A HISTORY OF PALI LITERATURE By BIMALA CHURN LAW, Ph.D., m.a., b.l., Sir Asutosh Mooherjee Cold Medalist, Griffith Prizeman, Calcutta University; Advocate, High Court, Calcutta ; Author, Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India , Ancient Mid-Indian Ksatriya Tribes , The Life and Work of Buddhaghosa. Geography of Early Buddhism, Heaven and Hell in Buddhist Perspective , A Study of the Mahavastu, Women in Buddhist Literature , Historical Gleanings , The Buddhist Conception of Spirits, The Law of Gift in British India, etc., etc., Editor, Buddhistic Studies. With a Foreword by WILHELM GEIGER, Ph.D., Professor of Indo-Iranian Languages, Munchen University, Germany. IN TWO VOLUMES Vol. II. KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Go., Ltd., 38, Great Russell Street, London, W.C. 1. . bX p\S^ h% *«■**■-$ CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION . CHAPTER IV EXTRA CANONICAL WORKS PRESUPPOSED BY PALI COMMENTARIES . CHAPTER V PALI COMMENTARIES . CHAPTER VI PALI CHRONICLES . CHAPTER VII PALI MANUALS CHAPTER VIII PALI LITERARY PIECES CHAPTER IX PALI GRAMMARS, LEXICOGRAPHIES, AND WORKS OP PROSODY, ETC. CONCLUSION APPENDIX A APPENDIX B INDEX . . . . ■ . 343 . 384 . 517 . 597 . 611 . 630 . 642 . 648 . 665 . 677 POST-CANONICAL PALI LITERATURE Introduction In between the closing of the Pali canon and the writing of the Pali commentaries by Buddha- datta, Buddhaghosa, and Dhammapala, there is a short but dark period of development of Pali litera- ture which has not as yet engaged adequate atten- tion of scholars. Broadly speaking, this period extends from the beginning of the Christian era to the close of the 4th century A.D. The Nettipa- karana, the Petakopadesa, and the Milinda Panha are undoubtedly the three extra-canonical and highly useful treatises that may be safely relegated to the earlier part of this period. There are a few other works, more or less, of a commentarial nature that are closely pre-supposed by the great com- mentaries of Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosa, and Dhammapala. These comprise, among others, (1) certain earlier commentaries written in Sinhalese, such as the Mula or Maha-atthakatha, the Uttara Vihara atthakatha (the Commentary of the dwellers in the “ North Minster ”), Mahapaccariya, the Kurundiya or Mahakurunda atthakatha quoted by Buddhaghosa in his commentaries, (2) two other earlier commentaries, the Andhaka and the Sahkhepa current in South India, particularly in Kanchipura or Conjeveram, and quoted by Buddhaghosa, (3) the Vinayavinicchaya by Buddhasiha, a fellow bhikkhu of Buddhadatta, pre-supposed by the Vinayavinicchaya of Buddhadatta and the Samanta- p&sadika of Buddhaghosa, (4) the Sinhalese com- mentary on the canonical Jataka book referred to and quoted by Buddhaghosa under the name of Jataka-atthakatha, (5) certain views and interpreta- tions of the schools of reciters quoted by Buddha- ghosa in his commentaries, (6) the Dipavaihsa, the earlier Pali chronicle quoted by Buddhaghosa Introduction vi in his commentary on the Kathavatthu, and (7) the Atthakatha Mahavamsa presupposed by Mahanama’s great chronicle of Ceylon. The writings of Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosa, and Dhammapala come necessarily after these earlier works in both Pali and Sinhalese and occupy chrono- logically a place next to them. The Mahavamsa or the great epic chronicle of Ceylon composed by Mahanama, the Anagatavamsa, a later supplement to the Buddha vamsa, and the Jatakatthavannana written by a thera at the personal request of the elder Atthadassi, Buddhamitta of the Mahimsasaka sect and Bhikkhu Buddhadeva of clear intellect, may be assigned to almost the same period of Buddhist literary activities in Ceylon which is covered by the writings of Buddhaghosa. Maha- nama’s Mahavamsa may be regarded as a Pali model of certain chronicles the Pujavaliya and the rest written in Sinhalese. The commentaries on the books of the Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma Pitakas were followed by certain tikas to be chrono- logically discriminated as mula and anu, Ananda and Sariputta being noted as authors of some of these mula and anu tikas. From the sixth or seventh century A.D. onwards we see also the beginning of a Pali grammatical literature headed by Kaccayana’s Pali Grammar as well as of Pali lexicons headed by the Abhidhanappadlpika. The literary processes connected with the commentaries and sub-com- mentaries and the compilations in the shape of handbooks continued resulting in the growth of a somewhat different type of later literature. The Abhidhammatthasangaha and many other books of great authority written by the eminent Anuruddha and others are to be counted as remarkable literary output of this stage of the development of Pali. The Narasihagatha quoted in the Nidanakatha of the Jatakatthavannana, the Telakatahagatha rank- ing with the satakas headed by the compositions of Bhartrhari, the Jinacarita which is a kavya attempt- ed in Pali less successfully on the model of Asva- Introduction vii ghosa’s Buddhacarita, the Pajjamadhu, a Pali poetical composition produced in Ceylon, the Panca- gatidipana and the Saddhanunopayana, two similar poetical compositions of Ceylon and the Rasavahinl, a book of interesting Buddhist folktales, written in simple prose, are some of the literary pieces that are included in our scheme of Post-Canonical Pali literature. We are generally to exclude from our scheme various Pali works on law, grammar, prosody, lexicography, and the commentaries written in Burma and Ceylon from the 15th century A.D. onwards. In dealing with the Post-Canonical Pali literature we are first of all to take up the extra canonical works presupposed by the Pali com- mentaries, next the Pali commentaries, then the Pali chronicles, Pali Manuals, Pali literary pieces, and lastly Pali grammars, books on prosody and lexicons, the classification being arbitrary. CHAPTER IV EXTRA CANONICAL WORKS PRESUPPOSED BY PALI COMMENTARIES The title NettipaJcarana 1 as explained by .... ... , Dhammapala, means exposition of Nettipakarana. [eadg to the knowledge of the Good Law. The Netti shows the methodical way of attaining textual knowledge. It contains much of the materials which are so grouped as to form a book by itself. The commentary on the Nettipakarana says that without an able instructor it is impossible for men to be guided in the right understanding of the doctrines. This treatise was translated into Burmese by Thera Mahasilavamsa in the fifteenth century of the Christian era, and again two centuries later, by a 1 This work has been edited by Prof. E. Hardy for the P.T.S., London, and published by the said society in 1902. There is also a Burmese edition of this text. The text is not entirely free from inaccuracies but all such defects are pardonable when we remember that it is a pioneer work. The text edited by the P.T.S. is based on the following manuscripts : — (i) Palm leaf manuscript of the India Office in Burmese character (see Catalogue of the Mandalay MBS. in the India Office Library by Prof. V. Fausboll, J.P.T.S., 1896) ; (ii) Palm leaf manuscript of the India Office (Phayre collec- tion), likewise written in Burmese character (see Catalogue of the Pali MSS. in the India Office Library by H. Oldenberg) ; (hi) Paper manuscript (brought from W. Subhuti by Prof. Rhys Davids) in Sinhalese character (Introduction, p. xxxv ). Prof. Hardy has relied on the palm leaf manuscript of the India Office in Burmese character in noting readings whenever they are found to contribute to a better understanding of the text. Nettipakarana revised and edited by D. Sudassi thera and finally revised by Ven. Srisumahgala Rafcanasara, Colombo, 1923, should be consulted. Mrs. Rhys Davids translates ‘ Nettipakarana ’ as the ‘ Booh of Guidance * (Sakya or Buddhist Origins, p. 127). 344 A History of Pali Literature dweller in the Pubbarama-Vihara. It was composed at the request of Thera Dhammarakkhita and highly praised by Mahakaccana. The Mandalay manuscript ascribes its authorship to Mahakaccana as every section bears a clear testimony to the authorship of Mahakaccana who has been described here as Jambuvana vasin, i.e., dweller in the rose- apple grove. The Netti is essentially a Pali treatise on the textual and exegetical methodology, a Buddhist treatment upon the whole of the Tantra Yuktis discussed in the Kautlliya Arthasastra, the Susrutasamhita, the Carakasamhita, and the Astanga- Hrdaya. The Netti and Jnanaprasthana Sastra have many points in common as they were written to serve a similar purpose. It stands in the same relation to the Pali canon as Yaska’s Nirukta to the Vedas. The scheme of methodology has been worked out in a progressive order, the thesis being developed or elaborated by gradual steps. To begin with we have the opening section, Sangahavara, or the conspectus of the whole book which is a feature also of the Milinda Panha. Then we have the Vibhagavara or the section presenting a syste- matic treatment in classified tables. This section comprises three tables or sub-sections : — (1) Udde- savara, (2) Niddesavara, and (3) Patiniddesavara. The Uddesavara merely presents a bare statement of the theses and as such it serves as a table of contents. It is followed by the Niddesavara which briefly specifies the import or definitions of the theses awaiting detailed treatment in the section imme- diately following, we mean the Patiniddesavara, which is but an elucidation and elaboration of the Niddesa scheme. The theses in the Uddesavara are introduced in three separate tables or categories — (1) that of sixteen haras (connected chains), (2) that of five nayas (modes of inspection), and (3) that of eighteen mulapadas (main ethical topics). The sixteen haras consist of desana (the method of instruction), vicaya (the method of enquiry), yutti Extra Canonical Works 345 (the method of establishing connection in groups), padatthana (the method of teaching with reference to the fundamentals), lakkhana (the method of determining implications by characteristic marks), catuvyuha (the method of fourfold array), avatta (the cyclical method), vibhatti (the method of classification), parivattana (the method of trans- formation), vevacana (the method of synonyms), pannatti (the method of determining signification), otarana (the method of descending steps), sodhana (the method of rectification), adhitthana (the method of determining positions), parikkhara (the method of discriminating causal relations), and samaropana (the method of attribution). The five nayas consist of the following modes of viewing things : — (1) nandiyavatta, (2) tipukkhala (by the triple lotus), (3) sihavikkilita (the lion-like sport), (4) disalocana (broad vision), and (5) aftkusa (focussing). The eighteen mulapadas comprise nine kusalas and nine akusalas. The nine akusalas are tanha (thirst), avijja (ignorance), lobha (covetousness), dosa (hatred), moha (delusion), subhasanna (false idea of purity), niccasanna (false idea of permanence), attasanna (false idea of personal identity), etc. The nine kusalas are samatha (tranquillity), vipassana (insight), alobha (absence of covetousness), adosa (absence of hatred), amoha (absence of delusion), asubhasanna (idea of impurity), dukkhasanna (idea of discordance), aniccasanna (idea of impermanence), and anattasanna (idea of non-identity). In the Niddesavara, the reader is to expect nothing more than a general specification of the meaning of the topics proposed in the Uddesavara for treatment. From the Niddesavara the reader is led on to the next step, the Patiniddesavara which contains four broad divisions, namely, (1) Haravibhanga (explanations of the connected chains), (2) Harasampata (discussions of the hara pro- jections), (3) Nayasamutthana (exposition of the modes of inspection), and (4) the Sasanapatthana 346 A History of Pali Literature (the classification and interpretation of Buddha s mstructxons^tis^ ^ detail ^th sixteen haras in the specified order as follows : The Desanahara directs the reader to notice six distinctive features in the Buddha’s method of instructions, namely, assadam (bright side), adinavam (dark side), nissaranam (means of escape), phalam (fruition), upayam (means of success), and anattim (the moral upshot). It also points out that Buddha’s instructions are carefully adapted to four classes of hearers, namely (1) those of right intellect (understanding things by mere hints), (2) those needing short explanations, (3) those to be slowly led by elaborate expositions, and (4) those whose understanding does not go beneath the words. In the same connection it seeks to bring home the distinction between the three kinds of knowledge, sutamayi, cintamayl, and bhavanamayi. In the Vieayahara the method of ruminating over the subjects of questions and thoughts and repetitions in thought is laid down, and this is elaborately illustrated with appropriate quotations from the canonical texts. , In the Yuttihara we are introduced to the method of grouping together connected ideas and the right application of the method of reasoning or inference in interpreting the dharma. _ The Padatthanahara explains the doctrinal points by their fundamental characteristics and exemplifies them. This Mm has an important hearing on the Milinda expositions. The Lakkhanahara points out that when one of a group of matters characterised by the same mark is mentioned, the others must be taken as implied. For instance, when the sense of sight is mentioned in a passage, the implication should be that other senses received the same treatment. ■ The Catuvyuhahara unfolds the method of understanding the doctrines by noting the following Extra Canonical Works 347 (1) the text, (2) the term, (3) the purport, (4) the introductory episode, and (5) the sequence, illustrating each of them with quotations from the canonical texts. The Avattahara aptly illustrates with authorita- tive quotations how in the teachings of the Buddha all things turn round to form cycles of some funda- mental ideas such as tanha, avijja, the four Aryan truths and the like. The Vibhattihara explains the method of clas- sifying Buddha’s discussions according to their character, common or uncommon, or according to their values, inferior, superior or mediocre. ■ The Parivattanahara contains an exposition of the method by which the Buddha tried to transform a bad thing into a good thing and transform also the life of a bad man. The Yevacanahara calls attention to the dic- tionary method of synonyms by which the Buddha tried to impress and clarify certain notions of the Dhamma. This section forms a landmark in the development of Indian lexicography. In the Pannattihara it is stated that though the Dhamma is one, the Lord has presented it in various forms. There are four noble truths begin- ning with dukkha. When these truths are realised then knowledge and wisdom come in and then the way to Bhavana is open to the knower. The elements may be compared but Nibbana cannot be compared. In the section on Otarana the Netti illustrates how in the schemata of Buddha’s doctrines diverse notions spontaneously descend under the burden of certain leading topics such as, indriyas, patie- casamuppada, five khandhas and the like. The Sodhanahara illustrates the method by which the Buddha corrected the form of the questions in the replies offered by him. The Adhitthanahara explains in detail the method of determining the respective positions of different ideas according as they make for certain common 348 A History of Pali Literature notions. In the Adhitthanahara the basis of all truth is given. The four truths beginning with dukkham are described and side by side avijja is shown to be the cause working in opposite w r ays. There are also paths bringing about the extinction of dukkha, etc. The various kayas and dhatus are also considered. Samadhi is the only means of removing evils. In the Parikkharahara the Netti explains and exemplifies how one can distinguish between the causal elements, broadly between hetu and other causal relations. This section has an important hearing on the Patthdna of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. We come at last to the section called the Samaropanahara. This section explains and illus- trates the Buddha’s method of fourfold attribution, (1) by way of fundamental ideas, (2) by way of synonyms, (3) byway of contemplation, and byway of getting rid of the immoral propensities. Hara Sampata is a division which is dependent on the hara as its purpose is to present the projec- tions or main moral implications of the haras or the connected chains previously dealt with. This division like the preceding one consists of sixteen parts exactly under the same headings. In the Hara Sampata the commentator Dham- mapala has added and rearranged many new things. He cites the passages from the text and then puts a lay dissertation on them by way of questions and answers. This division stands almost as an in- dependent treatise by itself. Desana hara Sampata — In this division it is laid down that Mara invades only a mind which is quite unprotected (pamadacitta), which is based on false beliefs, on idleness, etc. Vicaya hara Sampata — In this section it is laid down that desire (tanha) is of two kinds : kusala and akusala. The one leads to nibbana and the other to birth and suffering (samsara). Mind is both kusala and akusala in nature. The real nature of things can only be seen in the fourth Jhana stage. The Extra Canonical WorTcs 349 various signs and nature of nibbana and samadhi are described. Samadhi has five characteristics, namely, joy, happiness, consciousness, enlightenment, and right perception. There are ten objects of meditation (kasinayatanani), e.g., pathavi, apo, etc. They are then attached to three objects, anicca (non-permanent), dukkha (suffering), and anatta (non-existence of soul). A differentiation is brought about between an ordinary man and a man with knowledge. The former can do any kind of offence that may be possible. But the latter cannot. The former can even kill his father or mother, can destroy the stupas but the latter cannot ; when one practises the four Jhanas, and attains to Samadhi, his previous life and futurity are known to him. In the Yutti-hara-sampata it is stated that sloth, stupor, and misery disappear from him who is well protected in mind, firm in resolution, and adheres to right seeing. In the Padatthana-hara and Lakkhana-hara- sampata, the padatthanas (reasonings) are described as belonging to one who is well restrained in mind, words, and actions and who by the proper attain- ment of padatthanas realises the highest path. In the Catuvyuhahara-sampata, Avattahara- sampata, Yibhatti-hara-saihpata, etc., great stress is laid on right perception, mindfulness, and kusala deeds which lead to the knowledge of paticca- samuppada. The third division called the Nayasamutthana contains a detailed treatment of the five specified modes of viewing things. Under the ISTandiyavatta mode, it is pointed out that the earlier extremity of the world cannot be known owing to avijja (ignorance) which has tanha (desire) at the root. Those who walk in the field of pleasure are bound down in heretical beliefs and are unable to realise the truth. There are four noble truths — Dukkham, dukkhasamudayam, dukkhanirodham, and dukkha- nirodhagaminipatipada. There is a middle path A History of Pali Literature (majjhima patipada) which rejects the two extreme views and which is identified with the eightfold noble path (ariya atthahgiko maggo). He who has avoided ditthi (false view) escapes from kama (lust). Hence avoidance of desire (tanha) and ignorance (avijja) leads to quietitude or calmness. Kamma is recognis- ed as the cause of the world of sufferings. But consciousness and all that concerns consciousness may be seen in their increment in the ten vatthus. The ordinary enjoyment of food and touch, etc., is the cause of distress of a man with desire. The various asavas (sms) are next described. The sufferings of a man with attachments, faults, and wrong views are also narrated. The four paths, the four foundations of recollections, the four Jhanas, the four essentials (sammappadhanas), the four meditations, the four pleasure yielding states, etc., are also stated ; each of these is described as an antidote for the man with attachment, delusion, and wrong views. . 1 Buddhas, Pacceka-Buddhas, the disciples, and all those who are devoid of attachment, hatred, delusion, etc., are like lions. Those who look to the right aspects, the senses, the counter forces of the views with as strong reasons as Buddhas, Pacceka-Buddhas, etc., are said to have seen things just like a lion. Human types are four in number. Each of these has to undergo some sort of training. To each of them is offered an advice as to tanha (desire), raga (attachment), kusala (merit), etc. This is the way shown to be of the Tlpukkhalo and of the Ankusa described in the text. Now turning to the fourth division, the Sasana- patthana, we get a treatment of the proper method of c lassifi cation and interpretation of the texts of the Dhamma. That is to say, the Sasanapatthana embodies a classification of the Pitaka passages according to their leading thoughts. It is suggested that the discourses of the Buddha can be classified according to the themes into : — (1) SankilesabhSgiya c+Wo dealing with sankilesa or impurity), (2) 351 Extra Canonical Worlcs V asanabhagiya (those dealing with desire), (3) Nibbedhabhagiya (those dealing with penetration), (4) Asekhabhagiya (those dealing with the subject of a non-learner), (5) Sankilesabhagiya and Vasana- bhagiya, (6) Sahkilesa and Nibbedhabhagiya, (7) Sankilesa and Asekhabhagiya, (8) Sahkilesa and Nibbedha and Asekhabhagiya, (9) Sahkilesa and Vasana and Nibbedhabhagiya, (10) Vasana and Nibbedhabhagiya, (11) Tanhasankilesabhagiya, (12) Bitthisankilesabhagiya, (13) Ducearitasankilesa- bhagiya, (14) Tanhavodanabhagiya, (15) Ditthivo- danabhagiya, (16) Duccaritavodanabhagiya. Of these, sankilesas are of three kinds, tanha (desire), ditthi (false view), and duccaritas (wrong actions). Various padas, slokas, and texts are cited while explaining each of these textual classifications. The eighteen main padas are those which are worldly (lokikam), unworldly (lokuttaram), etc. In fact the chapter is made highly interesting by its numerous quotations from familiar texts and it does not enter deep into philosophical or logical arguments. But the classification and reclassifica- tions are no doubt interesting as intellectual gym- nastics. That the Nettipakarana is an earlier book than the Patthana (Mahapakarana) has been ably shown by Mrs. Rhys Davids (J.R.A.S., 1925, pp. 111-112). She says that in the Netti there is a short chapter on parikkhara, i.e., equipment. Usually applied to a monk’s necessities of life, it is here applied to mean all that goes to bring about a happening, all the conditions to produce an effect. These are twofold — paccaya and hetu. Take now this happen- ing : “ A seeing something ”. Here the eye is the dominant condition (adhipateyyapaccayataya paccayo). The thing seen is the object condition (arammana paccayataya paccayo). The light is the medium condition (Sannissayataya paccayo). But attention is the hetu. In conclusion it states : Whatever is sufficing condition (upanissaya) that is a causal antecedent (parikkhara). “This simple 352 A History of Pali Literature exposition,” says Mrs. Rhys Davids, “ is a develop- ment of the yet simpler wording m the suttas. there no distinction is drawn between hetu and paccaya . She then turns her attention to the Patthana. Here at the start not only has a, distinction been drawn but an elaborate classification of paccayas twenty-four in kind, is drawn up as standardised knowfe-fcg is a species of paccaya, first and chief of them. Further, ‘ dominance , object , ‘ medium ’, ‘ sufficing condition ’, are classed as paccayas, Nos. 3, 2, 9, and 8. And further the in- variable way of assigning causal relation in a happen- ing is not the Netti’s way but (hetu, etc.)