syriac of Oroomiah.
RELATION OF THE MODE'RN TO THE ANCIENT
VERB.
Before dismissing the Yerb, it will be interesting to refer briefly to the structure of the verb in the ancient language, and trace, if possible, some of the changes it has undergone.
108
And, first of all, it is obvious that regular verbs of three radicals of the first class bear a strong analogy in form and signification to the conjugation Peal. The imperative is in both precisely the same, except that in the modern *^ is almost universally added to the plural. We do, however,
• j
hear in one district, Nochea, oA>S6fcX hear ye, OX come ye. The perfect participle of the modern is also the same with the passive participle of the ancient, except that it always takes the termination 2', in accordance with the general usage of the modern. Sometimes the ancient participle is used in
an active sense ; e. g. >J>*BLX , >J>*3? , etc. So, much oftener, i 1*1
the modern. Sometimes the ancient participle unites both
significations in the same verb, as in the case of ,>>••?.
i i
So ordinarily the modern.
It also seems easy to see how the modern infinitive is de- rived from the ancient, viz. iS»Vyl1Y» , ^ being substituted for to, or, rather, to being dropped, the usual 2'being added, and the -'-, as a necessary consequence, being changed into -*-. We thus have ]S
As to the preterite, when we find opt 'pLfl in the ancient, meaning "he rose to himself," i. e. he rose, who can doubt that this is nothing more nor less than >lS>toLO ? So
in the ancient is equivalent to iAf 1 in the modern,
to 3\^a , ov^ t£x£ to i^OX^ , and so on. Our mode,
however, of spelling the preterite, more correctly represents the present pronunciation. In regard to the general idiom, see Hoff. § 123, 6, and Nordh. § 868.
As to the future, it is very plainly derived from the pres- ent participle of the ancient language. Any one who will examine Hoff. § 57, 2, and compare the forms there given with the modern, will be satisfied at once. The present sub- junctive has of course the same origin. No trace remains of the ancient future.
109
As to the particle Via, prefixed to the future of all verbs, it is barely possible that it is identical with «^««£, bidi, which is employed in the same way in the Armenian verb. But it is far more probable that it is a fragment of £ka to wish. In some parts of Koordistan the people use J^S for *ha ; e. g. »££Bf a i^*3 I wish to sing, literally, that I may sing. But in Tal we find a mode of speaking which seems to be decisive as to the origin of A3 , and also goes to show that it should have been written 9b9 . Thus :
I will sing (m.). ff , ,
*?*»*? ^a 1st plural. 1st fern.
2nd masc. . O A--CBJ3 4U^3 2nd pi. masc.
i f
2nd fern. f*A~£*f» t^A^ka 2nd. pi. fern. ^ i< / v ,•
3rd masc.
3rd plural. 3rd fern. ' '
In the same way the verb to wish is used as an auxiliary in Persian, in forming the future, as <Axi f?|>J>. In English also, will and wish are in many cases identical ; e. g. What will you ? which may mean what do you wish f So will in other languages: vouloir, volo, fiovl.oiLa,i, which mean either to will or to wish. Compare also the modern Greek future
Atkuj yq&wei, $t'Aw area, etc., / will write, I will be. So
< ' i
too, from the ancient ?0k**i9 we have the modern aa**!B , ii t a i
and from the ancient *A\>~.*tt , the modern tMMmio . a i a i
As to the present participle, the question may fairly be raised, whether the prefix a is not really a preposition, the present participle being in fact a verbal noun. If this idea
be correct, ^Ou ^d'a^t may be literally translated / am in (the act of) finishing ; ^oL* 3J^Z3 / am in (the act of) eating. The verb ^j*^ to laugh, which uses both forms ,7 Tv..^ *1 and ?S>»^*1 in the present, the latter being clearly a noun, seems to throw light on this point.
110
On examining the second class of verbs of three radicals, we see a resemblance to the conjugation Pael. Take, for
example, the verb <*X9 (modern <»^3) to Uess. In the an-
.."'.' " • '
cient, the imperative is ^9*3, and the plural <kA9b9 ; in the
modern, 4>9J9 , ^^axa . The infinitive in the ancient is aa£aa ; in the modern, 2-&69J9£o or jLaoaJS, the first form
being no doubt the more ancient one. Here the resem- blance in sound is very striking, arid a transposition of the o will make the written forms not dissimilar.