— paccayena paecayo. We may conclude from this that the writer of the Netti did not know the Patthana. He did know some Abhidhamma. He alludes to a method in the Dhammasangani, to a definition in the Vibhahga but never to that notable scheme m the Patthana. , The Petakopadesa is another treatise on the textual and the exegetical methodo- Petakopadesa. | 0 g y ascr ib e d to Mahakaccana and it is no thin g but a different manipulation of the subject treated in the Nettipakarana. Interest o this treatise, if it was at all a work of the same author, lies in the fact that it throws some new fight here and there on the points somewhat obscure in the Netti. Its importance lies also in the fact that in places it has quoted the Pali canonical passages mentioning the sources by such names as Samyuttaka (=Samyutta Nikaya) and Ekuttaraka ( = Ekuttara or Ahguttara Nikaya). Its importance arises no less from the fact that in it the four Ariyan truths are stated to be the central theme or essence of Buddhism, the point which gained much ground in the literature of the Sarvastivadin school. The importance of the last point will be realised all the more as we find how the discourses developed in the Netti in the course of formulating the textual and exegetical methodology centered round the Extra Canonical Works 353 four Ariyan truths. This work has not yet been edited. The P.T.S., London, has undertaken an edition of it. Specimen de Petakopadesa by R. Fuchs, Berlin, 1908 deserves mention. The Milinda Panha or the questions of Milinda had originally been written in ULtr^uftton 3- Northern India in Sanskrit or in some North Indian Prakrit by an author whose name has not, unfortunately enough, come down to us. But, the original text is now lost in the land of its origin as elsewhere ; what now remains is the Pali translation of the original which was made at a very early date in Ceylon. From Ceylon, it travelled to other countries, namely, Burma and Siam, which have derived their Buddhism from Ceylon, and where at a later date it was translated into respective local dialects. In China, too, there have been found two separate works entitled “ The Book of the Bhikkhu Nagasena Sutra ”, but whether they are translations of the older recensions of the work than the one preserved in Pali or of the Pali recensions is difficult to ascertain. However, in the home of Southern Buddhism, the book is accepted as a standard authority, second only to the Pali Pitakas. Prof. Rhys Davids rightly observes, “ It is not merely the only work composed among the Northern Buddhists which is regarded with reverence by the orthodox Buddhists of the Southern schools, it is the only one which has survived at all amongst them ”. 1 The book purports to discuss a good number of problems and disputed points of Character^ the Buddhism ; and this discussion is treated in the form of conversa- tions between Kang Milinda of Sagala and Thera Nagasena. Milinda raises the questions and puts the dilemmas, and thus plays a subordinate part in comparison to that played by Nagasena who answers, the questions and solves the puzzles in detail. 1 Vol. XXXV, Intro,, p. xii. 354 A History of Pali Literature Naturally, therefore, the didactic element pre- dominates in the otherwise romantic account of the encounter between the two. Milinda who has heen described as the Kang o* the Yonas with his capital at Sagala The two heroes, (g a kala = Sialkot), has long been identified with Menander, the Bactrian Greek King who had his sway in the Punjab. He was born, as our author makes him say, at Kalasi m Alasanda, i.e., Alexandria ; and if we are to believe our author, he resolved of all doubts as a result of his long conversations with Nagasena, came to be converted to Buddhism. Nagasena, however, cannot be identified with any amount of certainty. The name of the author, as we have already said, has not come down to us. A A uth°r. close ana i ys i s of the book shows that a considerable number of place names refers to the Punjab and adjacent countries, and a few to the sea-coast, e.g., Surat, Bharukaceha, etc. Most o the rivers named refer again to the Punjab. It is, therefore, natural for us to conjecture that the author of the book resided in the far north-west of India or in the Punjab. Mrs. Rhys Davids has a theory of her own regarding the author of the Milinda Panho. She t hinks that the recorded conversations of Milinda and Nagasena were edited in the new book form after Milinda’s death, by special commission by a Brahmana of Buddhist Collegiate training, named Manava. She points out that the author was not a convinced Buddhist and that the detached first portion of the Milinda Panha is in no way to be matched in style or ideas with the quite different dilemmas and the following portions. The first part is a set of jerky rather desultory talks breaking off and bearing marks of being genuine notes taken by recorders at the time. The latter portions are evidently written compositions, dummy conversa- tions. “ As to his name,” says Mrs. Rhys Davids, “ that is not by me made of any importance : it is, ; Jet us say, my playful guess: — a brahmana name Extra Canonical Works 355- like the Shakespeare hidden allusions, alluded to in a gatha, which there was no reason for quoting save as a hint at the name It is somewhat difficult to ascertain exactly Date the date of the Book. Milinda or x '“ v ' fc ' Menander is, however, ascribed to the last quarter of the 2nd century B.C. The book must, therefore, have been written after that date. On the other hand, it must have long been an important book of authority when Buddhaghosa, the celebrated Buddhist commentator, flourished in the 5th century A.D. For, he quoted from the book often in his commentaries, and that in such a manner that it follows that he regarded the book as a work of great authority. From a close analysis of the books referred to as quoted by the author of the Milinda Panha, Prof. T. W. Rhys Davids, the learned editor and translator of Milinda Panha, came to the conclusion that “ the book is later than the canonical books of the Pali Pi takas (the author of the Milin da Panha quotes a large number of passages from the Pitaka texts), and on the other hand, not only older than the great commentaries, but the only book outside the canon, regarded in them as an authority which may be implicitly followed”. 1 The Milinda Panha has a marked style of its „ , ,, own. Its language is most elegant, tyean anguage. an( j s ^ uc q e( j against the background of ancient Indian prose, it is simply a masterpiece of writing. The formal exactness of the early Pitakas as well as the studied ornamentation of later-day Pali or Sanskrit-Buddhist treatises are alike absent from its pages. The charm of the style is captivating and there are passages that are eloquent in their meaning and gesture. The pre- rorations with which the long discussions are often closed are supreme inventions by our author of the art of conversation as well as of writing. Its style 1 S.B.E., Vol. XXXV, Intro., p. xxxviiL 356 A History of Pali Literature and diction bear a close resemblance to and are somewhat maturer than those of the famous Hasti- gumpha inscription of Kharavela which is assigned by Dr. B. M. Barua to the second quarter of the 1st century A.D. 1 At Sagala, a city of wealth and affluence, ruled King Milinda versed in arts and Text ' sciences and skilled in casuistry. He had his doubts and puzzles with regard to Buddha’s doctrines and utterances and other knotty problems of Buddhism. To resolve these doubts he went to Nagasena, the famous arahat ; and then began a wonderful conversational discourse between the two. But before the discourse really begins, we are introduced by our author to the previous birth history (Pubba-yoga) of these two personages and then to the contents of various sorts of puzzles. We are told that Nagasena in a previous birth of his was one of the members of ° 00 ‘ the religious brotherhood near the Ganges, where Milinda, in his turn, in a previous birth of his, was a novice. In accordance with his acts of merit in that birth and his aspirations, this novice after wandering from existence to existence came to be bom at last as king of the city of Sagala, a very learned, eloquent, and wise man. Now he had doubts and problems in Ms mind, and in vain did he seek the venerable Kassapa and Makkhali Gosala to have them solved wMle all these were happening. The brother of the religious brother- hood who came to be bom in a Brahman family was Nagasena. When he was seven years old he learnt the three Vedas and all else that could be learnt in a Brahmanical house. Then he left the house, meditated in solitude for sometime and he was afterwards admitted into the order as a novice by a venerable Buddhist priest, Rohana and was eventually converted into Buddhism. He was then 1 Barua — Old Brahmi Inscriptions , p. 172, 357 Extra Canonical Works sent to Pataliputra to the venerable Buddhist sage Dhammarakkhita where he became an Arahat. Now while he was living there he was invited at the Guarded Slope in the Himalayas by an innumerable company of arahats who were being harassed by Kong Milinda who delighted in putting knotty questions and arguments this way and that. Naga- sena readily accepted the challenge of Milinda and went to Sagala attended by a band of samanas. Just at that time Milinda had met Ayupala, an Arahat of the Sankheyya monastery, whom too he confronted with his casuistry. Nagasena who was then living at the same hermitage came now to the rescue of the Order. Milinda with five hundred Yonakas then repaired to Nagasena, and after mutual exchanges of courtesy and compliments the conversational discourse began. The first discourse turned on the distinguishing characteristics of moral qualities. ,i.j Jr oi Milinda enquired how Reverend Nagasena was known and what was his name. Upon it Nagasena initiated a discussion on the relation between name and individuality, and ex- plained it thoroughly with the help of an instructive simile. The king then, obviously to test his know- ledge, put to him a riddle and questioned him as to his seniority of years. Nagasena fully vindicated himself, and the king then satisfied sought the per- mission of the Reverend Arahat to discuss with him. The Arahat in his turn told that he was agree- able to a discussion if he would only discuss as a scholar and not as a king. Then one by one Milinda put questions and Nagasena solved them with his wonderful power of argumentation, simile, and illustration. He contended that there was no soul in the breath ; he explained one by one the aim of Buddhist renunciation, the Buddhist idea of rein- carnation, the distinction between wisdom and reasoning, and wisdom and intelligence. He further contended that virtue was the basis of the five moral powers requisite for the attainment of nirvana and 358 A History of Pali Literature that other more! ^f^r’Mm^ ^-taxaoteristio marks of rf these quality ^^“^dfepositi’. l"4o“aS &3£»} question £«£ discussed wherein illustrations that th ® “P ““S y b«nt“emS neither the same when a Another ^ like a child and a growing man nor the anotner , a q e CO mes into through different stages of Me. ^ rebirth is> being” another 'Xneous. In’this connection it is a S it were, snmilta^o ^ be reborn feel any discussed if a man W *J° hat i s a fter all reborn. painful sensation ;andth what is meant by A discourse is next lmtiatea as it> developments of q.uak , « 3 , wMch in its turn non-existence of anythi g as discussion as m0B t mtoally le ^t ^ sigh t-perception, regards thougl p characteristics of and lastly to the redana, idea or contact or phase , perception or viofiana, ^fc^cer^is“"^iration for Nagasena. +nrns on the question of The secon of difficulties a ^ ^ s P®^| ( C ) Book hi. of doubts in the way of attaining a life of renunciation ^TlTd^Hnote these doubts are not ^ helpful to solve but all of them te King. He wltto^owwhy^^^J^tri; ^iru t^^thecharacter of the influence l Of Summary of faith in the Nettipakarana, p. 28. Extra Canonical Works 359 of karma, and what is after all nirvana, and whether all men attain it or not. The interesting point raised next is whether rebirth and transmigration are one and the same thing, and if there is a soul or any being that transmigrates from this body to another. Among other doubts that conflicted Milinda were if the body were very dear to the Buddhist recluse, if the Buddha had really thirty- two bodily marks of a great man, if the Buddha was pure in conduct, if ordination was a good thing. Milinda further enquired of Nagasena what had been the real distinction between one full of passion, and one without passion, and lastly what was meant by an Axahat who recollected what was past and done long ago. Then there were also other difficulties of various kinds which were all solved by the venerable Nagasena. Milinda was satisfied that he had propounded his questions rightly, and the replies had been made rightly. Nagasena thought that the questions had been well-put and right replies had been given. This book deals with solutions of puzzles arising out of contradictory statements 00 ' made by the Buddha. These puzzles were many and varied and were distributed in eighty-two dilemmas which were put by Milinda to Nagasena, who, in his turn, gave satisfactory explanations to each of them. The contradictions in the Buddha’s utterances were more apparent than real. About them strife was likely thereafter to arise, and it was difficult to find a teacher like Nagasena. So an early solution of these dilemmas was imperative for the guidance of intending dis- ciples of the Order. These dilemmas are particularly interesting as well as instructive and it is profitable to be acquainted here with a few examples. Milinda was puzzled by a dilemma — If the Buddha has really passed away, what is the good of paying honour to his relics ? Nagasena said to him, “ Blessed One, 0 Kong, is entirely set free from life and he accepts no gifts. If gods or men put up a building 360 A History of Pali Literature to contain the jewel treasure of the relics of a Tathagata who does not accept their gift, still by that homage paid to the attainment of the supreme good under the form of the jewel treasure of his wisdom do they themselves attain to one or other of the three glorious states (Tisso Sampattiyo). There are other reasons too. For, gods and men by offering reverence to the relics, and the jewel treasure of the wisdom of a Tathagata, though he has died away, and accepts it not, can cause goodness to arise in them, and by that goodness can assuage and can allay the fever and the torment of the threefold fire. And even if the Buddha has passed away, the possibility of receiving the three attain- ments is not removed. Beings, oppressed by the sorrow of becoming, can, when they desire the attainments, still receive _ them by means of the jewel treasure of his relics and of his doctrine, discipline, and teaching. Like the seeds which through the earth attain to higher developments are the gods and men who, through the jewel treasures of the relics and the wisdom of the Tathagata though he has passed away and consent not to it being fir m ly rooted by the roots of merit, become like unto trees casting a, goodly shade by means _ of the tr unk of contemplation, the sap of true doctrine and the branches of righteousness, bearing the flowers of emancipation, and the fruits of monkhood. It is for all these reasons that even when the Buddha has passed away, an act done to him notwithstanding his not consenting thereto, is still of value and bears fruit.” A second dile mma that conflicted Milinda was, how can the Buddha be omniscient, when it is said that he reflects or thinks ? To solve this dilemma, Nagasena analysed the thinking powers of men from the lowest individual full of lust, ill-will and delusion to the highest Buddha having all knowledge and bearing about in themselves the tenfold power and whose thinking powers are on every point brought quickly into play, and act with ease. He Extra Canonical Works 361 then classified these different kinds of thinking powers into seven classes. The thinking power of the Supreme Buddhas is of the last or seventh class, and its stuff is very fine, the dart is highly tempered and its discharge is highly powerful. It altogether outclasses the other six and is clear and active in its high quality that is beyond an ordinary man’s comprehension. It is because the mind of the Blessed One is so clear and active that the Blessed One has worked so many wonders and miracles. For his knowledge is dependent on reflection, and it is on reflection that he knows whatever he wishes to know. It is more rapid than that, and more easy in action in the all-embracing knowledge of the Blessed One, more rapid than his reflection. His all-embracing knowledge is like the store-house of a great king who has stores of gold, silver and valuables, and all sorts of eatables ; it is with the help of reflection that the Blessed One grasps easily and at once whatever he wants from the big store-house of his knowledge. A third dilemma was, why did the Blessed One admit Devadatta to the Order, if he knew of his machinations ? In giving a solution out of this dilemma Nagasena told Milinda that the Blessed One was both full of mercy and wisdom. It was when he in his mercy and wisdom considered the life history of Devadatta that he perceived how having heaped up karma on karma, he would pass for an endless series of kalpas from torment to torment, and from perdition to perdition. And the Blessed One knew also that the infinite karma of that man would, because he had entered the Order, become finite, and the sorrow caused by the previous karma would also therefore become limited. But if that foolish person were not to enter the Order, then he would continue to heap up karma which would endure for a kalpa. And it was because he knew that that, in his mercy, he admitted him to the Order. And by doing so, the Blessed One acted like a clever physician, and made light the 362 A History of Pali Literature sorrow of Devadatta who would have to gufiU many hundreds of thousands of kalpas. For having caused schism in the Order, e (_ ev . datta) wordd no doubt suffer pain misery mthe purgatories, but that was not the fault of the blessed One but was the effect of his own karma. The Blessed One did in his case act like a surgeon who Sth an kind intent and for man’s good sme jam * a wound with burning ointment, cuts it with lancet cauterises with caustic, and administers to it a salty wash. So did the Blessed One cause Devadatta to suffer such pain and misery that at the end e misht be relieved of all pains and miseries. If had not done so, Devadatta would have suffered torment in purgatory through a succession of existences, through hundreds of thousands of kalpas Of other puzzles that arose m Milmda s mind, mention may be made of three out of many. These were, for example, how was it that an Arahat could do no wrong ; why did not the Buddha promulgate all the rules of the Order at once and how could Vessantara’s giving away of his children be approved. Speaking as to the faults of the Arahat, Nagasena told Milnda that the Arahats, like laymen, could be guilty of an offence, but their guilt was neither due to carelessness or thoughtlessness. Sms are of two kinds— those which are a breach of the ordinary moral law, and those which are a breach of the Rules of the Order. Now, an Arahat, m the true sense of the term, cannot be guilty of a moral offence ; but it is possible for him to be guilty of any breach of the Rules of the Order of which he might have been ignorant. Next, speaMng as to the method of promulgating the Rules from lime to time and not all at once, Nagasena quoted the authority of the Tathagata; for the Tathagata thought thus, “If I were to lay down the whole of the hundred and fifty rules at once the people would be filled with fear, those of them who were willing to enter the Order would refrain from doing so, they would not trust my words, and through ill! mill lasif §S M™, 111 *18 ■ Extra Canonical Works 363 their want of faith they would be liable to rebirth in states of woe. An occasion arises, therefore, illustrating it with a religious discourse, will I lay down, when the evil has become manifest, each Rule.” As to the justification of King Vessantara’s giving away his beloved sons in slavery to a Brah- mana, and his dear wife to another man as wife, Nagasena told Milinda that he who gave gifts in such a way as to bring even sorrow upon others, that giving of his brought forth fruit in happiness and it would lead to rebirths in states of bliss. Even if that be an excessive gift it was not harmful, rather it was praised, applauded, and approved by the wise in the world. The last four dilemmas of Milinda are concerned with the difficult problem of Nirvana. Is Nirvana all bliss or partly pain ; the form, the figure, duration, etc., of Nirvana, the realisation of Nirvana, and the place of Nirvana, these are the puzzles that inflicted the mind of the king. Nagasena solved them all one by one to the satisfaction of Milinda. According to him Nirvana is bliss unalloyed, there is no pain in it. It is true that those who are in quest of Nirvana afflict their minds and bodies, restrain themselves in standing, walking and sitting, lying, and in food, suppress their sleep, keep their senses in subjection, abandon their very body and their life. But it is after they have thus, in pain, sought after Nirvana, that they enjoy Nirvana which is all bliss. By no metaphor, or explanation, or reason, or argument can its form or figure, or duration, or measure be made clear, even if it be a condition that exists. But there is something as to its qualities which can be explained. Nirvana is untarnished by any evil dispositions. It allays the thirst of the craving after lusts, desire for future life, and the craving after worldly prosperity. It puts an end to grief, it is an ambrosia. Nirvana is free from the dead bodies of evil dispositions, it is mighty and bound- less, it is the abode of great men, and Nirvana is all in blossom of purity, of knowledge and email- 364 A History of Pali Literature cipation. Nirvana is the support of life, for it puts an end to old age and death ; it increases the power of Iddhi (miracle) of all beings, it is the source to all beings of the beauty of holiness, it puts a stop to suffering in all beings, to the suffering arising from evil dispositions, and it overcomes in all beings the weakness which arises from hunger and all sorts of pain. Nirvana is not born, neither does it grow old, it dies not, it passes not away, it has no rebirth, it is unconquerable, thieves carry it not off, it is not attached to anything, it is the sphere in which Arahat moves, nothing can obstruct it, and it is infinite. Nirvana satisfies all desires, it causes delight and it is full of lustre. It is hard to attain to, it is unequalled in the beauty of its perfume, it is praised by all the Noble Ones. Nirvana is beautiful in Righteousness, it has a pleasant taste. It is very exalted, it is immovable, it is accessible to all evil dispositions, it is a place where no evil dispositions can grow, it is free from desire to please and from resentment. As to the time of Nirvana, it is not past, nor future, nor present, nor produced, nor not produced, nor producible. Peaceful, blissful, and delicate, Nirvana always exists. And it is that which he who orders his life aright, grasping the idea of all things according to the teaching of the conquerors realises by his wisdom. It is known by freedom from distress and danger, by confidence, by peace, by calm, by bliss, by happiness, by delicacy, by purity, and by freshness. Lastly as to the place of Nirvana, there is no spot either in the East, or the South, or the West or the North, either above or below where Nirvana is. Yet it exists just as fire exists even if there is no place where it is stored up. If a man rubs two sticks together, the fire comes out, so Nirvana exists for a man who orders his fife well. But there is such a place on which a man may stand, and ordering his fife aright, he can realise Nirvana, and such a place is virtue. This book deals with solutions of problems of Extra Canonical Works 365 inference. Milinda asked Nagasena how they conld know that Buddha had ever lived. 6 00 ' Nagasena told him that as the existence of ancient kings was known by their royal insignia, their crown, their slippers, and their fans, so was the existence of Buddha known by the royal insignia used by the Blessed One and by the thirty-five constituent qualities that make up Arahatship which formed the subject of discourse delivered by Gotama before his death to his dis- ciples. By these can the whole world of gods and men know and believe that the Blessed One existed once. By this reason, by this argument, through this inference, can it be known that the Blessed One lived. Just at the sight of a beautiful and well-planned city, one can know the ability of the architect, so can one, on examining the City of Righteousness which the Buddha built up, come to know of his ability and existence. The sixth book opens with an interesting dis- tvT cussion. Can laymen attain Nir- 00 ‘ vana ? Nagasena told that even laymen and women could see face to face the condition of peace, the supreme good, Nirvana. “ But, what purpose then do extra vows serve ? ” asked Milinda again. To this Nagasena replied that the keeping of vows implied a mode of livelihood without evil, it has blissful calm as its fruit, it avoided blame and it had such twenty-eight good qualities on account of which all the Buddhas alike longed for them and held them dear. And whoso- ever thoroughly carried out the vows, they became completely endowed with eighteen good qualities without a previous keeping of the vows by those who became endowed with these good qualities, there was no realisation of Arahatship ; and there was no perception of the truth to those who were not purified by the virtues that depended on the keeping of the vows. Nagasena next explained in detail with the help of a good number of similes the character that came as a result of keeping 366 A History of Pali Literature the vows for the good growth of the seed of renuncia- tion and for the attainment of Nirvana. But those who being unworthy take the vows incur a twofold p unis hment and suffer the loss of the good that may be in him. He shall receive disgrace and scorn and suffer torment in the purgatory. On the contrary, those who being worthy take the vows with the idea of upholding the truth deserve a two- fold honour. For he comes near and dear to gods and men, and the whole religion of the recluses becomes his very own. Nagasena then gave Milinda the details of the thirteen extra vows by which a man should bathe in the mighty waters of Nirvana. Upasena the elder, practised all these purifying merits of the vows and Blessed One was delighted at his conduct. The thirty graces of the true recluse are detailed next and whosoever is endowed with these graces is said to have abounded in the peace and bliss of Nirvana. Sariputta, according to Nagasena, was one like this who became in this life of such exalted virtue that he was the one who, after the Master, set rolling the royal chariot- wheel of the Kingdom of Righteousness in the religion of Gotama, the Blessed One. The seventh or the last book is concerned wdth a Hips HHi detailed list of the similes or qualities 9 00 ' of Arahatship ; of these similes thirty-eight have been lost and sixty-seven are still preserved. Any member of the Order who wishes to realise Arahatship must be endowed with these one hundred and five qualities. Milinda silently and reverently heard detailed descriptions of these qualities ; and at the end he was full of admiration for the venerable Thera Nagasena for his wonderful solution of the three hundred and four puzzles. He was filled with joy of heart ; and all pride was suppressed within him. He ceased to have any more doubts and became aware of the virtue of the religion of the Buddhas. He then entreated Nagasena to be accepted as a supporter of the Faith and as a true convert from that day onward Extra Canonical Works 367 as long as life should last. Milinda did homage to Nagasena and had a vihara built called the ‘ Milinda-VihSra 5 which he handed over to Kaga- sena. The Milinda Panha like the Bhagavat Gita is the most interesting and instructive literary produc- tion of an age which is heroic. Its long narrative is composed of a long series of philosophical contest between two great heroes, King Milinda on the one hand and the Thera Nagasena on the other. A pubba-yoga or prelude is skilfully devised to arouse a curiosity in the reader to witness the contest and watch the final result with a great eagerness. On the whole, the Milinda successfully employs a novel literary device to put together the isolated and disconnected controversies in the Katha- vatthu as representing different stages in the pro- gress of the philosophical battle, and in doing so it has been in one place guilty of the literary plagia- rism in respect of introducing King Milinda as a contemporary of the six heretical teachers on the model of the Samannaphala Sutta. Place and country Alasanda (dlpa)— the island town names in the Miim- of Alexandria on the Indus, founded da Panha. by Alexander. Yavana (Bactria) — That province watered by the Oxus or the Amu Daria and the premier satrapy of the Achsemenian kings later on came to be conquered by Alexander and in 321 B.C. fell to the share of Seleukos Nikator. Hundred years later the Bactrian Greeks threw off their allegiance to their Seleukidan lord, asserted independence, and gradually moved towards India to establish there an independent principality. Milinda or Menander was one of the kings of this line of Bactrian Greeks who came to establish their power in India. Bharukaccha — an ancient seaport equivalent to modem Broach in the Kaira district in Guzrat ; Barygaza of the Greek geographers. Cina (country) — China. 368 A History of Pali Literature Gandhara (rattham) — an important ancient kingdom that had its capital at Purusapura or Peshwar in the North-western Frontier Province. Kalinga — an ancient kingdom on the Orissan coast, identical with the modern Gan jam region. All older works, such as the Jataka, Mahavastu, and Dlgha Nikaya, mention a kingdom named Kalinga with its capital Dantapura ages before Buddha’s time. Kalasa (gama) — a village situated in the Alasanda island on the Indus ; the birthplace of Mlinda. Kajangala — mentioned in very early Buddhist Pali texts as a locality somewhere near Rajmahal. Kasmir (rattham) — a famous kingdom in the North of India. Kosala — an ancient province identical with South Bihar, capital SravastL Kolopattanam — an ancient seaport probably on the Coromandel coast. Magadha (rattham) — an ancient kingdom identical with East Bihar ; capital Pataliputra. Madhura (nigamo) — an ancient city identical with modem Mathura. Coins of Menander have been found here. Nikumba (rattham) — somewhere in the north- west of India. Sagala (nagaram) — identical with Sakala, modem Sialkot, capital city of the King Milinda. Saketa — identical with ancient Ayodhya country. Saka country — the kingdom of the Sakas or Scythians in the time of Menander was confined to the Bactrian lands south of the Oseus and to Sogdiana to the north. Sovira — ancient Sauvlra, the country of the Sauvira tribe adjacent to the Sindhu country. Surattho (nigamo)— an ancient seaport identical with modem Surat. Baranasi— modern Benares. Suvannabhumi — identical probably with Lower Burma and Malay Peninsula. Extra Canonical Works 36P Pataliputra (nagaram) — an ancient city, capital of Magadha near modern Patna. Udicca — a country in the north-west of India. Vanga — identical with East Bengal. Vilata — an ancient kingdom somewhere in the north-west of India. Takkola — an ancient seaport near Thaton in Lower Burma. Ujjeni — identical with ancient Ujjayini, capital of the ancient Malwa country. Greek (country) — ancient Greece in Eastern Names of rivers Europe. in _ the Miiinda 1. Gahga — The Ganges. Pafiha " 2. Aciravatl — an ancient river in Eastern India flowing through the Kosala country past Sravasti. 3. Yamuna — a tributary of the Ganges, the Isamos of the Greeks. 4. Sarabhu — identical with Sarayu, a tributary of the Ganges. 5. Mahl — a river south to the Vindhyas flowing into the Bay of Bengal. These five rivers are often mentioned together in the Pitakas. 6. Sarassat! — an ancient tributary of the Indus. 7. Vitamsa — identical probably with Vitasta,. a tributary of the Indus, the Hydaspes of the Greeks. 8 . Candrabhaga — identical with modern Che- nab, a tributary of the Indus. A. Books silently referred to : — 1. Digha Nikaya, 2. Kathavatthu,, Books referred to 3, Anguttara Nikaya, 4. Maha- the Miiinda Panha. vagga, 5. Cullavagga, 6. Vessantara Jataka, 7. Sivi Jataka, 8. Majjhima Nikaya, 9. Sutta Vibhanga, 10. Catuma Sutta, 11. Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta, 12. Amba Jataka,. 13. Dummedha Jataka, 14. Tittira Jataka, 15. Khantivada Jataka, 16. Cula-nandiya Jataka, 17. Taccha-Sukara Jataka, 18. Cariya-pitaka, 19. Silava- naga Jataka, 20. Sabbadatha Jataka, 21. Apannaka Jataka, 22. Nigrodha-miga Jataka, 23. Mahapaduma, 370 A History of Pali Literature Jataka, 24. Ummagga Jataka, 25. Sutta Nipata, 26. Thera Gatha, 27. Samyutta Nikaya, 28. Dham- mapada, and 29. Nigrodha Jataka. 1. Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma, 2. The Suttantas, 3. Dhamma-Sahgani, 4. Booto or paesa- Vibhahga, 5. Dhatu-Katha, 6. tioned by°nan». en ' Puggala Pannatti, 7. Katha-Vatthu, 8. Yamaka, 9. Patthana, 10. The Abhidhamma Pitaka, 11. The Vinaya Pitaka, 12. The Sutta Pitaka, 13. Maha-Samaya Suttanta — (Digha Nikaya), 14. Maha-mahgala Suttanta — (Sutta Mpata), 15. Sama-eittapariyaya Suttanta — (unknown), 16. Rahulvada Suttanta (Majjhima), 17. Parabhava Suttanta — (Sutta Mpata), 18. Samyutta Nikaya, 19. The Sutta Mpata, 20. Ratana Sutta — (Sutta Mpata), 21. Khandha Paritta — (not traced), 22. Mora Paritta, 23. Dhajagga Paritta — (Jataka Book), 24. Atanatiya Paritta — (Digha Nikaya), 25. Angulimala Paritta — (Majjhima Nikaya), 26. The Patimokkha, 27. Dhamma-dayada Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya), 28. Dakkhina Vibhahga of the Majjhima Nikaya, 29. Cariya Pitaka, 30. Navangam Buddha Vacanam, 31. Digha Nikaya, 32. Majjhima Nikaya, 33. Khuddaka Nikaya, 34. Maha Rahulovada (Majjhima Nikaya), 35. Pura-bheda Suttanta (Sutta Nipata), 36. Kalaha Vivada Suttanta (Sutta Nipata), 37. Cula-Vyuha Suttanta (Sutta Nipata), 38. Maha- Vyuha Suttanta (Sutta Nipata), 39. Tuvataka Suttanta (Sutta Nipata), 40. Sariputta Suttanta (Sutta Nipata), 41. Mahasamaya Suttanta (Digha Nikaya), 42. Sakkha-Panha Suttanta (Digha Nikaya), 43. Tirokudda Suttanta (Khuddaka Patha), 44. Ekuttara Nikaya (Anguttara Nikaya), 45. Dhaniya Sutta (Sutta Nipata), 46. Kummupama Suttanta (Samyutta Nikaya), 47. Sacea Samyutta (Samyutta Nikaya), 48. Vidhura Punnaka Jataka, 49. Dham- mapada, 50. Sutasoma Jataka, 51. Kanha Jataka, 52. Lomahamsana Pariyaya, 53. Cakkavaka Jataka, 54. Gulla Narada Jataka, 55. Lakkhana Suttanta • (Digha Nikaya), 56. Bhallatiya Jataka, 57. Parinib- Vbana Suttanta (Digha Nikaya). Extra Canonical Works 371 V. Trenckner’s edition of the Milinda Panha first published by Williams and Norgate in 1880 has been reprinted by the trustee of the James G. Forlong Fund, Royal Asiatic Society, in 1928 with a general index by C. J. Rylands and an index of gathas by Mrs. Rhys Davids. There is another edition of this work by Hsaya Hbe, Rangoon, 1915. A Burmese word for word interpretation of this text by Adiccavamsa, Rangoon, should be consulted. It has been translated into English by T. W. Rhys Davids and included in the Sacred Books of the East Series as Yols. XXXV-XXXVI. There is a Sinhalese translation of the Milinda Panha by Hinati Kumbure under the title “ Milinda prash- naya ”, Colombo, 1900. The following books may be consulted : — 1. Le Bonheur du Nirvana extrait du Milindap- prashnaya ; ou Miroir des doctrines sacrees traduit du Pali par Lewis da Sylva Pandit. (Revue de l’histoire des religions, Paris, 1885.) 2. Deux Traductions chinoises du Milinda Panha Par E. Specht arec introduction par S. Levi. 3. Chinese translations of the Milinda Panha by Takakusu, J.R.A.S., 1896. This paper contains a number of Chinese translations in existence, the date of the two translations and the story of the discussions of Bang Milinda and Bhikkhu Nagasena found in the Buddhist sutra called Samyutta- Ratnapitaka. 4. Historical basis for the questions of King Menander from the Tibetan by L. A. Waddel, J.R.A.S., 1897. This paper points out that the Milinda Panha is known to the Tibetans. 5. Nagasena by Dr. T. W. Rhys Davids, J.R.A.S., 1891. 6. Milinda Questions by Mrs. Rhys Davids, 1930. 7. Critical and philological notes to the first chapter of the Milinda Panha by Y. Trenckner revised and edited by Dr. Anderson, J.P.T.S., 1908. 372 A History of Pali Literature 8. Paul Pelliot — Les 110 ms propres dans les traductions chinoises du Milinda Panha. (Journal Asiatic, Paris, 1914.) 9. There is a Bengali edition of this work published by the Bangiya Sahitya Parishat, Calcutta, which can vie, if it can vie at all, in its uncritical method and blunders. 10. F. Otto Schrader, Die Fragen des Konig Menandros (Berlin, 1903). 11. Garbe, “ Der Milindapanha, ein Kultur- historiseher Roman ”, Indische Kulturgeschichte. 12. G. Cagnola, Dialoghi del Re Milinda (Italian translation of the Milinda Panha). 13. Milinda by T. W. Rhys Davids (Encyclo- paedia of Religion and Ethics, pp. 631-633). 14. M. Winternitz, Gesclnchte der Indischen Litteratur (vol. 2., Leipzig, 1920). In the Gandhavamsa (pp. 58 foil. J.P.T.S., 1886) which is a comparatively modern Pah compilation we have an interesting classification of the Buddhist teachers of India, Ceylon, and Burma connected with Pah literature. This classification goes to divide the teachers chronologically into three orders : (1) Poranacariyas, (2) Atthakatha- cariyas, and (3) Gandhakaracariyas. By the Porana- cariyas or ancient teachers are meant the distinguish- ed and profoundly learned theras of old numbering about 2,200 Arhats, who as selected representatives of different sections of the orthodox samgha took part in the proceedings of the first three Buddhist Councils and rehearsed the canonical texts. These teachers are arbitrarily identified with the Atthaka- thacariyas or teachers commanding the commentarial authority. Buddhaghosa and others are, according to this classification, to be counted among the Gandhakaracariyas or teachers representing in- dividual authorship. Such teachers are also to be known as Anekacariyas or different authors. The Gandhavamsa expressly treats the earlier Sinhalese commentaries such as Kurundlya attha- Earlier Commen- taries. Extra Canonical Works 373 katha and the Mahapaccariya atthakatha pre- supposed by the writings of Buddhaghosa as re- markable productions of individual authorship. 1 We may be prepared to appreciate this sugges- tive chronological classification in so far as it leads us to contemplate the beginning of individual authorship from a certain stage of literary develop- ment, a stage which is represented by Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosa, and Dhammapala. In the first or early stage we have the various texts of the three Pali pitakas, all of which the Samgxtikaras made their own by virtue of a joint rehearsal and canonisa- tion. Though tradition ascribes the Kathavatthu and the Parivarapatha to two different authors, namely, Moggaliputtatissa and the learned Dipa, one need not be astonished to find that the claim of individual authorship has altogether merged in the interests of the Samgitikaras, and ultimately of the samgha as a whole. The authority of the Milinda Panha has been wrongly cited by Buddhaghosa and others with the stamp of individual authorship of thera Nagasena. It is the same thing to ascribe the Milinda Panha to the authorship of Nagasena as to ascribe all the Pali canonical texts to the authorship of the Buddha. As a matter of fact Nagasena plays no more than the role of the more powerful of the two controversia- lists in the dramatic narrative of the Milinda Panha — a position which is in many respects similar to that assigned to Vasudeva in the dramatic con- versational narrative of the Bhagavat Gita. The Gandhavamsa (p. 59) ascribes the Netti and the Petakopadesa along vrith four other trea- tises, exegetical and grammatical, to the author- ship of Mahakaccayana, — the venerable Mahakacca- yana who was one of the immediate disciples of the 1 Gandhavamsa, p. 59 — ec Katame anekaeariyehi kata Gandhacariyo kurundigandham nama akasi. Ahnataro acariyo mahapaccariyam nama atthakatham akasi. Anhataro acariyo kurundigandhassa atthakatham akasi *% 374 A History of Pali Literature Buddha, doing Ms missionary work in western India. T his is a lump of anachronism wMeh is too big for a critical scholarly mouth to swallow. As regards individual authorship, the Netti and the Petakopadesa stand in the same position as the Milinda Panha. Have we in this respect to confront a different position with regard to the earlier Sinha- lese commentaries under notice ? Highly doubtful is the source of information that has enabled the author of so modem a work as the Gandhavamsa to say that a certain individual author wrote out a treatise called Kurundlgandha, another author, the Mahapaecariya-atthakatha and another author, the Atthakatha of the Kurundlgandha. Some earlier commentaries have been quoted by Buddhaghosa without even meaning to regard them as works of any individual authors. Even in cases where he has referred to them as personal authorities, he appears to have recourse to such an indefinite expression as atthakathacariyas. 1 On the other hand there are several statements in which Buddhaghosa and other commentators have regarded these earlier commentaries not as works of any individual authors but as authoritative books of interpretation of different monastic schools of teachers (cf. Samantapasadika, P.T.S., pp. 1-2 ; Atthasalini, p. 2). “ Mahaviharavasinam dfpayanto vinicehayam Attham pakasayissami agamatthakathasupi.” The earlier commentaries mentioned or cited by Buddhaghosa in his Samantapasadika, Atthasalini, Sumangalavilasinl, and other commentaries are : — (1) The Maha Atthakatha. (2) The Mahapaccariya. (3) The Kurundl or Kurundiya. 2 (4) Andha Atthakatha. (5) Samkhepa Atthakatha. 1 Atthasalini, pp. 85, 123, and 21? 2 Samantapasadika, p. 2, v. 10. Extra Canonical Works 375 (6) Agamatthakatha. 1 (7) Aeariyanam samanatthakatha. 2 (?) According to the Saddhama Sangaha, the Maha, the Mahapaccari, and the Kurunda are the three earlier Sinhalese commentaries quoted by Buddha- ghosa in his Samantapasadika while the Maha- atthakatha was made the basis of his commentaries on the first four nikayas. 8 The Poranas and the Atthakathacariyas re- present indeed a broad chronological classification of the pubbaeariyas which may as well be inferred from Buddhaghosa’s own statements. In the pro- logue of his Samantapasadika, he expressly says that the Maha, the Mahapaccari, and the Kurundl are the three earlier commentaries that were -written in the native dialect of Sihala (Ceylon) (samvannana sihaladipakena vakyena, Samantapasadika, I, p. 2). The Maha-atthakatha otherwise known as the mula atthakatha or simply the atthakatha is undoubtedly the old Sinhalese commentary on the three pitakas developed in the school of the Maha- vihara or Great Minster at Anuradhapura. There was a second monastery at Anuradhapura called Uttaravihara or North Minster. A commentarial tradition was developed also in this school. The distinction between the traditions of Mahavihara and Uttaravihara would seem to he in the background of Buddhadatta’s two Vinaya manuals — the Vinaya- vinicchaya and the Uttaravinicchaya. The name of Mahapaccari or Great Raft can be so called “ from its having been composed on a raft somewhere in Ceylon ” (Saddhammasamgaha, p. 55). The suggest- ed origin of the name is quite fanciful and there- fore unreliable like the Maha or mula. The Maha- paccari appears to have been a distinct compilation of a monastic school of Ceylon. The Kurundl was 1 Atthasalinl, p. %. r 2 Ibid,, p. 90. 3 Saddhama Sangaha, pp. 55-56/ J.P.T.S/ 1890. 3 376 A History of Pali Literature so called because it was composed at the Kurunda- veluvihara in Ceylon {Saddhammasamgaha, p. 55). The Andha-atthakatha represented a com- mentarial tradition handed down at Kancipura (Conjeveram) in South India. Presumably it was written in some native dialect of the Deccan. The Samkhepa atthakatha or short commentary is mentioned together with the Andha commentary and it is likely that like the latter it was a South Indian work. The Agamatthakatha referred to in Buddha- ghosa’s AtthasalinI is now taken to be an old general commentary on the agamas or nikayas. Acariyanam Samanatthakatha has been cata- logued by Mrs. Rhys Davids as though it were a separate commentary but the context of the passage in Buddhaghosa’s AtthasalinI (p. 90) in which the term occurs, shows the matter to be otherwise. By this expression (Ettika acariyanamsamanattha- katha nama, AtthasalinI, p. 90) Buddhaghosa appears simply to mean an explanation which is common to all the schools of interpretation. If so, there will be no justification whatever for regarding the term acariyanam samanatthakatha as a title of any commentary. Fausboll’s edition of the Jataka commentary now extant is known by the name Jataka-a^haka- of JMakatthavannana 1 containing about 550 Jatakas. 2 In the Jata- katthavannana itself there is a reference to an older commentary namely, the Jataka-atthakatha which, as rightly guessed by Prof. Rhys Davids, is “ the older commentary of Elu, or old Singhalese, on which the present work is based ”. 3 This older com- mentary must have been the source from which 1 Fausboll’s Jataka, Vol. I, p. 1— “ Jatakass’ Attha- vannanam Mahaviharavasinarh vacanamagganissitam bhasissam 2 Strictly speaking the total number of the Jatakas contained in it is 547. m 8 Buddhist Birth Stories, p. 173, f.n. 2 ; Fausboll’s Jataka, I, p. 62. Extra Canonical WorTcs 377 Buddhaghosa lias quoted several birth stories in his commentaries. Judging by Buddhaghosa’s narrations of the Jatakas bearing a close resemblance with those in the present Atthavannana, we can say that the contents and arrangement of the Jatakas in the Atthakatha had not materially differed from those in the Atthavannana. It is evident from Buddhaghosa’s own statement in his Sumangala- vilasini that the total number of the J atakas already came to be counted in his time as 550. 