As to the present participle, e. g. ZAO9J3UB , this may be
derived from the infinitive of Pael, and can be from nothing else. It is therefore to be considered primitively an infini- tive, though now used as a participle. The perfect participle is evidently from the participle of Pael. Thus, the ancient
is &ab3» , ^aLaaa ; the modern, Z^bofco , 2^2»a£to .
ml mil m I m II I
e has been inserted here, but the sound is not materially changed. The same remark applies to the preterite, which has a derivation similar to that of the preterite of the first
* • ' class. Compare the ancient «^ ^»9*3 with the modern
* » / " '
k*X^aaa . As to the future, a single remark may be made.
Since - - is the distinguishing vowel of Pael, it is not strange that this should be often preferred to -*- in the modern.
And so we find it, e. g. Aa^ and many other verbs of the second class. The -^ is also naturally preferred in the present participle.
Verbs of the second class often bear the same relation to verbs of the first class that Pael does to Peal, neuter verbs of the first class becoming transitive in the second class, as has been already shown (Hoff. § 59).
The causative verbs, formed by prefixing 'so to the root, are evidently connected, if not identical, with the participle of Afel, or, if any one prefers, with the conjugation of Mafel.
Thus, from the ancient h&9t9 , we have JSaJtto ; and from
. * ' .»»"•'
the modern i-flaJS, we have also uOjXiUD . So too, from an- cient a<x**!», modern aa**£0; from ancient lAXmJto, mod- ern Av,m.*o .
Ill
While the signification of any particular verb in the an- cient may not correspond to that of the same verb in the modern, the general usage in regard to Afel and the modern causative verb is the same. For instance, the Nestorians sometimes simply change the intransitive into a transitive.
Thus, in the modern, from the intransitive f 5^3 to dry, we
• • ' "
have f 9t3&9 to dry, i. e. to make dry. Sometimes they change
the transitive verb into a causative, with an accusative of the person and another of the thing; thus, from *X2& to put on (clothes), we have JC3LJ>^9 to cause to put on:
ZJtoX^c^ kXKkto put clothes upon him. Sometimes these
i1 »*i'«» . » ,
forms are used in an intransitive sense, as J^a^tt to freeze,
unnoiafl to rest; which, though they admit of a causative sig- nification, are oflener intransitive. Compare Hoff. § 60.
"We see also in the Modern Syriac traces of several of the rarer conjugations. For example, the reduplication of a single letter of the root ; as A-xX, from JjkS,; iV^, >«x<l , from
\x** ; tX.V\V , from kXSkii^ ; or the falling away of one a a i n
radical, and the reduplication of the other two ; as (Palpel)
h0aJ99,from <JOi*; AxAi, from b£iX; or the addition
// i n n i n ,
of 1 to the root (in the ancient w*) ; as (Pali) ZSoaJ^ , from tJx3: 2av», from 9X*; 2aAJ*, from >^« ; or the addi- tion of »^to the root; as (Palen) Jxdd (ancient
, from >%; Op, from ep; or the prefixing , it, a i i '
of X ; as (Shafel) AJ>*««X , from >M*^» ; or the prefixing
of tt; as (Safel) ^sM^i from &* 5 ia-JO, probably from ixau,; or the prefixing of X; as (Tafel) xiik,X, prob-
" m ' t , ' st1 V^ " '
ably from !X3\, (aauXjClj) ; or, in a few cases, verbs of
five radicals from verbs of three radicals, as in Hebrew, bv
» i J
reduplication; as *SȣM3, from
112
ARTICLE.
The Modern Syriac has properly no definite article ; but the demonstrative pronouns OCf masc., *-Cf fern., and «**2 comm. pi. are often used as we use the definite article in English. It need hardly be remarked that this is also the usage of the ancient language. Compare the Hebrew arti- cle H , which is no doubt a fragment of the pronoun jtfiri (Nordh. § 648). Ordinary usage prefixes these pronouns to the noun, and hardly admits of their following it.