1 But as shown by Dr. B. M. Barua, the earlier total as mentioned in the Cullaniddesa (p. 80 — “ Bhagava panea jataka-satani bhasanto attano ca paresan ca atitam adisati ”), which is a canonical commentary on the Khaggavisana Sutta and the suttas of the Parayanavagga, was not 550 but 500 (pancajataka-satani). He seems to think that the same inference as to the earlier total of the Jatakas may as well be drawn from an account of the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien stating that he witnessed re- presentations of 500 Jatakas when he visited Ceylon in the beginning of the 5th century A.D . 2 3 The various literary processes by which the Jatakas were mechanically multiplied have been well dis- cussed 8 and need no further orientation here. The word vinicchaya means “ investigation, trial, ascertainment, and decision Vteaya^ni’ochaya. The meaning which suits the title of the work under notice is “ de- cision ”. Certain decisions helping the right in- terpretation and application of the Vinaya rules and prescriptions embodied in the Vinaya Pitaka grew up as a result of discussions among the theras of Ceylon and South India, the decisions of the Mahavihara school being generally regarded as the 1 Sumangalavilasini. I, p. 24 — “ Apannaka- j atakadini pannasa- dhikani panca- jataka-satani Jatakan ti veditabbam 2 The Travels of Fa-hsien by H. A. Giles, p. 71 — “ representations of the five hundred different forms in which the Bodliisatva suc- cessively appeared ”, 3 B. M, Barua’s paper — ^Multiplication of the Jatakas, I.H.Q, 378 A History of Pali Literature most authoritative. These decisions referred to in the lump by Buddhaghosa as atthakathavimcchayas were also incorporated in such Sinhalese com- mentaries as the Maha (Mahavihara), the Maha- karundiya, and the Mahapaccariya. It was binding on Buddhaghosa and other later commentators to see that the interpretations suggested by them were not only not inconsistent with the canonical texts but also with the atthakathavimcchayas. In many places of his Samantapasadika Buddha- ghosa has termed even his own decisive interpreta- tion as a Vinicchaya. 1 2 * * * * * Even apart from the decisive interpretations in the earlier Sinhalese commentaries Buddhaghosa appears to have cited certain authoritative Vinayavinicchayas without mentioning the source from which he cited them. Looking out for the source we are apt to be led back to a treatise written by thera Buddhaslha which clearly bore the title of Vinayavinicchaya. In the epilogue of his Vinayavinicchaya Buddha- datta expressly says that his own work was nothing but an abridged form of Buddhasiha’s treatise. Buddhaslha himself is represented as a saddhivihari or a fellow monk residing in the monastery erected by Venhudasa or Kanhadasa in the beautiful river port of Kaveri. 8 No trace of Buddhasiha’a treatise lingers except perhaps in citations in Buddhaghosa’s Samanta- pasadika. The treatise was in all probability written in prose while Buddhadatta’s is a manual written entirely in verse. S S Naraslhagatha is the title of an interesting Fail 1 Samantapasadika, p. 539. In discarding a particular in- terpretation, Buddhaghosa says “ atthakatha vinicchayehi na sameti ”, i.e., it does not tally with the decisions of the commentaries. 2 Of. Samantapasadika, p. 848 : Ci Ay am tava anto dasaham adhittheti vikappetiti ettha adhitthane vinicchayo Again at p. 649 ‘ayam vikappetiti imasmim pad© vinicchayo % $ Buddhadatta’s Vinayavinicchaya, p. 229. “ vuttassa Buddhasihena Vinayassa vinicchayo Buddhasiham samuddissa mama saddhiviharikam kato ’yam pana bhikkhunam hitatthaya samasato.” Extra Canonical WorTcs 379 oetade consisting of eight stanzas composed in an „ _ elegant style. The theme of this poem which became very popular throughout Ceylon is a description of 32 major bodily marks of the Buddha represented as a lion- like man (narasiha). The gathas are characteristi- cally put into the mouth of Rahulamata. Only the first stanza of the ancient oetade is quoted in the Pali Jatakanidanakatha (Fausboll, Jataka, I, p. 89), the reading of which goes to show that its wording changed here and there in the oetade as it comes down to us through the Buddhist literature of Ceylon. (a) Earlier reading — “ Siniddhanilamudukuncitakeso suriyasunimmalatalabhinalato yuttatungamudukayatanaso ramsijalavitato narasiho’ ti.” (b) Later reading — “ Suddhanilamudukuncitakeso suriyanimmalatalabhinalato yuttatungamudukayatanaso ramsijalopitate narasiho.” The oetade may be regarded as an earlier specimen of the Sinhalese Pali poetry. The Dipavamsa is the oldest known Pali . chronicle of Ceylon (dipatthuti) and Dipavamsa. BuddMsm , ^ aecount of wM ch is closed with the reign of King Mahasena which may be assigned to the middle of the 4th century A.D. Buddhaghosa in his commentary on the Kathavatthu, a book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka, expressly quotes a number of verses from the Dipavamsa as a traditional authority in support of a certain statement of his, from which it is easy to infer that the chronicle in its present form was extant in the 4th century A.D., if not earlier. It goes without saying that the tradition of both the kings and theras of Ceylon as well as of their Indian contemporaries grew up and accumulated gradually. 380 A History of Pali Literature The stanzas quoted by Buddhaghosa may be traced verbatim in the Dipavamsa (p. 36). 1 Though a metrical composition, the verses of this earlier chronicle interspersed in places with certain prose passages some of which may be traced in such authoritative canonical texts as the Vinaya Cullavagga. 2 In the opening verses of the Dipa- vamsa we are told that the chronicle embodied in it was handed down by tradition from man to man (vamsam pavakkhami paramparagatam). So we need not be astonished to find certain verses occurring in the Vinaya Parivarapatha and furnish- ing the traditional materials for the Dipavamsa. The verses incorporated in the Parivarapatha may be just one of the isolated earlier specimens, there being many others that are probably now lost. Thus what we find in the Dipavamsa is the first fruit of a methodical attempt at the composition of a systematic chronicle narrative on the basis of certain traditions, prevalent in both prose and verse. We need not dilate further on this subject as we have dealt with it in detail in the section on the Pali chronicles. The very name of the atthakatha. Mahavamsa may sound strange to the ears of Atthakatha.Maha- t k ose w p 0 are taught to think that the Pali Mahavamsa is the first work of its kind. To get rid of this predilection the reader may do well to acquaint himself with the 1 Kathavatthuppakarana-atthakatha, J.P.T.S., 1889, p. 3, “ Vuttam pi c 5 etam Dipavamse : Mkkaddhit a papabhikkhu therehi Vajjiputtaka amlarh pakkham labhitvana adhammavadi bahu jana. Dasasahassa samagantva akaihsu dhammasamgaham tasmayam dhammasamgiti mahasamgiti vuccati.” 2 Dipavamsa, p. 33 “ tena kho pana samayena vassasatamhi nibbute bhagavati Vesalika Vajjiputtaka Vesaliyarh dasa vatthuni dipenti ; kappati singilonakappo, kappati dvangulakappo, kappati gamantarakappo , kappati avasakappo, kappati anumatikappo, kappati acinnakappo, kappati amathita- kappo, kappati jalogim patum, kappati adasakam nisldanam, kappati jataruparajatan ti.” Of. Vinaya Cullavagga, ch. xii, p. 294, Extra Canonical Works 381 verses forming the prologue of the great chronicle. In these opening verses, the author says : “ Mahavamsam pavakkhami nananunadhi- karikam. Poranehi kato p’eso ativittharito kvaei, ativa kvaci samkhitto, anekapunaruttako. Vajjitam tehi dosehi sukhaggahanadharanam” (Mahavamsa, Chapter I). Dr. Geiger translates “ I will recite the Maha- vamsa, of varied contents and lacking nothing. That (Mahavamsa) which was compiled by the ancient (sages) was here too long drawn out and there too closely knit ; and contained many repeti- tions. Attend ye now to this (Mahavamsa) that is free from such faults.” (Geiger’s translation of the Mahavamsa, p. 1.) Thus the author of the Pali Mahavamsa himself alludes to an earlier chronicle and claims that the chronicle composed by him was nothing but a thoroughly revised version of the earlier compilation. Here the question arises whether by the earlier compilations the author of the Pali Mahavamsa intended to mean the Dlpavamsa or some other work, especially only bearing the title of Mahavamsa. There are two arguments that may be placed in favour of the Dlpavamsa : (1) that the faults — “ here too long drawn out and there too closely knit ; and contained many repeti- tions ” are well applicable to the Dlpavamsa ; and (2) that the narrative of the Pali Mahavamsa, precisely like that of the Dlpavamsa is closed with an account of the reign of King Mahasena of Ceylon. Undoubtedly the Dlpavamsa is the earlier chronicle on which the Mahavamsa narrative was mainly based. But there are many points of difference, which are in some cases material. These cannot be satisfactorily accounted for without bringing in a somewhat different authority. Fortunately Dr. Geiger in his instructive dissertation on the Dipa- vamsa and the Mahavamsa has convincingly proved the existence of an earlier great chronicle in Sinhalese. 382 A History of Pali Literature He has been able to ascertain that the earlier form of the great chronicle was a part of a com- mentary written in old Sinhalese prose mingled with Pali verses. The commentary conld be found in different monasteries of Ceylon and it is just the other earlier work that served as a basis of the Pali Mahavamsa ascribed to Thera Mahanama (Geiger, Mahavamsa tr., intro., p. x). Among the important citizens of the ideal Dhammanagara the Milinda Panha The Schools of red- mentions some six schools of reciters ters > their views p « -* -i-v •» -*1 * , t i # < ■» and interpretations, of 1)1x0 Buddhist) UOiy t)6Xt)S 9 nSillloly ? (1) Jatakabhanaka, the reciters of the Jatakas, (2) Dighabhanaka, the reciters of the Dlgha Nikaya, (3) Majjhimabhanaka, the reciters of the Majjhima Nikaya, (4) Samyutta- bhanaka, the reciters of the Samyutta Nikaya, (5) Ahguttarabhanaka, the reciters of the Anguttara Nik§ya, and (6) the Khuddakabhanaka, the reciters of the Khuddaka Nikaya. To this list may be added Dhammapadabhanaka, the reciters of the Dhammapada, mentioned in Buddhaghosa’s Attha- salini (p. 18). Bhanaka or a reciter of the Buddhist holy texts is met with in a large number of Buddhist votive inscriptions at Bharaut and Sanci as a distinctive epithet of the monks. Buddhaghosa in the introduction to his Sumangalavilasin! records a remarkable tradition accounting for the origin of the different schools of the bhanakas. The same tradition is met with in the Mahabodhivamsa with a slight variation. According to this tradition, it so happened that during the session of the first Buddhist Council as soon as the Vinaya was recited and the Vinaya texts were compiled, the preservation of the Vinaya traditions and texts by regular recita- tions was entrusted to the care of the venerable Upali while in the course of rehearsal of the Dhammapada, the Dighagama or the Bxgha Nikaya came to be compiled, the preservation of this text was entrusted to the care of the venerable Ananda ; in a similar way the preservation of the Majjhimagama or the Extra Canonical Works 383 Majjhima Nikaya was entrusted to the care of the disciples of Sariputta; that of Samyuttagama or the Samyutta Nikaya was entrusted to the care of the venerable Kassapa, that of the Ekuttaragama was entrusted to the care of the venerable Anuruddha. Thus one is to conceive the rise of the five schools of bhanakas, to wit, Vinayabhanaka, Dlghabhanaka, Majjhimabhanaka, Samyutta- bhanaka, and Anguttarabhanaka (Barua and Sinha, Bharut Inscriptions, p. 9 ; Sumangalavilasini, I, pp. 13-15). With the progress of time, anyhow by the time of Buddhaghosa the schools of reciters appear to have developed into some distinct schools of opinion and interpretation. No other reasonable inference may be drawn from Buddhaghosa’s cita- tions of their authorities. 1 The individual teachers of Ceylon 2 whose views have been quoted and discussed here and there by Buddhaghosa in his various commentaries may be supposed to have belonged to this or that school of reciters 3 and we need not consider their case separately here. 1 Sumangalavilasini, I, p. 15. 44 Tato par am Jatakam Maha- nidcleso Cula-niddeso Pati-sambhida-maggo Sutta-nipato Dhamma- padam Udanam Itivuttakam Vimana-peta-vatthu Thera-theri- gatha ti imam tantim samgayitva Khuddaka-gantho nama ayan ti ea vaiva, Abhidhamma-pitakasmim yeva samgaham aropayimsuti Digha-bhanaka vadanti, Majjhima-bhanaka pana Cariya-pitaka- Apadana-Buddhavamsesu saddhim sabbam pi tam Khuddaka- ganthaih suttant a -pi^ak© pariyapannan ti vadanti.” Atthasalini, p. IS — 44 Dhammapadabhanaka pana Anekaj atisamsaram sandhavissam anibbisam gahakarakam gavesanto. Dukkha jati punappunam. Gahakaraka di^ho 4 si puna geham na kahasi, Sabba te phasuka bhagga gahakutam visankhitam, visankharagatam cittam tanhanam khayam ajjhaga ti Idarh pathamabuddhavaeanam nama ti vadanti See for other references Atthasalini, pp. 151, 399, 420 noticed for the first time by Mrs. Rhys Davids in her Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics, p. xxx. 2 We mean such teachers as Tipit-aka Culanaga thera in the Atthasalini, pp. 229, 230, 266, 267, 284 and the Tipitaka Maha- dhammarakkhita thera in the ibid,, pp. 267, 278, 286, 287. 3 Cf. Visuddhimagga, p. 313. Samyuttabhanaka-Cula-Sivathera. CHAPTER Y PALI COMMENTARIES Before proceeding to deal with the Pali com- mentaries it would be interesting to record here biographical sketches of three of the most celebrated Buddhist scholiasts. Buddhadatta, a contemporary of Buddhaghosa, was a celebrity of the Mahavihara Buddhadatta. (^y} on an( j wag an inhabitant of the Kaveri region in the kingdom of the Cholas. He was bom in Uragapura (modern Uraiyur) 1 and flourished during the reign of King Accutavikkanta of the Kalamba (Kadamba) dynasty. His works which were all written in the famous monastery erected by Kanhadasa (Kisnadasa) or Venhudasa (Visnudasa), evidently a new Vaisnava reformer of the Deccan, 2 on the banks of the river Kaveri are so far as known to comprise the following : (1) Uttaravinicchaya \ ,{ 2 ) Vinayavinicchaya /Known as Buddha- (3) Abhidhammavatara l datta’s Manuals. (4) Ruparupavibhaga ) -and (5) MadhuratthavilasinI, a commentary on the Buddha vamsa. He was a patriotic poet of considerable reputa- tion. It is stated in the Vinayavinicchaya that when Buddhadatta was going to India from Ceylon, he was met by Buddhaghosa who was then proceed- ing to Ceylon at the request of the Buddhist monks of India with the object of translating the Sinhalese commentaries into Pali. Hearing of the mission of Buddhaghosa of whose deep learning he was fully convinced and delighted thereat Buddhadatta spoke 1 Barua, Religion of Asoka ; Bhandarkar, Asoka, 2nd Ed., p. 42. 2 Skandapurana, ! 385 Pali Commentaries thus, “ When you finish the commentaries, please send them up to me so that I may summarise your labours ”. Buddhaghosa said that he would gladly comply with this request and the Pali commentaries were accordingly placed in the hands of Buddha- datta who summed up the commentaries on the Abhidhamma in the Abhidhammavatara and those on the Vinaya in the V inaya vinicchaya (vide Buddhadatta’s Manuals or Summaries of Abhi- dhamma, edited by A. P. Buddhadatta, for the P.T.S. in 1915, p. xix). Buddhadatta was no doubt a great scholar. From the Vinayavinicchaya com- mentary we know that he was highly esteemed by the eminent commentators, Sariputta Sangharaja, Buddhaghosa, and other great scholars of the period for his scholarly attainments (cf . Madisapi kavi honti Buddhadatte divangate). Buddhadatta opens his scheme with a fourfold division of the compendium, e.g., mind, mental properties, material quality, and Nibbana ; while Buddhaghosa expounds his psychology in terms of the five Khandhas. In this respect Buddhadatta’s representation is perhaps better than that of Buddha- ghosa. 1 There is no reason to disbelieve the statement that the two teachers met each other. It is clear that they drew materials from the same source. This fact well explains why the Visuddhimagga and the Abhidhammavatara have so many points in common. Buddhadatta has rendered invaluable service to the study of the Abhidhamma tradition which has survived in Thera vada Buddhism to the present day. The legendary account is that Buddha- datta put in a condensed shape that which Buddha- ghosa handed on in Pali from the Sinhalese com- mentaries. “But the psychology and philosophy are presented through the prism of a second vigor- ous intellect, under fresh aspects, in a style often less discursive and more graphic than that of the 1 Mrs. Bhys Davids, Buddhist Psychology, Second Ed., p. 174. -386 A History of Pali Literature great commentator, and with a strikingly rich vocabulary.” As we have already pointed out that when on sea Buddhadatta met Buddhaghosa and learnt that the latter was going to Ceylon to render the Sinhalese commentaries into Pali. He requested Buddha- ghosa to send him the commentaries when finished so that he might summarise his labours. Buddha- ghosa complied with his request. Buddhadatta then summed up the commentaries on the Abhi- •dhamma in the Abhidhammavatara and then on the Vinaya in the Vinayavinicehaya. Mrs. Rhys Davids says, “ It is probably right to conclude that they both were but handing on an analytical formula which had evolved between their own time and that of the final closing of the Abhidhamma Pitaka (Buddhist Psychology, Second Ed., p. 179). Like Buddhaghosa, Buddhadatta employed the simile of the purblind and the lame to explain the relation between Hama and Rupa (Abhidhamma- vatara, P.T.S., p. 115). Buddhadatta’s division of the term into Samuha and Asamuha is another interesting point {ibid., p. 83). It will be remembered that such a division of terms as this was far in advance of the older classification embodied in the Puggalapannatti commentary (P.T.S., p. 173). Supposing that Kumaragupta I of the Imperial Gupta dynasty was a contemporary Kong of Ceylon and that Buddhaghosa was a contemporary of Thera Buddhadatta it follows that King Accuta- vikkanta of the Kalamba dynasty was a contem- porary of Kumaragupta I. / According to Rev. A. P. Buddhadatta, Buddha- i datta was either older than Buddhaghosa or of the bsame age with him. “Ayampana Buddhadatta- ! cariyo Buddhaghosacariyena samana vassiko va l thokam vuddhataro va ti saUakkhema ” (Vinna- | panam, pp. xiii-xiv, Buddhadatta’s Manuals, 1915). This statement is however doubtful. In the Buddha- ghosuppatti (p. 50) we find Buddhadatta addressing .Buddhaghosa by the epithet 4 Avusa ’ which is Pali Commentaries 387 applied to one who is younger in age. The passage runs thus “ Avuso Buddhaghosa, aham taya pubbe Lankadipe Bhagavato sasanam katum agatomhi ti vatva, aham appayuko This shows that according to the tradition recorded in the Buddha- ghosuppatti, Buddhaghosa was younger than Buddhadatta. The different accounts of the comparative age t of Buddhadatta and Buddhaghosa are hardly re- , concilable. The account given in the introduction of the Abhidhammavatara clearly shows that . Buddhadatta lived to write abridgments of some 1 of Buddhaghosa’s works. This goes against the j legend contained in the Buddhaghosuppatti that Buddhadatta left Ceylon earlier than Buddhaghosa without translating the Sinhalese Atthakatha apprehending that he was not to live long. I n the history of Pali literature, the name of _ , Buddhaghosa stands out pre-eminent as one of the greatest commentators and exegetists. He is one of those Indian celebrities who have left for us no other records of their career than their teachings and works to be appraised for what they are worth. So far as his life history is concerned we have nothing except his commentaries and a few legends and traditions, and it is not an easy matter to separate the few grains of biographi- cal detail from the mass of extraneous matter gathered in them. Besides the meagre references that Buddhaghosa himself has made to the details of his life in his great commentaries, the earliest connected account of his life is that contained in the second part of Chapter XXXVII of the great Ceylonese chronicle, the Mahavamsa. This section, however, is considered to be later than the remaining portions of the Chronicle, having been added by Dhammakitti, a Ceylonese Sramana of the middle of the 13th century A.D. This compilation though made after the lapse of more than eight hundred years is not altogether unworthy of credence, and is very probably derived from older materials. 388 A History of Pali Literature Buddhaghosa, according to this account, was a brahmin youth born in the neighbourhood of the terrace of the great Bo-tree in Magadha. After he had accomplished himself in the “ Vijja ” and the “ Sippa ” and achieved the knowledge of the three “ Vedas ”, he estabhshed himself in the character of a disputant, in a certain Vihara. There he was once met by a Buddhist thera who convinced the brahmin youth of the superiority of the Buddha’s doctrine and converted him to the Buddhist faith. As he was as profound in his ‘ ghosa ’ or eloquence as the Buddha, they conferred on him the appella- tion of Buddhaghosa or the voice of the Buddha. He had already composed an original work called ‘ l^anodayam ’ and written the chapter called “ Atthasalini” on the Dhammasangani. He went to Ceylon to study the Sinhalese Atthakatha in order to undertake the compilation of a “ Paritta-attha- katha ” or a general commentary on the Pitakattaya. He visited the island in the reign of King Maha- nama, and there at the Mahapadhana Hall in the Mahavihara at Anuradhapura, he listened to the Atthakatha and the Thera vada, became thoroughly convinced of the true meaning of the doctrine of the Lord of Dhamma, and then sought the permission of the priesthood to translate the Atthakatha. In order to convince them of his qualifications he composed the commentary called “ Visuddhi- maggam ” out of only two gathas which the priests had given him as a test. Most successfully he came out of the test to the rejoicings of the priest- hood ; and taking up his residence in the secluded Ganthakara Vihara at Anuradhapura, he translated according to the grammatical rules of the Magadhas, the whole of the Sinhalese Atthakatha (into Pali). Thereafter, the object of his mission being fulfilled, he returned to Jambudvipa to worship the Bo-tree at Uruvela in Magadha. The most important service that Dhammakitti (the author of the supplementary chapter of the Mahavamsa from which the above account is com- 389 Pali Commentaries piled) 1 renders to our knowledge of the great sage is that he fixes definitely the time when Buddha- ghosa lived. The King Mahanama as the Ceylonese chronicle shows, reigned in the first half of the 5th century A.D. ; and as Buddhaghosa visited Ceylon and worked there during this period we can be certain about the age he lived in. This date is also substantiated by internal evidence derived from the commentaries of Buddhaghosa himself. He shows his acquaintance with the Milinda Panha as also to other post-canonical Buddhist works, such as the Petakopadesa and Anagatavamsa besides some ancient Atthakathas, and other works which are no longer extant. 2 It is to be observed that in none of these cases there is the least reason for thinking that any of the works quoted from or referred to by Buddhaghosa was of a later date than that allotted to him by Dhammakitti. The Burmese tradition as recorded by Bishop Bigandet also points to the beginning of the 5th century A.D. as the time when the great commentator is said to have visited the shores of Suvannabhumi. 3 Dhammakitti’s account of Buddhaghosa’s pro- ficiency in the Vedas and other branches of brahmani- cal learning is also substantially correct. It is confirmed by internal evidence from the great exegete’s own commentaries ; they reveal that he was acquainted with the four Vedas as also with the details of Vedie sacrifices. But the Vedic texts were not the only brahmanical works known to Buddhaghosa. He reveals his knowledge of “ Itihasa ”, of the brahmanical sutras as also of the different systems of Hindu Philosophy. Besides these comparatively authentic accounts of the life of the great commentator, there is a mass 1 The aceotuat given by Dhammakitti of the life of Buddhaghosa agrees generally with what the great exegetist has said about himself in his own commentaries, specially in the Nidanakatha or story of the origin of the works at their respective beginnings. For details see my 44 Buddhaghosa ”, pp. 15-24. 2 For details, see my 44 Buddhaghosa ”, pp. 9-10. 3 Buddhaghosa’s Parables by Capt. T, Rogers, p. xvi, in. i. 390 A History of Pali Literature of legendary accounts of bis life. Such legends are found in the Buddhaghosuppatti, also known as the Mahabuddhaghosassa Nidanavatthu by the priest Mahamangala who lived in Ceylon evidently after the time when the Mahavamsa account was written. Other late works of the Southern school such as the Gandhavamsa, the Sasanavamsa, and the Saddham- masangaha furnish some additional details. But the accounts of all these works are of the nature of legends in which fact and fiction are often hopelessly blended together. In their kernel, however, they agree in more important points with Dhammakitti’s account in the Mahavamsa. Of further points we learn that Buddhaghosa’s father was one Kesi, a brahmin preceptor who used to instruct the king of the realm in the Vedas ; Kesi was, however, later on converted by his son. The Buddhaghosuppatti refers to Buddhaghosa’s deep knowledge of Sanskrit displayed before the Ceylonese monks as also to his quick wisdom. Some are of opinion that after having completed his work in Ceylon, Buddhaghosa came to Burma to propagate the Buddhist faith. The Burmese ascribe the new era in their religion to the time when he visited their country from Ceylon. He is said to have brought over from that island to Burma, a copy of Kaecayana’s Pali Grammar which he translated into Burmese. He is also credited with having written a commentary on it. A volume of Parables in Burmese language is also attributed to him. The Burmese code of Manu, too, is said to have been introduced into Burma from Ceylon by the same Buddhist scholar. But the code itself is silent on this point. The Chronicles of Ceylon to which we owe the information about Buddhaghosa, and which must have been well-informed on the subject, give no account of his journey to Burma. All serious scholars doubt this tradition. 1 Buddhaghosa was not only a metaphysician. 1 Hackmann’s Buddhism as a Religion, p* 68* Pali Commentaries 391 His scholarship was wide and deep and of an ency- clopaedic character. His works reveal his knowledge of Astronomy, Grammar, Geography, of the Indian sects and tribes and kings and nobles of Buddhist India, of the fauna and flora of the country, of aneient manners and customs of the land, and of the history of Ceylon. The quality and bulk of the work produced in a single life time show that Buddhaghosa must have been toiling steadily and indefatigably, year in and year out, working out the mission with which he was entrusted by his teacher, immured in a cell of the great monastery at Anuradhapura. Such a life is necessarily devoid of events, and we cannot expect to find in it the variety and fulness of the life-story of a great political figure. Bom in Northern India, brought up in brahmanic traditions, versed in Sanskrit lore and an adherent of the system of Patanjali, it is really surprising to know how he acquired such a thorough mastery over the Pali language and literature and over Buddhist religion and philosophy. His was a useful career, and as long as Buddhism remains a living faith among mankind, Buddhaghosa will not cease to be re- membered with reverence and gratitude by Buddhist peoples and schools . 1 An inhabitant of South India, Dhammapala | ™ dwelt at Padaratittha in the realm t Dhammapala. » M TT i of the Damilas. He was also a celebrity of the Mahavihaxa. He seems to have based his commentaries on the Sinhalese Attha- kathas which were not preserved in the main land. T. W. Rhys Davids is of the opinion that Dhamma- pala and Buddhaghosa seem to have been educated at the same University. In support of this view he refers to the published works of the two writers, a careful study of which shows that they hold very 1 For a fuller and more detailed treatment read my book, “The Life and Work of Buddhaghosa Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta, 1923. ' 4 ■ 392 A History of Pali Literature similar views, they appeal to the same authorities, they have the same method of exegesis, they have reached the same stage in philological and ^ etymok>- gical science and they have the same lack of any knowledge of the simplest rules of the higher criticism The conclusion follows that as far as we can a present judge, they must have keen trained m the same school (Hastings Ency. of R. and E., Vol. It seems probable that Dhammapala was born at Kancipura, the capital of the Tamil country. Hiuen Tsang who visited Kancipura in the 7th century A.D. was told by the brethren^there that Dhammapala had been bom here at Kancipura. The Gandhavamsa (p. 60) enumerates the ’ following works ascribed to Dhammapala : (1) Nettipakarana-atthakatha, (2) Itivuttaka-attha- katha, (3) Udana-atthakatha, (4) Canyapitaka- atthakatha, (5) Thera and Theri-gatha-aglmlmtha, (6) Vimalavilasini or the Vimanavatthu-aghakatha, (7) Vimalavilasini, or the Petavatthu-atthakatha, (8) Paramatthamanjusa, (9) Linattha-pakasim on the four atthakathas of the four nikayas, (10) Lfnatthapakasini on the Jataka-atjpiakatha,^ (II) Nettittha-kathayatika, (12) Paramattha-dipam, and (13) Linatthavannana. From his works it appears that Dhammapala was well read and well informed. His explanation of terms is very clear. His commentaries throw •considerable light on the social, religious, moral, and philosophical ideas of time like the commentaries of Buddhaghosa. In his commentaries Dhamma- pala follows a regular scheme. First comes an introduction to the whole collection of poems, giving the traditional account of how it came to be put together. Then each poem is taken separately. After explaining how, when, and by whom it was composed each clause in the poem is quoted and explained philologically and exegeticaEy. Mrs. Rhys Davids in her introduction to the translation of the Therigatha (PSS. of the Sisters, 393 Pali Commentaries p. xvi) says “ In the 5th or 6th century A.D. either before or just after Buddaghosa had flourished, and written his great commentaries on the prose works of the Vinaya and Sutta Pitakas, Dhammapala of Kaneipura, now Conjeeveram, wrote down in Pali the unwritten expository material constituting the then extant three Atthakathas on the Psalms and incorporated it into his commentary on three other books of the Canon, naming the whole 4 Para- matthadipanl or Elucidation of the Ultimate Mean- ing He not only gives the akhyana in each Psalm but adds a paraphrase in the Pali of his day, of the more archaic idiom in which the gathas were compiled.” She further points out that the pre- sentation of verses, solemn or otherwise, in a frame- work of prose narrative is essentially the historical Buddhist way of imparting canonical poetry. Dhammapala’s chronicles are, for the most part, unduplieated in any other extant work ; but not seldom they run on all fours, not only with parallel chronicles in Buddhaghosa’s commentaries, but also with a prose framework of poems in Sutta Nipata or Samyutta Nikaya, not to mention the Jataka (PSS. of the Brethren, p. xxv). According to Indian tradition, a commentary means reading new meanings back 0r li in * into old texts according to one’s commentaries. own education and outlook. It explains the words and judgments of others as accurately and faithfully as possible ; and this remark applies to all commentaries, Sanskrit as well as Pali. The commentary or bhasya, as it is called in Sanskrit, implies, as suggested by the great Sanskrit poet Magha in his famous kavya, * Sisupalabadha ’, an amplification of a condensed utterance or expression which is rich in meaning and significance : “ Samkhiptasyapyatosyaiva vakyasyartha- gariyasah Suvistarataravaeobhasyabhuta bhavantu me” (ii. 24) ; 394 A History of Pali Literature but at the same time an element of originality is also implied by its definition as given by Bharata in his lexicography. “ Those who are versed in the bhasyas call that a bhasya wherein the meaning of a condensed saying (sutra) is presented in words that follow the text and where, moreover, the own words of the commentator himself are given.” “ Sutrartho varnyate yatra padaih sutranu- saribhih Svapadani ca varnyante bhasyam bhasya- vidoviduh Iti Lingadisamgrahatikayam Bharatah ” — (Sabdakalpadruma). The need for an accurate interpretation of the Buddha’s words which formed the guiding principle of life and action of the members of the Samgha, was felt from the very first, even during the life time of the Master. There was at that time the advantage of referring a disputed question for solution to the Master himself, and therein we can trace the first stage in the origin of the Buddhistic comments. The Buddhist and Jaina texts tell us that the itinerant teachers of the time wandered about in the country, engaging themselves wherever they stopped in serious discussions on matters relating to religion, philosophy, ethics, morals, and polity. Discussions about the interpretation of the abstruse utterances of the great teachers were frequent and the raison d'etre of the development of the Buddhist literature, particularly of the com- mentaries, is to be traced in these discussions. There are numerous interesting passages in the Tripitaka, telling us how from time to time con- temporary events suggested manifold topics of discussion among the bhikkhus, or how their peace was disturbed by grave doubts calling for explanations either from the Buddha himself or from his disciples. Whenever an interested sophist spoke vehemently in many ways in dispraise of the Buddha, the Doctrine, and the Order (Digha, I) ; Pali Commentaries 395 whenever another such sophist misinterpreted the Buddha’s opinion (Majjhima, Vol. Ill, pp. 207-8), whenever a furious discussion broke out in any con- temporary brotherhood (Majjhima, Vol. II, Samagama Sutta), or whenever a bhikkhu behaved improperly, the bhikkhus generally assembled under the pavilion to discuss the subject, or were exhorted by the Buddha or by his disciples to safeguard their interests by presenting a strong defence of their case. The Dlgha and Majjhima Nikayas contain many illuminating expositions of the Buddha, e.g., Mahakammavibhanga, the Salayatanavibhanga, (Majjhima, Vol. Ill, pp. 207-222), etc. Then we have from Thera Sariputta, the chief disciple of the Buddha, a body of expositions of the four Aryan truths, the Saccavibhahga. We have also to con- sider other renowned and profoundly learned disciples of the Buddha, among whom were some women, who in their own way helped forward the process of development of the commentaries. Mahakacca- yana wrote some exegetical works like Kaccayana- gandho, Mahaniruttigandho, etc. We have similar contributions from Mahakotthita, Moggallana, Ananda, Dhammadinna, and Khema, but it is needless to multiply instances. There is another class of ancient Buddhist literature, the poranas, of which our knowledge is at present based only upon some extracts in the atthakathas. We are told in the Gandhavamsa that those who are Poranacariya are also Attha- kathacariya, or teachers who wrote the atthakathas, and were evidently the earliest contributors to the commentary literature. A number of quotations made by Buddhaghosa may be found in his works concerning the views of the poranas. It shall be noted here that the poranas do not represent a consistent school of philosophical thought. Each teacher must have been responsible for himself alone, and it is hopeless to discover any organic connection among the numerous short and long passages attributed to the poranas in Buddhaghosa’s 396 A History of Pali Literature Works of three great Pali commen- tators. ancient India. writings (vide my “ The Life and Work of Buddha- ghosa,” Chap. III. There is a paper on the origin of the Buddhist arthakathas with introduction by R. C. Childers, J.R.A.S., 1871, pp. 289-302, which should be consulted). The works of Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosa, and Dhammapala are the most important Pali commentaries. They are rich in materials for reconstructing a secular and religious history of They also throw a flood of light on the philosophical, psychological, and metaphysical aspects of the period with which they deal. A large variety of information is available from these commentaries and hence their importance is very great. Thanks to the indefatigable labours of the Pah Text Society, London, for printing and publish- ing a major portion of the Pah commentaries and making them accessible to the reading public. Besides, there are some other Pah commentaries, such as the Saddhammapajjotika or a commentary on the Niddesa written by Upasena ; Saddham- mapakasinx, a commentary on the Patisambhi- damagga written by Mahanama Thera of Anuradha- pura, and the Visuddhajanavilasinl or a commentary on the Apadana written by an unknown author. A. Works of Buddhadatta Abhidhamma- vatara and Rupa- rupavibhaga. The Abhidhammavatara was written by Buddha- dattaT; and it has been in continuous use amongst the students of the Buddhist scriptures. Buddhadatta was held as a personage of excep- tionally high scholarly attainments by Buddha- ghosa and others. It is interesting to note the incidents which led to the writing of this work. Buddhadatta was going from Ceylon to India when he was met by Buddhaghosa who was then pro- ceeding to Ceylon for the purpose of rendering the commentaries into Pali. Knowing the Pali Commentaries 397 mission of Buddhaghosa, Bnddhadatta was highly pleased and spoke thus, “ When you finish the commentaries, please send them up to me that I may summarise your labours ”. Buddhaghosa con- sented to comply with his request and the Pali commentaries were accordingly placed in the hands of Buddhadatta who summed up the commentaries on the Abhidhamma in the Abhidhammavatara and that on the Yinaya in the Vinayavinicchaya . 1 He was the author of the Ruparupavibhaga and of the commentary on the Buddha vamsa. The Abhidhammavatara is written partly in prose and partly in verse. It discusses the following points : — citta, nibbana, cetasika (that which relates to the mind), arammana (object ideation), vipaka citta (consequence of mindfulness), rupa (form), pannatti (designation), etc. The Ruparupavibhaga deals with rupa, arupa, citta, cetasika, etc. It is written in prose. Rev. A. P. Buddhadatta has edited Buddhadatta’s ' Manuals or summaries of Abhidhamma (Abhi- dhammavatara and Ruparupavibhaga) for the first time for the P.T.S., London. The Vinayavinicchaya and Uttaravinicchaya containing the summaries of the vinayavinicchaya Vinaya Pitaka have been edited by and uttaravmic- ,, v> 'a t* t» i n i aj. £ chaya. the Rev. A. P. Buddhadatta ot Ceylon, and published by the Pali Text Society of London. These two treatises on the Vinaya seem to have been composed, after the Samantapasadika, in an abridged form, in verses. The Vinayavinicchaya contains thirty-one chapters whereas the Uttaravinicchaya contains twenty- three chapters. The author of these treatises was * a distinguished thera named Buddhadatta who was \ a native of Uragapur (or modem Uraiyur) on the j banks of the Kaverl in the Chola Kingdom of South j India. The Vinayavinicchaya was composed while he was residing in a monastery built by Pindidasa Vide Buddhadatta’s Manuals, p, xix. || Hi Uju 398 A History of Pali Literature in the neighbourhood of Bhutamangala, a pros- perous town on the banks of the Kaveri, during the reign of Bang Aeyutavikrama of the Kalamba clan. According to the editor of these treatises Buddha- datta and Buddhaghosa were contemporaries ; but the former was senior to the latter. Buddhadatta came to Ceylon earlier, studied the Sinhalese com- mentaries and summarised them in Pali. There are two Pali commentaries of these two treatises. The commentary on the Vinayavinicehaya is known as the Vinayasaratthadlpanl and that on the Uttaravinacehaya as the Uttaralmatthapakasin! supposed to have been written by Vacissara Maha- sami. There is also a Sinhalese commentary on the Vinayavinicehaya written by Kang Parakrama- vahu II but this work is now extinct. The Vinayavinicehaya opens with the Parajika- katha in verses and is followed by the Sangha- disesakatha, Aniyatakatha, Nissaggiya-Pacittiya- katha, Patidesaniyakatha, and the Sekhiyakatha. Thus the Bhikkhuvibhanga is closed. Then this treatise deals with the Bhikkhunivibhahga under the following heads : Parajikakatha, Sanghadisesa- katha, Mssaggiya-Pacittiyakatha and Patidesaniya- katha. Then khandhakakatha, kammakatha, pakinnakatha, and kammatthanakatha are narrated in verses. The treatise consists of 3,183 verses which are written in simple language and marked by good diction. The Uttaravinicehayakatha consists of 969 verses. Under the Mahavibhahga it treats of the Parajikakatha, Patidesaniyakatha and Sekhiyakatha. Under the Bhikkhunivibhahga it deals with Parajika- katha, Sanghadisesakatha, Nissaggiyakatha, Pacittiyakatha, Catuvipattikatha, Adhikaranap- paecayakatha, Khandhakapu echa, Apattisamut- thanakatha, Ekuttaranaya, Sedamocakagatha, Sadharanasadharanakatha, Lakkhanakatha, and Sabbasahkalananaya. The Madhuratthavilasini is a commentary on the Buddha vamsa. The author was Buddhadatta Pali Commentaries 399 Thera. Spence Hardy mentions a commentary on the Buddhavamsa by Buddhaghosa. This is pro- bably the Atthakatha called the Madhuratthavilasini whose authorship is assigned by Grimbolt not to Buddhaghosa but to a Buddhist monk living at the mouth of the Kaver! in South India. 1 There is a valuable edition of this commentary by Yogirala Pannananda Thera revised by Mahagoda Siri Kanissara Thera, Colombo, 1922. B. Works of Buddhaghosa The Visuddhimagga 2 was written by Buddha- TT . ghosa at the request of the Thera isu imagga. Sanghapala, it is generally believed, in Ceylon in the beginning of the 5th century A.D., when King Mahanaman was on the throne at Anura- dhapura. Buddhaghosa, on reaching the Mahavihara (Anuradhapura) entered the Mahapadhana Hall, according to the account of the Mahavamsa, the great Ceylonese Chronicle, and listened to the Sinhalese Atthakatha and the Thera vada, from the beginning to the end, and became thoroughly convinced that they conveyed the true meaning of the doctrines of the Lord of Dhamma. Thereupon paying reverential respect to the priesthood, he thus petitioned : “ I am desirous of translating the Atthakatha ; give me access to all your books ”. The Ceylonese priest- hood for the purpose of testing his qualification, gave only two gathas saying, “ Hence prove thy qualification ; having satisfied ourselves on this point, we will then let thee have all our books”. From these (taking these gathas for his text), and consulting the Pitakattaya, together with the Atthakatha and condensing them into an abridged form, he composed the commentary ealled the “ Visuddhimaggam 1 Indian Antiquary, April, 1890, Vol. XIX, p. 119. 2 The V isuddMmaggagan thi, a Burmese Pali work, explains the difficult passages of the Visuddhimagga (Bode, Pali Literature of Burma, p. 19, in.). 400 A History of Pali Literature The Mahavamsa account of the circumstances that led to the composition of the “ Visuddhimagga ” agrees substantially with what Buddhaghosa has written about himself in the Mdanakatha, or story of the origin of the works at their respective beginnings. Thus in the Mdanakatha to his Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosa at the very beginning quotes the following gatha of Buddha’s own saying : — “ Sile patitthaya naro sapanno, Cittam pannam ca bhavayam, AtapI nipako bhikkhu, So imam vijataye jatanti.” (After having been established in precepts, a wise person should think of samadhi and panna, an active and wise bhikkhu disentangles this lock.) Next he proceeds to record the circumstances under which he wrote Iris compendium of Buddhism (i.e., the Visuddhimagga). “ The real meaning of Sila, etc., is described by means of this stanza uttered by the great sage. Having acquired or- dination in the Order of the Jina and the benefit of the Sila, etc., which is tranquil and which is the straight path to purity, the yogis who are desirous of obtaining purity, not knowing purity as it is, do not get purity though they exert. I shall speak of the Visuddhimagga according to the instruction of the dwellers of the Mahavihara, which is pleasing to them, and which is the correct in- terpretation : Let all the holy men who are desirous of obtaining purity listen to what I say, attentively ” (Visuddhimagga, P.T.S., Vol. I, p. 2). At the end of the work again, Buddhaghosa returns to that very gatha which he has adopted as his text for writing the Visuddhimagga, and after referring to his promise quoted above, thus delivers himself : “ The interpretation of the mean- ings of the Sila, etc., has been told in the attha- kathas on the five nikayas. All of them being taken into consideration, the interpretation gradually be- comes manifest, being free from all faults due to 401 Pali Commentaries confusion ; and it is for this reason that the Visuddhimagga should be liked by the Yogis who are desirous of obtaining purity and who have pure wisdom.” Thus, according to Buddhaghosa, the whole of his Visuddhimagga was written as a commentary on that one gatha uttered by the Master. Evidently it was this gatha which the writer of the Maha- vamsa account had in his mind when he wrote that the Visuddhimagga was written as a comment on and expansion of the two gathas which were set by the Sinhalese Samgha residing at the Mahavihara to test Buddhaghosa’s learning and efficiency. The Visuddhimagga is in fact an abridged edition of the three pitakas, the Vinaya, the Sutta, and the Abhidhamma, whose main arguments and con- clusions are here condensed into a single treatise. In the gatha itself, of which the Visuddhimagga is a commentary, there is however no mention either of the word “ Visuddhi ” or “ Magga ” ; but there is mention of sila, samadhi, and panna. Strict observance of the sllas leads to the purification or visuddhi of the kaya or body, while the practice of samadhi leads to the purity of soul and the thinking of panna to perfect Wisdom. A wise man alone is capable of disentangling the net of cravings and desires and is fit to attain Nirvana. The disentangl- ing of the lock, as it is called, is the final goal, it is called “ visuddhi ” ; and sila, samadhi, and panna are the ways or “ magga ” to attain to it. As the ways or “ magga ” to attain to Purity or “ visuddhi ” have been explained in the book, it is called “ Visuddhimagga ” or “ Path of Purity ”. The vocabulary of the text is astonishingly rich as compared with the archaic simplicity of the pitakas. The quotations in the Visuddhimagga from the pitakas, the Sinhalese commentaries, the poranas, etc., are numerous ; in other words it is an abridged compilation of the three pitakas to- gether with quotations from atthakathas. The work deals with kusala, akusala, a vyakatadhammas, . 