The numeral JU» masc., }$* * fern., is also employed as an indefinite article, in accordance with early usage. Compare the Chaldee ""Jin and the occasional use in Hebrew of IflX • On the plain of Oroomiah, %*» is prefixed to nouns of both genders.
NOUNS.
The Nestorians formerly made no distinction between nouns and adjectives ; but, as there are many and obvious reasons for treating them separately, the general practice of grammarians will be followed.
GENDER.
The noun is of two genders, masculine and feminine, often not distinguishable by their termination. Thus, ,7i»^| a miller is masculine, and 2»gbX ^e is feminine, though both have the same termination %i . Only one rule of much im- portance can be given for the gender of nouns as distinguish- ed by their form, viz. that those which receive the ending ^X are feminine. This rule is nearly or quite a universal one.
£ / £ 55 £ I
3^*9 a house, ]$JLA& a fist, 2&*A£» death, and fa**lageMinyf which are masculine, are not to be considered as exceptions j for in these words X is a part of the root, and not of the
113
termination. The final syllable of the masculine noun is often changed into 2^ , or more rarely Js-» , to form the fem- inine ; e. g. jaMut* a donkey, jXMflU* a she-donlcey ; %XDQJSD a horse, j^XDOJD a mare; ?S»VX a fox, ^*j*XX a she-fox,
' ' £ '?
etc. i/ftft** a serpent has for its feminine 5>»OOa**, some- what irregularly.
In a few nouns, the vowels are modified in the feminine ; e. g. la&a a dog, ^3^A a bitch ; i^a a tooth, ^AA a little tooth, as of a watch-wheel, etc.
Some nouns ending in 2 are feminine ; e. g. i**i$ a mill,
in a hen-house, iv* a kind of cradle, ?3O£ a manqer. i' i> ..«,,''' i' '
a recess, f9Q£Uk a ford. Also the names of females, as
**'''* *
JAi , Zv— , }* * > etc. This rule has frequent exceptions, and
is given with some little hesitation.
A separate word is also used in some cases for the femin- ine ; e. g. 3 VI J a male sparrow, ^XXSkXD a female sparrow ; £££j(D plural (m. and f.); i3^a a male wolf, 5&AO? a she- wolf ; >*ft V., 13 a male cat, rC q a she-cat ; Uo^. a c?ra^e,
•'•' t* ' ^^T^ p ' • »| i
a duck,' .l*ft a maZe buffalo, 5^Jt»V^ a female buffalo.
Gender distinguished by signification. — The names of males, of nations, as Israel, Judah, etc., of rivers, mountains, and months, of artizans, traders, and professional persons, are masculine. So too, as in Hebrew, a multitude of material-
nouns, beginning with £a*V^ a body, such as those denoting
gold, silver, copper, and all the metals, excepting lead ; wood, stone (sometimes feminine), wool, flesh, grass, dirt, glass, cotton, fire, lime, paper, spice, gall-nuts, copperas ; also chair, table, book, lock, key, bread, etc.
On the other hand, all names of females, whether belong- ing to the human race, or not ; relations of woman, such as mother, wife, etc. ; the names of villages, cities, provinces, countries, and islands, are feminine. The names of trees
VOL. V. 15
114
and fruits are partly masculine and partly feminine. Nouns of capacity are generally feminine, but exceptions are not infrequent. Abstract nouns are also in the majority of cases
feminine, beginning with 2-* Oft spirit, and take for the most part their appropriate termination $N or ;«A. When an article has two sizes, if the word denoting the larger is masculine, that denoting the smaller or inferior is naturally feminine ; e. g. the earthen vessels denoted respectively by
and ?VOft.u ; lloAx and
v *
^X ; the copper vessels K-*X and T
' s ».*'*'
box, and JVlAfl a little box, etc. ivOJO and ^j>AJCP are
both feminine, but the latter does not necessarily denote a small knife. The rule has, however, probably exceptions.
The rule in Hebrew that "members of the body by na- ture double are feminine," has in Modern Syriac some ex- ceptions, although the words used to express elbow, knee, heel, ear, hand, foot, thigh, shoulder-blade, eye, cheek, etc., are evidence oi its existence.