402 A History of Pali Literature ayatana, dhatu, satipatthanas, kammas, pakati and many other topics of Buddhist philosophy, and may be said to contain, in fact, the whole of the Buddhist philosophy in a nutshell. Sila (conduct, precept), samadhi (concentration) and panna (wisdom) are the three essential matters which are dealt with in this work. In the chapter on sila are explained cetanasila, cetasika sila and samvarasila. The advantage of sila is also mentioned therein. There are in it Patimokkhasamvaraslla and Indriyasam- varasila. Patimokkha (monastic rule) is samvara (restraint) which purports to speak of restraint in form, sound, smell, contact, etc. It is interesting to read the section dealing with various kinds of precepts as well as the section on Dhutangas. The subject of concentration is next discussed — its nature, its advantages and disadvantages. Meditation comes in next for explanation — the four stages of meditation : meditation on fire, wind, water, delight, demerits, etc. The section on meditation on demerits is important containing the discussion of a variety of topics, viz. : Buddhanussati (re- collection of the Buddha), Dhammanussati (re- collection of dhamma), Samghanussati (recollection of samgha), caganussati (recollection of self-sacrifice), devatanussati (recollection of gods), purity on account of recollection, maranasati, kayagatasati, upasamanussati, mettabhavana, karunabhavana, upekkh&bhavana, akasanancayatana-kammatthana, akincannayatanakammatthanam, nevasannana- sannayatanakammatthanam, and aharepatikula- sannabhavana. Ten iddhis or miraculous powers next come in for systematic treatment. There is one section on abhinna (supernatural knowledge) in which is discussed the nature and definition of wisdom, its characteristics, and the advantage of contemplating on it. Rupa, vedana, sanna, and samkhara come one after the other for elucidation ; points worth considering in this connection are those on ayatana (abode), indriya (senses), sacca (truth), dukkha (suffering), paticcasamuppada 4oa Pali Commentaries (dependent origination) and namarupa (name and form). Maggamagga Sanadassanavisuddhi is this : this is the right path and this is not the right path, the knowledge which has been well acquired is what is called maggamaggananadassanavisuddhi. Further may be noted the discussions of the nine important forms, viz. : delight, knowledge, faith, thorough grasp, happiness, emancipation, knowledge of all the four paths, right realisation of the truth and lastly removal of all sins. The Yisuddhimagga is really an encyclopaedia of Buddhism, a good abstract of Buddhist doctrines and metaphysics and a vast treasure house of Buddhist lore. It has earned for its author an everlasting fame. The SumangalavilasinI records the contents of the Visuddhimagga in a nutshell. The contents may be stated as follows : — nature of the silakatha, dhatudhamma, kammatthanam to- gether -with all the cariyavidhani, jhanani, the whole scope of the samapatti, the whole of abhinna, the exposition of the pafina, the khandha, the dhatu, the ayatanani, indriyani, cattariariyasaccani, paccayakara, the pure and comprehensive naya, magga and vipassanabhavana. Buddhaghosa is strong in his attacks on Pakati- vada, i,e., the Samkhya and Yoga systems which believe in the dual principles of Purusa and Prakriti. He showed an extravagant zeal for differentiating the Buddhist conception of avijja, from the Prakriti- vadin’s conception of Prakriti as the root cause of things (Yisuddhimagga, Vol. II, p. 525). The Visuddhimagga points out that the relation between phassa and its object is the relation between eye and form, ear and sound, mind and object of thought (p. .463). Vedana is of five kinds, sukham, dukkham, somanassam, domanassam and upekkha {Ibid., Vol. II, p. 460). Safina is only perception of external appearance of an object, while vinfiana means thorough knowledge of the thing {Ibid., Vol. II, p. 462). According to the Visuddhimagga 404 A History of Pali Literature (Chap. XIV) we have 51 Saihkharas (confections) beginning with phassa (contact) and ending in vicikiccha (doubt). Kaxnma, according to Buddha- ghosa, means consciousness of good or bad, merit and demerit (Visuddhimagga, Vol. II, p. 614). K amma is of four kinds : kamma which produces result in this life and in the nest life, kamma which produces result from time to time and past kamma {Ibid., p. 601). There is no kamma, he says, in vipaka and no vipaka in kamma. Each of them is void by itself, at the same time there is no vipaka without kamma. A kamma is thus void of its vipaka (consequence) which comes through kamma. Vipaka comes into origin on account of kamma {Ibid., Vol. II, p. 603). Cons- ciousness is due to samkhara which is produced by ignorance {Ibid., p. 600). Saihkharas owed their existence in the past and will owe their existence in future to avij ja {Ibid . , 522 f . ). The Visuddhimagga enumerates the twelve ayatanas as cakkhu, rupa, sota, sadda, jhana, gandha, jihva, rasa, kaya, phottabba, mana, and dhamma {Ibid., Vol. II, p. 481). The sense organs are due to kamma and it is kamma which differentiates them {Ibid., pp. 444-445). In the section on rupakkhandha, Buddhaghosa has divided rupa into two, viz. : bhutarupa and upadarupa. By bhutarupa four great elements are implied whereas by upadarupa are implied twenty-four kinds {Ibid., Vol. II, p. 259 ; Ibid., pp. 443-444). The Visuddhimagga contains a description of the evil effects of the violation of sila (Vol. I,’pp. 6- 58). Buddhaghosa takes the word “ Inda ” in the sense of the Buddha (Visuddhimagga, p. 491). In his Visuddhimagga (Vol. II, Ch. XVI) he mentions twenty-two indriyas beginning from cakkhundriya or organ of the eye and ending with annatavindriya. Upekkha (indifference) according to him is of ten kinds beginning from ehalahga (six senses) and ending with parisuddhi (purification) (Visuddhi- magga, Vol. I, p. 160). The advantages of praetis- Pali Commentaries 405 ing meditation are the five kinds of happy living (Ibid., Vol. I, p. 84 foil.). Nirvana includes absence of passion, destruction of pride, killing of thirst, i freedom from attachment and destruction of all sensual pleasures. These are the attributes of Nirvana (Visuddhimagga, Yol. I, p. 293) which can be attained, it is suggested, through meditation, wisdom, precept, steadfastness, etc. (Vol. I, p. 3). Buddhaghosa had a fair knowledge of Anatomy as is evident from his account of the thirty-two parts of the body recorded in his Visuddhimagga 1 2 * * * (Vol. I, pp. 249-265). The Samanatapasadika 8 is a voluminous com- 0 , mentary on the five books of the Vmaya Pitaka. It was written by Buddhaghosa at the request of the Thera Buddhasiri. The principal contents of the book are as follows : — (I) The cause that led to the holding of the Buddhist council, (2) Selection of members for the_Council, (3) The Council cannot be held without Ananda, (4) Place of the Council, (5) What Ananda did with Gandhakuti, (6) Eighteen Mahaviharas, (7) Building of a nice pandal for the meeting, (8) Recital of the first and last words of the Buddha, (9) Classification f of the Vinaya, Sutta, and the Abhidhamma, (10) | How Vinaya was handed down to the third Council, (II) Life of Moggali Brahmana, (12) Account of Asoka, (13) Preachers sent by Asoka, (14) Discussions on pltisukha and jhanas, (15) Importance of Vajji- bhumi and Vajjiputtaka, (16) Various kinds of pregnancy, (17) Account of Mahavana at Vesali, (18) Importance of Bharukaccha as a port, (19) 1 There is a book called Paramatthaman j usa which is a scholium on Visuddhimagga. Besides the P.T.S. edition of the Visuddhi- magga there is an incomplete edition of this work in Bengali by Gopaldas Choudhury and Samana Punnananda, 1923. Bead H. C. Warren’s paper on Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga (9th International Congress of Orientalists, London, 1893). 2 Read “Pali Elements in Chinese Buddhism”, a translation of Buddhaghosa’s Samantapasadika, a commentary on the Vinaya, found in the Chinese Tripitaka by J. Takakusu, B.A. ; J.R.A.S., 1897. 406 A History of Pali Literature Account of Kutagarasala at Mahavana at Vais all, (20) Discussions on kammatthana, sati, samadhi, patisambhida, citta, vinnana, indriya and four paraj ikadhammas , etc. Unlike other commentaries of this nature, Samantapasadika is free from any elaborate tangle of similes and metaphors, and is •written in an easy language. 1 The facts and contents of historical and geo- graphical interest in this commentary may in short be stated as follows : — Once when they were much troubled on account of a famine at Veranja, the bhikkhus wanted to repair to another place. The Buddha, therefore, crossed the Ganges at Prayag direct from Veranja and reached Benares (Vol. I, 201). King Ajatasattu ruled Magadha for 24 years (Vol. I, 72). He bore the cost of repairing at Rajagaha 18 Mahaviharas which were deserted by the bhikkhus after the parinibbana of the Buddha (Vol. I, 9). The Blessed One passed away in the eighth year of Ajatasattu’s reign (Vol. I, p. 72). The missionaries who were sent to various places to preach the dhamma of Asoka were all natives of Magadha. Udaya Bhadda was one of the kings of Magadha who reigned for 25 years. He was succeeded by Susunaga who ruled for 18 years. Kalasoka had ten sons who ruled for 23 years. Then came the Nandas who ruled over the country for the same period. The Nanda dynasty was overthrown by Candgutta who ruled the kingdom for 24 years and he was succeeded by Bindusara who sat on the Magadhan throne for 18 years. He was succeeded by Asoka who also followed his father for some time 1 Portions of this work have been edited by Drs. Takakusu and Nagai for the P.T.S., London. Siamese, Sinhalese, and Burmese editions are available respectively in Siam, Ceylon, and Burma. A portion of the Pali SamantapasMika was rendered into Chinese by Sarhghabhadra in the 5th century A.D. (See Nariman’s Literary History of Sanskrit Buddhism, p. 263.) Pali Commentaries 407 in making donations to non-Buddhist ascetics and institutions. But being displeased with them he stopped further charities to them, and gave charities to the Buddhist bhikkhus alone (Vol. I, 44). Asoka’s income from the four gates of the city of Pataliputta was 4,00,000 kahapanas daily. In the sabha (council) he used to get 1,00,000 kahapanas daily (Vol. I, 52). Rajagaha was a good place having accommodation for a large number of bhikkhus (Vol. I, 8). Asoka is said to have enjoyed undivided sovereignty over all Jambudipa after slaying all his brothers except Tissa. He reigned without coronation for four years (Vol. I, 41). Two other kings of Magadha are mentioned in the Samantapasadika, Anuruddha, and Munda (Vol. I, 72-73). Anuruddha succeeded his father Udayi Bhadda and reigned for 18 years. Then came Naga Dasaka who reigned for 24 years. Naga Dasaka was banished by the citizens who anointed the minister named Susunaga as King (Vol. I, 72-73). Bimbisara is stated to have hundred sons (p. 41), and Asoka is said to have built 84,000 viharas in the whole of Jambudipa (p. 115). Reference is made to Pataliputta (p. 35) where the Kang Dham- masoka would appear and rule the whole of Jambudipa. There were eighteen Mahaviharas at Rajagaha (p. 9). On one occasion Mahakassapa asked Ananda about dhamma (p. 15). This commentary records the first and the last words of the Master (p. 17). The different classifications of the Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma Pitakas (p. 18) are detailed in this commentary. It contains also an interesting account of how Vinaya was handed down till the third council (p. 32). Then we have accounts of the Thera Moggali- putta Tissa (p. 37), who once went to a mountain named Ahoganga. In order to refute the doctrines of others, the thera composed the Kathavatthuppa- karana (p. 61). The commentary then gives an 111 5 III!:® Iflffllll fllflfll 408 A History of Pali Literature account of the missionaries sent to different countries by Moggaliputtatissatthera (63-64). The Samantapasadika refers to Kusinara, a town of the Mallas, where between the two Sala trees, on the full moon day of the month of Vesakha, the Blessed One passed away (p. 4). There are references to Campa and Gaggara (p. 121), and to many other places, e.g., Veranja (once visited by famine), Savatth!, Tambapanni, Suvannabhumi, Uttarapathaka visited by traders in horses (p. 176) ; Uttara-kuru, Kapilavatthu in- habited by many good families (p. 241), Bhaddiya, a city (p. 280), etc. Further, we are referred to the river Ganges, Baranasi (which was once reached by the Buddha after crossing the Ganges), Soreyya, Vesali, and Mahavana (p. 201). Mention is made of a village of the Vajjis (p. 207). We are told of the kings of the Licchavigana (p. 212). There is a reference to Uppalavanna, a beautiful daughter of a banker of Savatth! (p. 272). The commentary speaks of the Gijjhakuta mountain at Rajagaha where once the Blessed One dwelt (p. 285) and where Dabba, a Mallian, was once seen with a bhikkhu named Mettiya (p. 598), of Isigili, a mountain, and Kasi-Kosala countries (p. 286). Bimbisara is mentioned here as the Lord of the Magadhas who had an army of troops (p. 297). There was a golden cetiya (dagoba) built by Prince Uttara (Samantapasadika, Yol. Ill, p. 544). A banker named Ghosita built a monastery which was named after him (Ibid., p. 574). Veluvana was a garden surrounded by lapis lazuli and it was beautiful and of blue colour having a vault with a wall 18 cubits in circumference (Ibid., p. 575). During the reign of King Bhatiya there arose a dispute regarding the doctrine between the theras of Mahavihara and Abhayagiri (Ibid., 582). Kltagiri is described as a janapada (Ibid., 613). Savatth! is described as a city containing 57 hundred thousand families and Rajagaha is mentioned as a city in- habited by 18 kotis of human beings (Ibid., p. 614). Pali Commentaries 409 There is a reference to the Gotamaka Cetiya in Vesali visited by the Buddha (Ibid., p. 636). There is a reference to the Maha-atthakatha and Kurundatthakatha (p. 299). The Kahkhavitarani is a masterly commentary x , .... . on the Patimokkha, a book of the Vmaya Pitaka 1 ; and was written by Buddhaghosa in his own initiative some time between 410 and 432 A.D. A manuscript of an ancient Sinhalese glossary on this work is preserved in the Government Oriental Library, Colombo. The work is remarkable for the restraint and mature judgment that characterise Buddhaghosa’s style. While com- menting on the precepts of the Patimokkha, he has incidentally brought in much new information throwing light on the later development of the monastic life of the Buddhists. The Sumangalavilasini 2 is a famous com- Commentaries on mentary on the Digha Nikaya, the Sutta Pitakar— written by the celebrated Buddhist viialn" m the g com- exegete Buddhaghosa at the request mentary on the of the Sanghathera Datha. It is Digha Nikaya. rich in historical information and folklore, and abounds in narratives which throw a flood of light on the social, political, philosophical, and religious history of India at the time of the Buddha. A vivid picture of sports and pastimes as well as valuable geographical and other data of ancient days are carefully provided in it.® The book gives us a glimpse of the erudite learning of Buddhaghosa who flourished in the 5th century A.D. Its language is a bit less confused than that of his other commentaries. In the introductory verses of his Sumahgala- vilasinl, Buddhaghosa makes the following reference 1 We have Sinhalese and Burmese editions of this work. 2 Read Pa^hamasaratthamanj usa which is a scholium on the Sumangalavilasini s The whole work has been printed and published in Burma, two of the sermons in two parts have been published in Ceylon and there is also an excellent Sinhalese edition in three parts. 410 A History of Pali Literature to the history of the composition of his commentaries. Thus he observes : — “ Through the influence of serene mind and merit which are due to the salutation of the Three Refuges and which put an end to obstacles, in order to explain the meaning of the Dxgha Nikaya containing long suttas, which is a good agama, described by the Buddhas and minor Buddhas, which brings faith, the Atthakathas have been sung and afterwards resung from the beginning by five hundred theras, and are brought to the island of Lanka by the wise Mahinda and put in the language of the island of Lanka for the welfare of its inhabitants. Discarding the Sinhalese language and rendering the Atthakathas into a good language which is like Tanti and which is free from faults and not rejecting the explanations of the theras who are the dwellers of the Mahavihara, who are the lamps of the group of theras and who are good interpreters, I shall explain the meanings, avoiding repetitions, for the delight of the good men and for the long existence of Dhamma.” Here also Buddhaghosa refers to his Visuddhi- magga (S.Y., pt. I, p. 2) thus : — “ I shall not again discuss what has been well told in the Visuddhimagga. Standing in the midst of the four agamas, the Visuddhtmagga will explain the meaning which has been told there, this being done, you will under- stand the meaning of the Digha Nikaya taking it along with this Atthakatha ” (i.e., Sumangalavilasinx). There are according to Buddhaghosa four kinds of suttas : — (1) Attajjhasayo, i.e., sutta delivered by the Buddha of his own accord ; (2) Parajjhasayo, i.e., sutta delivered to suit the intention of others ; (3) Pucchavasiko, i.e., sutta delivered in answer to the question of the Supremely Enlightened One ; (4) Atthuppatiko, i.e., sutta delivered in course of delivering other suttas. The examples of each class are given below : — (1) e.g., Mahasatipatthana, Akankheyya Suttam, Vatthasuttam, etc., (2)'e.g., Cularahulavada, Mahara- hulavada, Dhammaeakkapavattana, etc., (3) e.g., Pali Commentaries 411 M&rasamyutta, Devatasamyutta, Sakkapanhasut- tam, Samannaphalasuttam, etc., (4) e.g., Dham- madayada, Cullasihanada, Aggikkhandupama, Brahma] alasutta ( Sumangalavilasini , pp. 50-51). The Sumangalavilasini furnishes us with some information regarding a bhikkhu’s daily life. In the day time a bhikkhu should free his mind from all obstacles by walking up and down and sitting. In the first watch of the night he should lie down and in the last watch he should walk up and down and sit. Early in the morning he should go and cleanse the space surrounding the cetiya and the Bodhi-tree. He should give water to the root of the Bo-tree, and keep water for drinking and wash- ing. He should then perform all his duties towards his teacher. After finishing ablution, he should enter his own dwelling place, take his rest on the ground and think of kammatthana. At the time of going for alms, he should sit up from meditation, and after taking his alms-bowl and garment he should first of all go to the Bodhi-tree and after saluting it he should go to the Cetiya. After he has saluted the Cetiya, he should enter the village for alms and after having finished begging for alms, he should give religious instruction to many persons so desirous of hearing it. Then he should return to the vihara (S.V., pt. I, pp. 186-187). The Sumangalavilasim gives the following reasons for calling Buddha the Tathagata 1 : — 1. He has come in the same way. 2. He has gone in the same way. 3. He is endowed with the sign of Tatha (truth). 4. He is supremely enlightened in Tatha- dhamma (truth). 5. He has seen Tatha (truth). 6. He preaches Tatha (truth). 1 Bead two interesting papers on the Tathagata, one by B. Chalmers, J.B.A.S., 1898, pp. 311 foil. ; another by Dr. Walleser in the Journal of the Taisho University, 1930. 412 A History of Pali Literature 7. He does Tatha (truthfully). 8. He overcomes all. These reasons are explained in detail as follows : — 1. As previous Buddhas, e.g., Vipassin, Sikhi, Vessabhu, Kakusandha, Kon&gamana, Kassapa, came, as the previous Buddhas obtained Buddha - hood by fulfilling ten Paramitas (perfections), 1 by sacrificing body, eyes, wealth, kingdom, son, and wife, by practising the following kinds of cariyas : Lokatthacariya, i.e., exertion for knowledge ; Buddhatthacariya, exertion for Buddhahood, and by practising four sammappadhanas (four kinds of right exertion), four iddhipadas (four miracles), five indriyas (five senses), five balas (five potentia- lities), seven bojjhangas (seven supreme knowledges), and the Noble Eightfold Path (ariya atthangilca maggo). 2. The Buddha Gautama walked seven steps towards the north just after his birth as Yipassi, Kassapa, and other Buddhas did. He looked all round by sitting under a white umbrella and made the following declaration : — “ I am the first in the world, I am the chief in the world, I am the most prominent in the world. This is my last birth, there is no future birth to me.” The Buddha Gautama destroyed desire for sensual pleasures by renunciation, destroyed hatred by non-hatred, torpor by steadfastness, doubt by the analysis of Dhamma, ignorance by knowledge, etc., like the former Buddhas, e.g., Vipassi, Kassapa, and others. 3. The Buddha fully realised the true charac- teristics “ Tathalakkhanam ” of four elements, sky, 1 The ten perfections are the following : — dana (charity), sila (precepts), nekkhamma (renunciation), adifahana . (determination), sacca (truth), metta (compassion), upekkha (indifference), khanti (forbearance), viriya (energy), and panna (wisdom). Pali Commentaries 413 consciousness, forms, sensation, perception, con- fections, discursive thought, decisive thought, joy, happiness, and emancipation. 4. The Buddha realised four sublime truths known as tathadhamma, suffering, origin of suffering, cessation of suffering, and the path leading to the cessation of suffering. He also realised dependent origination (paticcasamuppada). 5. The Buddha saw all the forms which in- clude four elements which are produced by the combination of four elements in the human world as well as in the world of gods. He heard, knew, touched, tasted, and thought of all that were in existence in the human world as well as in the world of gods. 6. From the time of his enlightenment by conquering Mara till the time of his parinibbana, what he preached, was complete and perfect in meaning and exposition and to the point, and leading to the destruction of passion, hatred and delusion, and was true. 7. His bodily action was in agreement with his action and speech and vice versa. He did what he said and vice versa. 8. He overcame everything commencing from the highest Brahmaloka to the Avici hell and endless lokadhatus (worldly elements) all around by sxla (precepts), samadhi (concentration), panna (wisdom), and vimutti (emancipation). There was no equal to him and he was the unsurpassed king of kings, god of gods, chief of all Sakkas, and chief of all Brahmas (S.Y., pt. I, pp. 59-68). The Buddha had to perform fivefold duties : — (1) Duties before meal, (2) Duties after meal, (3) Duties in the first watch, (4) middle watch, and the (5) last watch of night. 1. Duties before meal included the following : — Ablution early in the morning, and sitting alone till the time of begging ; at the time of begging alms he used to robe himself ; tieing his waist with belt and taking his alms-bowl he used to go for alms 414 A History of Pali Literature, sometimes alone, sometimes surrounded by the bhikkhusahgha in villages or towns, sometimes in natural posture, and sometimes by showing miracles, e.g., wind cleaning the street which he was to traverse. After collecting alms and partaking of them he used to preach to the dayakas (alms-givers) according to their intelligence. After hearing religious instruction, some of the dayakas used to take refuge in the three gems, some used to establish themselves in the five pre- cepts, some used to attain fruition of the first, second, and third stages of sanctification and some after renouncing the world used to attain Arahatship. After preaching the dhamma he used to return waiting for the arrival of the bhikkhus from begging tour. After they had all returned he used to enter Gandhakuti (perfumed chamber). 2. Duties after meal : — His attendant used to prepare seat for him in the Gandhakuti and he after sitting on it, used to wash his feet. Standing on the step of the staircase of a Gandhakuti, he used to instruct the bhikkhus to perform their duties diligently. He spoke thus, “ The appearance of the Buddha is rare, it is difficult to be bom as human being, good opportunity is also difficult to be obtained, ordination as bhikkhus is also difficult to be had, and the hearing of the Saddhamma (true law) is also difficult to be obtained Some of the bhikkhus used to seek his instructions in kammat- thanas (objects of meditation). The Blessed One used to give instructions in the Kammatthanas suitable to their nature. The bhikkhus used to return to their dwelling-place or to the forest after saluting the Buddha. Some used to return to the Catummaharajika Heaven or to the Paranimmi- tavasavatti Heaven. 1 After giving instructions, the • Blessed One used to enter the Gandhakuti and lie 1 See my book, “ Heaven and Hell in Buddhist Perspective ”, pp. 7, 15, etc. Pali Commentaries 415 down on the right side. He used to see the world with his eye of wisdom after refreshing himself. He then used to give instructions to the people who assembled in the preaching hall with scented flowers, etc., and then the people after listening to the religious instructions, used to return after saluting the Buddha. 3. In the first watch of the night if he desired to bathe himself, he used to get up from his seat and enter the bath-room and bathed himself with water supplied by the attendant who made ready the seat for him in the Gandhakuti. The Blessed One used to put on red coloured under-garment tieing his waist with belt. Then he used to put on the upper garment keeping one shoulder open, and then he used to sit on his seat alone in a mood of meditation. The bhikkhus used to come from all sides to worship him. Some bhikkhus used to ask him questions, some used to ask his instructions on kammatthana, and some used to request him to give religious instructions. The Buddha used to satisfy the bhikkhus by fulfilling their desires. Thus he used to spend the first watch of the night. 4. Duties in the middle watch : — After the bhikkhus had left him, the devatas used to come from 10,000 lokadhatus (world cycles), and the Blessed One used to spend the middle watch in answering the questions of the devas. 5. Duties in the last watch of the night : — The last watch of the night was divided into three parts. He used to spend the first part by walking up and down, the second part by lying down on the right hand side in the Gandhakuti, and the last part by seeing with his eyes the person who acquired competency in knowing dhamma on account of the acquisition of merit by serving the previous Buddhas (S.V., pt. I, pp. 45-48). The Buddha performed double miracles 1 at the gate of the city of Savatthi in the seventh 1 The so-called Yamaka-pa^ihariya. 416 A History of Pali Literature year after Ms enlightenment at the foot of Gandam- baka tree, e.g., fire was burning on the upper part of the body and water flowing down from the lower part, fire coming out of one of the pores of the skin of the body and water of six colours coming out of another pore of the skin of the body, six kind of rays coming out of the body of the Buddha and illuminating all the ten thousand Cakkavalas (world cycles). Buddhaghosa describes the Buddha’s fulfilment of ten perfections (paramitas) during four asankha kalpas and 1,00,000 kalpas. He renounced the world at the age of twenty-nine, took ordination on the bank of the Anoma river. For six years he exerted simultaneously. On the Vaisakha full- moon day he took honeyed rice-gruel offered by Sujata at Uruvela and in the evening he entered the Bodhi terrace by the south gate and thrice went round the Asvattha tree. Going to the north- east side of the tree he spread a seat of grass and seated on it crosslegged facing the east and keeping the Bo-tree at the back, he first of all meditated upon metta (friendliness, love). At dusk he defeated Mara and in the first watch of the night he acquired the knowledge of previous birth, in the middle watch he acquired celestial insight and in early morning he acquired the knowledge of dependent origination and attained the fourth stage of meditation on inhalation and exhalation. Depending on the fourth stage of meditation, he increased insight and successively acquired all the qualities of the Buddha (S.V., pt. I, pp. 57-58). The Buddha used to take two kinds of journey tarita (quick) and atarita (slow). In order to convert a fit person who was at a distance, he used to travel long distance within a short time as we find in the case of the Buddha going to receive Mahakassapa who was at a distance of three gavutas in a moment. The Buddha also took tarita journey for Aiavaka, Angulimala, Pukkusadi, Pali Commentaries 417 Mahakappina, Dhaniya, and Tissasamanera, a pupil of Sariputta. The Buddha daily used to take a short journey in order to do good to the people by preaching to them and accepting their offerings, etc. This was known as atarita journey. The atarita journey was divided into three mandalas, e.g., mahamandala, majjhimamandala, and antomandala. The maha- mandala was extended over an area of 900 yojanas, Majjhimamandala 600 yojanas, and antomandala 300 yojanas. He had to start on the day following the Mahapavarana (i.e., last day of the lent) ; if he had to undertake the mahamandala journey he had to start at the beginning of Agrahayana and in case of antomandala journey, he could start at any time suitable to him (S.V., pt. I, pp. 239-242). Among the Buddha’s contemporaries were Jivaka Komarabhacca, Tissasamanera, Pokkharasati, and Ambattha. It will not perhaps be out of place to record here a few interesting facts about them. Jivaka Komarabhanda was reared up by Abhayakumara, one of the sons of Bimbisara, so he was called Komara-bhanda. Once Bimbisara and Abhayakumara saw from the roof of the palace, Jivaka lying down on the floor at the gate of the palace surrounded by vultures, crows, etc. The king asked, “ What is that ? ” He was told that it was a baby. The king asked if it were alive. The reply was in the affirmative. Hence he was called Jivaka (S.V., pt. I, p. 133). Once Jivaka caused the Buddha to take some purgative. When the Buddha became all right in health, Jivaka offered the Buddha a pair of valuable clothes. The Buddha accepted his offering and gave him suitable instructions with the result that he was established in the fruition of the first stage of sanctification. He offered his mango-garden to the Buddha for his residence with his pupils, as Jivaka thought that it would be difficult for him to go to the Veluvana where the Buddha used to five for attending on him and which was far from 418 A History of Pali Literature Ms house. In the mango-garden, Jlvaka prepared rooms for spending day and night for the Buddha and Ms bhikkhus. Wells, etc., were sunk for them. The garden was surrounded by a wall and a Gandhakuti (perfumed house) was built for the Buddha in the Mango-garden (S.V., pt. I, p. 133). Tissasamanera : — Once Sariputta wanted to go to Ms pupil. The Buddha expressed his willingness to go with Mm and ordered Ananda to inform 20,000 bMkkhus who were possessed of supernatural powers that the Blessed One would go to see Tissa. The Buddha with Sariputta, Ananda, and 20,000 khinasava-bhikkhus (the monks who were free from sins) traversed the path of 2,000 yojanas through sky and got down at the gate of the village where Tissa was and they robed themselves. The villagers received them all and offered them rice gruel. After the Buddha had fmished Ms meal, Tissa returned from alms-begging and offered food to the Buddha, wMch he (Tissa) had received on his begging tour. The Buddha visited Tissa’s dwelling place. Pokkharasadi : — His body was like the wMte lotus or like the silver gate of Devanagara. His head was very beautiful and popular. At the time of Kassapa Buddha, he was well-versed in the three Vedas and in consequence of Ms offering charity to the Buddha, he was reborn in the Devaloka. As he did not like to enter the womb of a human being, he was reborn in a lotus in a big lake near the Himavanta. An ascetic who lived near the lake reared him up. He made the child learn the tMee Vedas and the child became very much learned, and was regarded as the foremost brahmin in the Jambudlpa. He showed Ms skill in arts to the king of Kosala. The king being pleased with him gave him the city of Ukkattha as Brahmottara property (i.e., the property offered to the brahmin) (S.V., pt. I, pp. 244-245). Ambattha : — He was the chief disciple of Pokkharasadi or Pokkharasati. He was sent to the Pali Commentaries 419 Buddha to see whether the Buddha deserved the praises offered to him. He attempted in various ways to defeat the Buddha hut in vain. He also expressed his opinion that no samanadhamma could be practised by living in such a vihara. He came back to Ms teacher after being defeated (S.V., pt. I, p. 253). The SumahgalavilasinI supplies us with some new interesting geograpMcal informations, some of them being more or less fanciful in their origin. Anga : — On account of the beauty of their body, some princes were known as Angas. The place was named Anga because those princes used to dwell there (S.V., pt. I, p. 279). Not far from the city of Anga, there was the tank of Gaggara, so called because it was dug by a queen named Gaggara. On its bank all round, there was a great forest of Campaka trees decorated with flowers of five colours, blue, etc. This account of Campa has, however, hardly any geograpMcal value. Buddhaghosa also gives us Ms own in- terpretation of the term Anga. According to Mm, it is so called because of the beauty of the princes of the country. The explanation seems to be rather fanciful (S.V., pt. I, p. 279). Daksinapatha or the Deccan : — Buddhaghosa defines DakkMnapatha or the Deccan as the tract of land lying to the south of the Ganges (S.V., pt. I, p. 265). Many ascetics used to live there and one of the forefathers of Ambattha went there and learnt ambatthavijja, a science through the influence of which the weapon once raised could be brought down. He came to Okkaka and showed his skill and secured a post under Mm (S.V., pt. I, p. 265). Ghositarama : — In the past there was a kingdom named Addila. In this kingdom a poor man named Kotuhalaka while going to another place at the time of famine, being unable to carry his son, threw Mm on the way. The mother out of affection went back and brought the cMld and returned to the 420 A History of Pali Literature village of gopalas (cowherds) who gave them milk- rice to eat. Kotuhalaka could not digest the milk and died at night of cholera and was reborn in the womb of a bitch. The young dog was the favourite of the head of the cowherds, who used to worship a paccekabuddha. The cowherd used to give a handful of cooked rice to the young dog which followed the gopalas to the hermitage of the pacceka- buddha. The young dog used to inform the pacceka- buddha by barking that rice was ready and used to drive away wild beasts on the way by barking. As the young dog served the paccekabuddha, he was reborn after death in heaven and was named Ghosadevaputta who, fallen from heaven, was reborn in a family at Kosambi. The banker of Kosamb! being childless brought him up and when a legitimate child was bom to the banker, he attempted to kill Ghosa seven times but on account of the accumulation of merit Ghosaka could not be killed. He was saved by the instrumentality of a banker’s daughter whom he eventually married. After the death of the banker who attempted to kill him, he succeeded him and was kn own as Ghosakasetthi. At Kosambi there were two other bankers named Kukkuta and Pavariya. At this time five hundred ascetics came to Kosambi and the three bankers, Ghosaka, Kukkuta, and Pavariya built hermitages in their respective gardens for the ascetics and supported them. Once the ascetics while coming from the Himalayan region through a forest became very much hungry and thirsty, and sat under a big banian tree thinking that there must have been a powerful devata residing in the tree who would surely help them. The presiding deity of the tree helped the ascetics with water to quench their thirst. The deity when asked as to how he (deity) acquired such splendour, replied that he was a servant in the house of a banker Anathapindika who supported the Buddha at Jetavana. On a sabbath day the servant went out to walk in the morning and returned in the Pali Commentaries 421 evening. He enquired of the other servants of the house and learning that they had accepted uposatha, he went to Anathapindika and took precepts. But he could not observe the precepts fully and in consequence of the merit accumulated due to the observance of half the uposatha at night, he became the deity of this tree endowed with great splendour. They went to KosambI and informed the setthis of this matter. The ascetics went to the Buddha and acquired ordination and Arahat- ship. The setthis afterwards went to the Buddha and invited the Buddha to KosambI. After returning to KosambI, they built three hermitages and one of them was known as Ghositarama (S.V., pt. I, pp. 317-319). Kosala : — The Poranas say that prince Maha- panada did not laugh even after seeing or hearing objects that are likely to rouse laughter. The father of the prince promised that he would decorate with various kinds of ornaments the person who would be able to make his son laugh. Many, including even the cultivators, gave up their ploughs and came to make the son laugh. They tried in various ways but in vain. At last, Sakka the chief of the gods sent a theatrical party to show him a celestial drama to make the prince laugh. The prince laughed and men returned to their respective abodes. While they were returning home they were asked on the way, “ Kacci bho kusalam, kacci bho kusalam ” (are you all right ?). From this word kusalam, the country came to be known as Kosala (S.V., pt. I, p. 239). Rajagaha : — A name of the town in which Mandhata and Mahagovinda took their abode. At the time of the Buddha it was a town, at other times it was empty (S.V., pt. I, p. 132). The Sumangalavilasinl serves as a glossary of important terms, a few of which may be enumerated here. Adinnadana : — It strictly means accepting that which is not given. It also means stealing the pro- perty of others, the thing which can be used by 422 A History of Pali Literature others according to their wish and by using which they are not liable to be punished, if that thing be taken with the intention of stealing it, then he is guilty of theft ; if the thing stolen be of greater value, then the offence will be greater and if it is of less value the offence will be less. If the thing stolen belongs to a person of greater quality, the offence will be greater and if it belongs to a person of less quality, the offence will be less. One is guilty of theft if the following conditions are there : — (1) the thing stolen must belong to others ; (2) the thief must be conscious at the time of stealing, that the thing which he is stealing belongs to others ; (3) he must have the intention to steal ; (4) he must make effort to steal and that effort must bring about the theft of the thing belonging to others (S.V., Vol. I, p. 71). Musavada : — It means application of word or bodily deed to bring about dissension. Conscious- ness due to the application of word or bodily deed with the intention of bringing about dissension is called speaking falsehood. Musa in another sense means : — (1) the thing not happened before, (2) untrue thing. Vada means making known thing which is untrue to be true and a thing unhappened before to have happened. Musavada is nothing but consciousness of the person who is willing to make known a thing which is untrue to be true and an unhappened thing to have happened. Buddhaghosa cites some examples in this connection : If a witness gives false evidence, he becomes liable to greater fault ; if a bhikkhu makes exaggera- tion humorously he will be liable to less fault ; Pali Commentaries 423 and if a bhikkhu says that he has seen, a thing not seen by him, that he has heard of a thing unheard by him, he will surely be liable to greater fault. One is guilty of falsehood if the following conditions are there : — 1. His subject or object must be false. 2. He must have the intention of creating disunion or dissension. 3. He must make the effort created by that intention. 4. His act of creating disunion must be known to the parties concerned. He must commit the offence himself. Buddha- ghosa is of opinion that if a person instigates others to commit falsehood, and instigates others to do the offence by letters or by writing on walls, etc., and if he himself commits the offence, in all these cases, the nature of offence must be the same {Ibid., p. 72). Pharusavaca : — According to Buddhaghosa, Pharusavaca really means intention to wound the feelings of others. It means harsh words (S.V., pt. I, p. 75). According to him a thoughtless speech should be pleasing to the ear, producing love, appealing to the heart and agreeable to many (S.V., pt. I, pp. 75-76). Pisunavaea : — The person to whom the word is spoken takes a favourable view of the speaker but unfavourable view of the person about whom it is spoken. It is nothing but consciousness of the person who speaks to make himself closely acquainted with the person to whom the word is spoken and the person about whom it is spoken. One is guilty of pisunavaea if the following conditions be fulfilled : — 1. He must have the intention of creating dissension and making himself friendly. 2. He must have the effort to carry out Ms intention. ; v y ' , 6 424 A History of Pali Literature 3. The act of creating disunion must be known to the parties concerned. 4. The persons before whom the dissension is created must be in existence (S.V., pt. I, p. 74). There are references to the following sports and pastimes in the Sumangalavilasini : — Atthapadam : Dice. Akasam : A kind of pastime which is played after imagining a kind of dice-board in the sky. Candalam : Sporting with an iron ball. Ghatikam : A sport in which large sticks are beaten by short ones. Vamsam : Sporting with a bamboo which is turned in various ways. Pariharapatham : A kind of sport which is played on the ground on which many paths having fences are prepared to puzzle the player (S.V., pt. I, pp. 84-85). Beferences to various kinds of seats are found in this work : — Asandim : A big seat. Gonakam : A carpet with long hairs. Koseyyam : A silk seat bedecked with gems. Kuttakam : A kind of woollen seat in which sixteen dancing girls can dance together. Pallahkam : A seat having feet with figure of deer, etc. Patalika : Thick woollen seat with various designs of flowers. Patika : Woollen seat. Vikatika : A seat having the figure of lion or tiger. Dhopanam : It is a ceremony among the south- ern Indian people who wash the bones of their dead relatives after digging them out and after having besmeared them with scents and collecting all the bones in one Pali Commentaries 425 place. On a certain auspicious day they eat up various kinds of food and drink collected for the occasion while crying for their departed relatives (S.V., pt. I, pp. 84-87). A person is called Puthujjano because various kinds of sins are committed by him. His view is that the body which is soul is not gone. He is so called because he is merged in various kinds of ogha (floods) and because he is burnt by various kinds of heat. As he is attached to five kinds of sensual pleasures and as he is covered by five hindrances and as he does innumerable low deeds, so he is called puthujjano. As he is separated by Ariyas from the sila (precepts), suta (learning), etc., he is called puthujjano (Ibid., p. 59). Raja : — He is so .called because he pleases (ranjeti) his subjects. Silas Poranas say that sila (precept) is the ornament of a Yogi and sila is the object of decora- tion of a Yogi. The Yogis being adorned with silas have acquired perfection in matters of decoration. One should observe silas just as a kiki bird protects her egg. One should observe silas properly just as one eyed man protects his only eye (S.V., pt. I, pp. 55-56). Buddhaghosa says that all good deeds are based on silas just as all the trees and vegetables grow on the earth (S.V., pt. I, p. 56). Cullasila : — Panatipata means slaughter of life. Pana ordinarily means living beings but in reality it is vitality. The thought of killing vitality is what is called panatipata. To kill a lower animal which is devoid of good qualities and a small being, brings small amount of sin and to kill a big creature full of sins brings large amount of sin because a good amount of effort is needed to kill a big animal whereas to kill a small animal, little effort is required. To kill with great effort a creature having good qualities brings about much sin, whereas to kill with the same effort a creature having no quality or having quality not of great amount brings about 426 A History of Pali Literature less sin. If the body and the quality possessed by it be of equal standard, there will be a difference in the acquisition of sin according to greatness or smallness of kilesas (sins). One will be guilty of life-slaughter if the following conditions be fulfilled : — (1) there must be a living being ; (2) the killer must be conscious at the time of killing that he is going to kill a living being ; (3) he must have the intention to kill ; (4) then he must make the effort to kill ; (5) the effect of that effort must lie in the death of the being living. The six kinds of efforts are : — Sahatthika (killing by own hand), anattika (order to kill), nissaggika (throwing with the inten- tion that living being should die), vijjamaya (killing by magic), iddhimaya (killing by miracle), thavara (killing by instruction written on immovable pillars), etc. {Ibid., pt. I, p. 70). The Sumahgalavilasini contains some more interesting historical materials. It speaks of the origin of the Sakyas which is traced back to King Okkaka (i.e., Iksvaku). King Okkaka had five queens. By the chief queen, he had four sons and five daughters. After the death of the chief queen, the king married another young lady who extorted from him the promise to place her son upon the throne. The king thereupon requested his sons to leave the kingdom. The princes accord- ingly left the kingdom accompanied by their sisters and going to a forest near the Himalayas, began to search for a site for building up a city. In course of their search, they met the sage Kapila who said that they should build a town in the place where he (the sage) lived. The prince built the town and named it Kapilavatthu (Kapilavastu). In course of time the four brothers married the four sisters, excepting the eldest one and they came Pali Commentaries 427 to be known as the Sakyas (pt. I, pp. 258-260). The only grain of fact bidden in this fanciful story of the origin of the Sakyas seems to be that there was a tradition which traced their descent from King Okkaka or Iksvaku. Buddhaghosa in his great commentaries, though a very reliable guide as regards exposition and exegesis and the unravelling of metaphysical tangles, becomes quite the reverse when any point of history or tradition comes up. Here he accepts the wildest