Some nouns are used by the people of one district as mas- culine, and by those of another as feminine: as iocf the air, or the weather. In the plural, there is generally no distinc- tion of genders.
The above rules and suggestions may be of some use to the learner, and are the result, however unsatisfactory they may be, of full and careful investigation. But it should be understood that no foreigner can speak the language cor- rectly, without a thorough study of the subject for himself.
NUMBER.
There are two numbers, as in English, the singular and the plural. The plural, in the case of most nouns, is formed by changing -^, which is ordinarily the vowel of
the last syllable, into — , as iSfliKD a part, iiflUCD parts, and placing over the word the two square dots now called 7 <n*.CP , but in the ancient language oftener h»Ot93 . In a similar
115
way, many nouns which do not in the singular terminate in 2 form their plural by adding 2 ; e. g. IXM9 a people, plu-
i ' »* ** * "
ral 5&J*^> . These nouns are mostly of foreign origin.
Nouns ending in 2x form their plurals by changing that
termination into 2X-» , and more rarely into 2XO or 2XX .
,i , J , ,i ,i
Thus, 5^0^^ fruit, V*AOV\, fruits; 3fr*^s « caw, 2X*SJkSi '•<//•'.••-• / 2XA/P a lip, 2XO>SJD lips ; 2XA.3 a woman,
2XXJX9 women. In some cases, where the plural is formed ''"'.* by adding 2XO , the original X. is retained, and especially
if it forms a part of the root. "We thus have, from ^3 a
face, 3sJauC\S , and not 2XA^ ; from V*-* a house, J^bVCs ;
•' '- '* *••'', ' >' '
from ib** a sister, 2XJaX*». Yet, in vulgar usage, X is
sometimes dropped from ^jaX£0 ; the plural of IteQ a vil- lage. 2xaa a yard, forms its plural irregularly, thus, 2X33 . So 5^A a bride, 2«&A ; ^JL& a week, 16OLS. • 2X9bA a burden, 2Xxa . 2&A an ear retains the X, and has for its
plural 5&"»"* • The class forming the plural in 2X^ is very numerous, and comprises the greater part of the feminine nouns in 2x , and perhaps all in }jjjft . ^jftftoV*) testimony has generally 2XA30VB , but admits a regular plural.
In Koordistan, the plural termination of nouns of which the singular ends in 2X is ^5** , J^JB , or 2XX , in accordance with the usage of the ancient language. We thus have £JMu,, £-*3X.> etc.
The plural termination V* ig by no means confined to nouns of which the singular ends in 2X . If a word terminate in 2 5 the 2 may be dropped and V* added ; e. g. 2£& a heart,
2XOJI& : 230fA CL river, /nAdOfJk- If the word terminate ,i a i i> i
in 2 ( , the 2 is dropped as before, and — is changed into ^- ;
116
e. g. 2ao2 a manger, /Snjaio2; JJ&QJCQ a horse, ^AUDQJtD . A a recess has either 2XOOA or 2XAA . If the word
terminate in a consonant, this takes — , and then the term- ination is added ; e. g. AttX, a pool, fc.xiAftlV. ; Jk'V.mV an
t ••$ 2 ' '* ^_ ' IA ^
army, tefVV^fi*^ . But it is to be noted that *\A3-X a
* * * I s
mercy does not take this -?-, but makes its plural %jB&dJL& .
,• i
A very prevalent, but vulgar, pronunciation of plurals in iX* , 2XO, or 2XX, is to change the sound of 2X final into
that of long e. Thus, the plural of 3JPOJD is pronounced
P •* * *' '
soosawae; of >b^9, mawae, etc.
A class of nouns by no means inconsiderable form the plural by changing the final 2 ' of the singular into 2x'; e. g.
cloud, /nJbuX .
Another class change the singular termination 2' into !»'; or, in case the singular does not end in 2 ', add i* to it. Examples of the first are }j»BL< a field. ,7i^kdu» ; Jlot-* a
..'' . v' '' ' * .."
vision, Jib V« : of the other, ^^O£o rea^ estate, JAaAa^Q ;
I* II if I * H
Still another small class is characterized by the doubling in the plural of the consonant which precedes the final 2 ; e. g. ,lS»ft^t a skirt, ?iS>Sa^,t ; 10o£ a nostril, jH.Dft^ ;
U l> H
Some few nouns are reducible to no rule ; e. g.
•••' •* ' ••••*•
a daughter, j^3 ; >b^X a year, Jii ; ZlO9t9 a sor>r
i' ,i f H i f
an egg, }SJ3; 2'aJjX a husband, ZiX*aV. or 2aJtV,;
H »• . / |< » i1 • •
* •• # *••
a c%, j&ii »>^Q ; 2XX^ a church, 2X!kX . Some ' . •* ' •* .* f
have Turkish plurals, with the Syriac termination added ;
e. g. 2&X an island, 2aiu&X. So sometimes iikj a master,
117
Some nouns have two or three plurals ; as, 3&^&0 a verb, ; Zioo- a c/ay, 200* , ivia~ , ^OObi . It is noticeable, in regard to a number of these, that the sig- nification changes with the form of the plural ; e. g. 5^*avX
.. ' . i mm I . ' ' '
a grape, iXiX grapes (by the quantity), %& M\ ^ individual grapes ; fet^yi* a grain of wheat, l\j*t wheat (by the quan-
tity), !b'^y -- grains of wheat. So JjjJkO^ a shoe, i-^O^, a bead, 2 !XlflL«< , fcLakSau* ; %i>^X"> a boot,
,' II l> H t I It,
5^>*? a grain, U"? , ^ISaaa .
|' It, l> I It, HI l> l> II I
Some nouns are used only in the plural ; e. g. 3^9 water, •*'**> '
Z**» life, /Ifrfc^a mercy, etc. Some, such as names of metals, i> i i* i
do not admit of any plural.
The plurals of most nouns must be learned by practice, as, with the exception of those in fejft , no certain rule can
be given for ascertaining what form the plural assumes. The design has been in the preceding examples to give the plurals in most common use ; but, as every native we con- sult thinks, of course, the custom in his own village is the prevalent one, it is difficult to arrive at certainty. In this, and a great number of other cases, the forty pupils of our Seminary, who are from places widely separated from each other, have been questioned.
CASE. CONSTRUCT AND EMPHATIC STATE.
The termination of most nouns is not affected by a change of case. Their different relations are generally expressed by prepositions, as in English and many other languages.
The construct state, a remnant of the ancient language,
is also found in the Modern Syriac. Some forms, as, for
• * •«/ instance, u£09O2 uAS the sons, i. e. people, of Oroomiah, are
' ' if
in constant use. So, too, with the nouns ending in ii ,
in certain districts ; e. g. ZaflU«>\ ^>TL« a baker of bread, for jj.j '
ZviA » . Moreover, to a limited extent, the first
118
noun changes final 2 into »* when in the construct
•' * v_'
state. We thus have »^&9 JrUUS the bow of our Lord, the
•' * * '* "v_ *
rainbow, for »>^o? 5&*° ; ^*X *•»«* the ear of a goat, for
$ 1 $ ' " HI
2*X3 5^4 . The ideas also conveyed by a large number of our adjectives are expressed by 2a£a , in the construct state, prefixed to a noun. Thus, 2'x*s 2a£b lord1 or possessor of usefulness; faj&A^S* 2a£9 lord of wonder, i. e. wonderful;
f m Z * !*%• I*
7\ft»y, 2aJab lord of price, or valuabk. Compare the usage of Anc. Syriac with 2 3J» , «A^3 , etc. 2aib is sometimes omit- ted; e.g. iiL* 2^ya»f XLao2 $e road w (lord of) fear;
» $ Z * '
1** .7m>^, 2o?2 <Ais ts (fore? c/) price, i. e. dear.
As the emphatic state in Anc. Syriac gradually lost its significance (Hoff. §109, 2), so in the Modern it has disap- peared altogether ; or, rather, most nouns derived from the Ancient have assumed the emphatic form as their only form, thus virtually annihilating it. Thus, we have now only
i'iaf , k.OA-S.ao , etc. So, too, the plurals l&f and ^.OA.Vx) ,
• * ' • * * •• *• •' • ' •' '
the latter being in Koordistan feuxaAaa .
DERIVATION OF NOUNS.
The great majority of purely Syriac nouns in the modern language are derived from the ancient form of the verb, and have continued in use from early times, without any material
change. Such cases as the modern 2J>fx£ for the ancient >LAf9J^, need no explanation. As this subject of deriva- tion has been fully discussed by Hoffman, §§ 87, 88, it will be sumcient, here, to speak of it as affecting directly the signification of nouns.
Derivation from Nouns and Adjectives.
1. Patrial Nouns. — These are formed from names of dis- tricts, countries, etc., by changing the termination into jli or "]L ' ; or, in case the word ends in a consonant, by adding
119
one of these terminations ; Zli is the most common of them. Examples are Juab,i^, an inhabitant of Grawar, from aftXj Zkiioflk—X an inhabitant ofTekhoma, from JloOu**X; Xti/BCO
' • * *lf *4 ' '
a Russian, from JOOd ; X*^*^ an inhabitant of Tiary, from latJy ; J-bgkiCf a Hindoo, from ftACf , or, better, the ancient oaacf. See the same mode of formation in the ancient language (Hoff. § 89, 2).
2. Diminutive Nouns. — These are formed by changing the termination of the noun into i*o , as in the ancient language. Thus, from 2-** a boy, we have feOA.* a little boy ; from JLX0 a priest, XiOJLB (a term of some disrespect) a priestling ; from iSJCt) a?^ oZa7 man, ViOACD a grandfather (literally, a lit-
* ft * ',!*'*
tie old man) ; from JA3 a father, Z&OA3 a little father. So a fo'WZe swfer, 5^AO*Va»3 a ZiwZe wi/e. iiOu<*2 and , which in Anc. Syriac denote, respectively, a Zi^fe brother, and a Z/^Ze son, have now lost their signification, and are the most common terms for brother and son. The di- minutive terminations JXBO , MOJDO , 2&&&O , seem now to
/ ii it
have become obsolete.
3. Abstract Nouns. — These are formed in a great number of cases from concrete nouns by changing the termination into Jjjjft ; e. g. from 230J«0 a witness, J^jftloJ/D testimony •
an artificer, ^ftfkSjft/DOl mechanical skill ; from
', I '
a physician, J^AMuAOf s/a7Z m medicine, or the prac- tice of medicine. Sometimes the termination is changed into 55«flb* , or, where the word ends in a consonant, this is added. Thus, from ^&&& an enemy, ^A*iiflkift enmity; from 2£o4U»
a relative, 2£*Ou&JL» relationship. ibaoJS forms its deriva- ' " . ••' .' •
tive in correspondence with P13^* viz-
x
120 NOTE. — Sometimes these abstracts are derived from other parts of
' ? £
speech ; e. g. from %SOA how much, fe <V»fraa ; from opposite,
This general mode of deriving abstract nouns is probably admissible in a much greater number of words in the Mod- ern than in the Ancient Syriac, and is of great value for the introduction of new terms.
In a very few cases, nouns of this termination are not abstract. Thus, 5^AiJ* a loom. Compare the same word in the ancient language, denoting a shop.
Adjectives are changed in a similar manner into abstract nouns. Thus, from lAQA^great, we have xgMlQu^greatness ; from 299£9 courageous, ^A39t^B courage; from >bo3 high, ^dfrSoa hti'jhi, etc.
Verbal Nouns.
A noun expressing the agent is in many cases formed from regular verbs of three radicals, whether of the first or second class, transitive or intransitive, by giving the first
radical — , or -'- when the root has -'- and adding J* * for the termination. Take, for example, the transitive verb httaa of the first class, meaning, to hold. From this we have ZiA3i a holder, or one who holds. Take the transi- tive verb *35J^ of the second class, denoting to tempt. By
" * * * • 4*
the same mode of formation we have IvaaJk. a tempter.
T
When the verb is not transitive, the derived word partakes rather of the nature of an adjective than of a noun ; e; g. from 9^.3 to be or become lean, we have M 3*^51 apt to