theories and takes as gospel truth even the most improbable stories. Sister-marriage was not in vogue in ancient India even in the earliest times of which we have any record, as the story of Yarna and Yami in the Rigveda amply demonstrates. It was a revolting idea to the Indians from the time of the Rigveda downwards. Yet we see that Buddhaghosa in the case of the Licehavis and again here in that of the Sakyas, tries to explain the origin by sister-marriage. Perhaps Buddhaghosa was actuated by the idea of purity of birth by a union between brothers and sisters as in the case of the Pharaohs of Egypt. The great Ceylonese chronicle, the Mahavamsa, also traces the origin of the Sakyas to the same King Okkaka and goes further back to Maha- sammata of the same dynasty. When the Buddha was at Kosambi, he delivered the Jaliya Sutta at the Ghositarama before a large gathering of people including a number of setthis among whom there w r ere Kukkuta, Pavariya, and Ghosaka who built three monasteries for the Buddha. Ghosaka built the Ghositarama, Kukkuta built the Kukkutarama, and Pavariya built Pavarika- ambavana (S.Y., pt. I, pp. 317-319). On one occasion the whole of Rajagaha was illumined and decorated and was full of festivities and enjoyments. Ajatasattu with his ministers went to the terrace and saw the festivities going on in the city. The moon-lit night was really very pleasing ; and the thought arose within him of approaching a Samana or Brahmana who could 428 A History of Pali Literature bring solace to bis tortured mind {Ibid., pt. I, pp. 140-141). Hearing of the great virtues of the Buddha from Jlvaka, the greatest physician of the day, Ajatasattu came to the ambavana where the Enlightened One was staying much afraid though he was of the Master for his (Ajatasattu’s) many mischievous deeds against the latter {Ibid., pt. I, 151-152). Ajatasattu asked the Blessed One whether he could show him the effect of leading the life of a Samana. The Buddha did so by delivering to the repentant king a discourse on various virtues of the life of a samana or ascetic as narrated in the Samannaphala Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya {Ibid., I, pp. 158 foil.). Buddhaghosa says that according to Gosala things happen exactly as they are to happen {Ibid., pp. 160-165). In the Sumangalavilasinl Buddhaghosa has conjured up a myth in order to explain the conduct of the parricidal prince Ajatasattu. He avers that Ajatasattu was even before his birth an enemy of King Bimbisara, The circumstances that preceded Ajatasattu’s birth and augured the impending evil, as recorded in the Sumangalavilasinl, are appealing. When the would-be parricide was in his mother’s womb, the queen, it is said, felt a craving for sipping blood from the right arm of the king. She, however, dared not speak out her inhuman desire. Worried by this, she looked pale and emaciated. The king asked her the cause of her getting weak. At last she spoke out and the king then sent for his surgeon who drew blood out of his right arm for the queen. The blood was diluted with water and the queen was asked to drink up the horrible potion. The soothsayers, however, warned that the child would be an enemy to the king and would kill him in consequence of the queen’s drinking the king’s blood. The queen, horrified at the prospect, tried to effect miscarriage but she was prevented by the king who urged that a sinful act would be abhorred by the people of Jambudipa, and that voluntary abortion was against all national tradition of India. Pali Commentaries m The queen, it is said, thought of destroying the child at the time of delivery. But the attendants took away the child as soon as it came out of the mother’s womb. When the child had grown up, he was presented before the queen whose maternal affection towards the lad got the upper hand and she could no longer think of killing him. In due course the king made Mm his viceregent (pt. I, p. 134). Ajatasattu took advantage of tMs and kept Ms father confined in a room wMeh was very hot and full of smoke. None else was allowed to enter into that room except Ajatasattu’s mother who used to take some food for the unfortunate king, but she was afterwards prevented from doing that even. In spite of the prohibitive injunction, she used to bring food for Bimbisara concealing it in several parts of her body ; but she was one day found out and was ordered not to enter the room with any kind of food. Thenceforth she used to enter the Mng’s apartment with her body be- smeared -with a mixture of honey, butter, ghee, and oil. Bimbisara got some sustenance by licMng her body. This too was detected by the over- vigilant Ajatasattu and she was forbidden to enter into the room and asked to see the king from outside. The queen now reminded Bimbisara that it was she who had requested him to kill Ajatasattu wMle in the womb. She further told Mm that it was the last occasion on wMeh she had been permitted to meet him and she begged Ms pardon and took leave (S.Y., pt. I, pp. 135 - 136 ). Bimbisara was now prevented from taking any food but he was still alive and the commentator informs us that the inhuman practices of Ajatasattu increased in their barbarity. Bimbisara, it is said, was meditating on the fruition of the path and was walking up and down and his appearance became very bright. Ajatasattu was informed of this and he ordered that Ms walking up and down must be stopped and ordered Ms barber to go and cut the feet of his father and to put salt and oil thereupon and then 430 A History of Pali Literature to heat them on the fire of Khadira charcoal. The barber went to Bimbisara who thought that his son had come to realise his folly and become kind to him. The barber when asked by the king about his mission, intimated to him the order of King Ajatasattu. The barber carried out the ghastly operations required by the royal order. Bimbisara breathed his last with the words, “Buddha and Dhamma ”. After death Bimbisara was reborn in the Catummaharajika heaven as an attendant of Vessavana named Javanavasabha {Ibid., I, p. 137). On the day Bimbisara died, a son was born to Ajatasattu. Both the reports, one conveying the news of the death of his father, and the other, that of the birth of his child were received by his ministers at the same time. The ministers first of all handed over the letter conveying the news of the birth of his child to King Ajatasattu. On receipt of the letter the king’s mind was filled with filial affection and at that moment all the virtues of his father rose up before his mind’s eye and he realised that similar filial affection arose in his father’s mind when the latter received the news of his (Ajatasattu’s) birth. Ajatasattu at once ordered the release of his father but it was too late. On hearing of his father’s death, he cried and went to his mother and asked her if his father had any affection for him. The mother replied, “When a boil appeared on your finger, you were crying and none could pacify you and you were taken to your father when he was administering justice at the royal court. Your father out of affection put your finger with the boil into his mouth and the boil was burst open. Out of filial affection he swallowed up the blood and pus instead of throwing them away.” Ajatasattu heard this and shed hot tears. The dead body of his father was burnt. Shortly afterwards Devadatta went to Ajatasattu and urged him to order his men to go and kill the Buddha too. Devadatta sent Ajatasattu’s men to kill the Master and himself took several steps to bring Pali Commentaries 431 about Ms death. He himself went to the top of the Gijjhakuta mountain and hurled at the Buddha a big stone, then he set the mad elephant Kalugin against the Enlightened One but all his attempts were baffled. All Ms gain and fame were lost, and he became very miserable {Ibid., pt. I, pp. 138-139). A conversation once took place between Brahmadatta and Suppiya, a paribbajaka. Suppiya said that the Buddha was a propounder of non- action, anfflhilation, and seif -mortification. He further said that the Buddha was of low birth and he did not possess any super-human knowledge. Brahmadatta, on the other hand, was of opinion that he should not follow his teacher in performing evil deed. He said that if his teacher worked with fire, it did not behove him to do so ; if his teacher played with a black snake, it was not intended that he should also do like that. He further said, “ All beings enjoy the fruits of their karma. Karma is their own, father is not responsible for his son’s deeds and son is not responsible for his father’s deeds. So also mother, brother, sister, pupil, and others are not responsible for one another’s action. Three jewels (Triratana) namely, the Buddha, Dhamma, and Samgha are abused by me. To rebuke an ariya (elect) is a great sin.” Brahmadatta spoke highly of the Master thus : “ The Buddha is the Blessed One, an arahat (saint), supremely wise, etc. ” He also spoke highly of the Dhamma and the Samgha. Thus Suppiya and his pupil Brahmadatta were holding contrary views. In the evening all of them arrived in the garden of the king named Ambalatthika. In that garden the king had a beautiful garden-house. The Buddha took Ms residence at that house for one night. Suppiya also took shelter in the garden. At mght bMkkhus were seated surrounding the Buddha calmly and without the least noise. In the first watch of the Mght the bMkkhus sat in the mandalamala (sitting- hall) of the house. The Buddha went to the spot and asked them about the topic of their discussion. 432 A History of Pali Literature The bhikkkus told him that they were discussing the contrary views of Suppiya and Brahmadatta and the endless virtues of the Buddha. The Buddha then solved their topics of discussion by the long discourse known as the Brahmajala Suttanta (S.V., pt. I, pp. 26-44). The Sumangalavilasini furnishes us with an account which embodies the tradition regarding the recital of the Digha Nikaya in the First Council. One week after the parinibbana of the Buddha at the salavana of the Mallas near Kusinara, on the full-moon day in the month of Vaisakha, a monk named Subhadda who took ordination in old age spoke thus, ‘‘ Friend, you need not lament, you need not grieve. We are free from the Mahasamana who used to trouble us by asking us to perform this or that act.” Hearing this Mahakassapa thought that in order to save the monks from such people and to save the saddhamma from destruction, it was necessary to hold a council. He addressed the assembly of monks to rehearse the Dhamma and Vinaya. On the 21st day after the Buddha’s parinibbana, five hundred theras who were all Arahats and possessed of analytical knowledge were selected. The people worshipped the dead body of the Buddha with incense, garland, etc., for a week. It was placed on a funeral pyre but there was no fire for a week and in the third week since his death, his bones, etc., were worshipped in the Mote-hall and the relies were divided on the fifth day of the bright half of the month of Jaistha. At the time of the distribution of relics many bhikkhus were assembled among whom five hundred were selected. The five hundred bhikkhus were given time for 40 days to remove all their hindrances in order to enable them to take part in the proposed rehearsal. Mahakassapa with the five hundred bhikkhus went to Rajagaha. Other Mahatheras with their own retinue went to different places. At this time a Mahathera named Purana with 700 bhikkhus con- Pali Commentaries 433 soled the people of Kusinara. Ananda with five hundred bhikkhus returned to Jetavana at Savatthi. The people at Savatthi seeing Ananda coming there thought that the Buddha would he in their midst ; but being disappointed in this and learning the news of the Master’s parinibbana they began to cry. Ananda worshipped the Gandhakuti where the Buddha used to dwell, opened its door and cleansed it. While cleansing the Gandhakuti, he cried saying, “ The Blessed One, this is the time of your taking bath, preaching, instructing the bhikkhus, this is the time of your lying down, sleeping, washing your mouth, and face ”. He went to Subha’s house for alms where he preached Subhasuttam of the Digha Nikaya. After leaving the bhikkhus at Jetavana, he went to Rajagaha to take part in the proposed rehearsal. Other bhikkhus who were selected to take part in the rehearsal also came to Rajagaha. All the selected bhikkhus observed uposatha on the full-moon day of the month of Asadha and spent the rainy season. The bhikkhus approached Ajatasattu and requested him to repair eighteen mahaviharas of Rajagaha. The king had them repaired. He also built a beautiful and well-decorated pandal near the Vebhara mountain at the foot of the Sattapanni cave, for them. This pandal was like that built by Vissakamma in heaven. Five hundred seats were prepared in this pandal for five hundred bhikkhus. The seat of the President was on the south facing the north. _ In the middle there was a dhammasana in which Ananda and Upali took their seats and preached Dhamma and Vinaya. Then Dhamma and Vinaya were repeated simultaneously by the five hundred bhikkhus. The question arose as to the competency of Ananda to take part. He was not an Arahat. Hearing this Ananda became ashamed and after exertion he acquired saintship at night. All the theras were present while Ananda’s seat was vacant. Some said that Ananda came to the spot after coming through the sky and some were of opinion that he came through the earth. Maha- 434 A History of Pali Literature kassapa declared the attainment of Arahatship by Ananda by shouting “ Sadhu, Sadhu Maha- kassapa asked whether Dhamma was to be rehearsed first or the Vinaya. The opinion of the assembly was that Vinaya should be rehearsed first as the existence of the Buddhasasana depended on Vinaya. The question arose as to who would answer the questions of Vinaya. It was decided that Upali would be the first person to answer such questions. Mahakassapa taking the consent of the assembly asked him where the first parajika rule was enacted. The reply was that at Vaisali it was enacted concerning Sudinna Kalandakaputto on the subject of methuna- dhamma (sexual intercourse). All the questions were put to Upali who answered them and all the bhikkhus repeated and _ remembered them. The question arose whether Ananda was competent to answer the questions of Vinaya. In the opinion of the assembly Ananda was competent, but Upali was selected because the Buddha gave him the first place among the Vinayadhara bhikkhus. Ananda was selected by the assembly to answer the questions on Dhamma. The Dlgha Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka was taken up first for rehearsal. The Brahmajalasutta was first rehearsed by Ananda and the assembly recited it in chorus. All the suttas of the five Nikayas were then rehearsed one after another (S.V., pt. I, pp. 2-25). The Sumangalavilasini further records some interesting information. Ujunna is the name of a town. Kannakatthala is the name of a beautiful spot. Migadaya is so called because it was given for the freedom of deer (S.V., pt. II, p. 349). The Blessed One who was dwelling in a great monastery at Gijjhakuta, listening to the conversation held between the paribbajaka Nigrodha and the disciple Sandhana, went through the sky and came to them and answered the questions put to by Nigrodha {Ibid., p. 362). The kingdom of Gandhara built by the sage Gandhara is a trading centre (p. 389). Salavatika is the name of a village. It is called Pali Commentaries 435 Salavatika because it is surrounded on all sides by the sala trees appearing like a fence (p. 395). Manasakata is the name of a village (p. 399). Ambavana is a thicket of mangoe-trees. It is a beautiful spot having sands scattered on the ground like silver leaves and on the top having thick branches and leaves of the mangoe-trees. Here the Exalted One lived finding delight in solitude (p. 399). In the interior of Jetavana there are four big houses, e.g., Karerikuti, Kosambakuti, Gandhakuti, and Salalaghara. Salalaghara was built by King Pasenadi and the rest by Anathapindika (p. 407). There is a reference to trees, e.g., sala, sirisa, udumbara or fig tree, banyan, and assattha (p. 416). Jambudipa is great and it is 10,000 yojanas in extent. There is also Majjhimadesa and in the east there is Kajahgala country (p. 429). There is a reference to seven gems, e.g., eakka (wheel), hatthi (elephant), assa (horse), mani (jewel), itthi (woman), gahapati or householder, painayaka or leader (p. 444). Catum- maharajika heaven contains 90,00,000 gods who obtain celestial happiness (p. 472). The Abhassara gods are those whose bodies shed lustre (p. 510) and whose lease of life is 8 kalpas (p. 511). Gijjhakuta is so called because it has a pinnacle like a vulture and vultures dwell in it (p. 516). Sarandada cetiya has been described here as a vihara (p. 521). Sunidha and Vassakara were endowed with great riches (p. 540). Nadika has been described as a village of relatives. Near the lake Nadika, there are two villages belonging to the sons of Cullapiti- Mahapiti (p. 543). Mara engages creatures to do mischief to others and kill them (p. 555). There are lakes, e.g., Kharassara, Khandassara, Kakassara, Bhaggassara, etc. (p. 560). There is a reference to weavers in Benares who produce soft and beautiful garments (p. 563). Buddhaghosa understands sukara-maddava by the flesh of a grown-up hog neither too young nor too old. It is soft and glossy (p. 568). Buddhaghosa refers to four kinds of bed, e.g., the bed of one who is merged in sensual 436 A History of Pali Literature pleasures, the bed of the departed spirit, the bed of a lion, and the bed of the Tathagata (p. 574). There is a mention of the three pitakas, five nikayas, nine angas, and 84,000 dhammakkhandhas (p. 591). Buddhaghosa interprets “ attha Malla-pamokkha ” in the sense that the eight Mallarajas were middle- aged and were endowed with strength (p. 596). Makutabandhana is a cetiya of the Mallas and is a sala (covered hall) which gives satisfaction and blessings to the Mafia chief (p. 596). Rajagaha is 25 yojanas in extent from Kusinara (p. 609). Jambudipa is 10,000 yojanas in extent, Aparagoyana is 7,000 yojanas in extent, and Uttarakuru is 8,000 yojanas in extent (p. 623). Jotipala is so called on account of his lustre and rearing others up (p. 660). The Sakiyas and the Koliyas cultivated lands well because they confined the river Rohini by a bund. This river flows between the territories of the Sakyas and the Koliyas (p. 672). The PapaficasudanI is an extensive commentary on the Majjhima Nikaya written (2) Papaucasu- by Buddhaghosa at the request of a fhera named Buddhamitta in the jhima Nikaya. style more or less of the Sumangala- vilasini. In the commentary on the first ten suttas of the Majjhima Nikaya, Buddha- ghosa 1 discusses the following topics : the four suttanikkhepas, balabojjhanga, Dhammacakka, the origin of all the dhammas, Nibbana, earth, Tatha- gata, Abhisambuddha, destruction of sin, false belief, saddha, faith, four puggalas, obstacles in the path leading to Nibbana, contact, old age, death, suffering, right recollection, mindfulness, pleasing sensation, and lastly emancipation. 2 The PapaficasudanI furnishes us with some 1 This commentary by Buddhaghosa has been edited for the P.T.S., London, by J. H. Woods and D. Kosambi. 2 There is a printed Burmese edition of this work published by the P. G. Mundine Pitaka Press, Rangoon (J.R.A.S., 1894) ; and also an excellent Siamese edition of this commentary printed and published in three volumes. Pali Commentaries 437 interesting historical and geographical details. There was a janapada named Kuru and the kings of that province used to be called Kurus (p. 225), of whose origin a fanciful story is told in the commentary. King Mahamandhata was a cakravarttl-raja, a title which he had acquired for his having had a cakraratana with the help of which he could go to any place he liked. He conquered Pubbavideha, Aparagoyana, Uttarakuru besides the devalokas. While returning from Uttarakuru, a large number of the inhabitants of that country followed Maha- mandhata to Jambudipa and the place in Jambudipa where they settled became known as Kururattham including provinces, villages, towns, etc. It is in this sense that the word Kurusu (i.e., among the Kurus) occurs in the Pali-Buddhist Literature (pp. 225-226). There is also another fanciful explanation of the origin of the name of Savatthi. Savatthi was a place where one could get, it is asserted, what- ever he wanted ; hence it is called Savatthi (Sabba- atthi). In answer to a question by some merchants as to what the place contained, it was told “ sabbam atthi ” (there is everything). Hence it is called Savatthi (vol. I, p. 59). The commentary refers in- cidentally to Ganga and Yamuna (p. 12), to Savatthi, Jetavana, and Giribbaja which is so called because it stands like a cow-pen surrounded by a mountain (p. 151). It also refers to four more rivers of India besides Ganga and Yamuna, e.g., Bahuka, Sundarika, Sarassati, and Bahumati (p. 178), and to a mountain named Cittala. It relates the activities of Gautama Buddha among the Kurus (p. 225), at the Bodhi tree, and at Lumbinivana (p. 13). It is pointed out that the abode of Tavatimsa gods is beautiful ; that the four great kings were the employees of Sakka, king of gods ; that Vejayanta palace is one thousand yojanas in extent and that the Sudhamma or the mote-hall of the gods is 500 yojanas in length and the chariot of the Vejayanta heaven is 150 yojanas in extent (p. 225). In this book we find 438 A History of Pali Literature that there are two kinds of Buddha’s instructions ; Sammutidesana and Paramatthadesana. The Paramatthadesana includes anicca (impermanent), dukkharix (suffering), anatta (impermanent), khandha (constituents), dhatu (elements), ayatana (sphere), and satipatthana (right recollection) (p. 137). A most important information is found in this book of Damilabhasa and Andhabhasa, i.e., the languages of the Tamils and the Andhras who may now roughly be said to be represented by the Telegus (p. 138). Tree worship was in practice ; there were trees, it is said, which were worthy of worship in villages and countries (p. 119). Cultiva- tion and cow-keeping are the main occupations of a householder and they are for his good (p. 111). Five kinds of medicines are mentioned, e.g., sappi (clarified butter, ghee), navanita (butter), tela (oil), madhu (honey), and phanita (molasses) (p. 90). In this text, Mara is called Pajapati because he lords over a large assembly (p. 33). There are four kinds of pathavl (earth) : — earth with signs, earth with load, earth with sense object, and earth with selection (p. 25). The Papaneasudani (Vol. II) further narrates that the Himavanta (Himalayas) is 3,000 yojanas in width (p. 6). Vesali is so called because it expanded itself (p. 19). Rajagaha is 60,000 yojanas in distance from Kapilavatthu (p. 152). Nadika has been referred to as a lake (p. 235). Ghositarama is so called because the arama or monastery was built by the banker, named Ghosita (p. 390). Jambudlpa is mentioned here as a forest and Pubba-Videha, an island (p. 423). The Saratthapakasim is a commentary on the Samyutta Nikaya written by (3) Sarattha- Buddhaghosa at the request of a mentaiy *on ° the thera named Jotipala. Samyutta Nikaya. It has been published in two volumes by the P.T.S. under the able editorship of F. L. Woodward. The following are the manuscripts and printed editions available : — Pali Commentaries 439 (1) Palm-leaf manuscript in Sinhalese character at the Adyar Oriental Library, Madras. (2) Incomplete Sinhalese printed edition by Vajirasara and iSaninda Theras, Colombo, 1900-1911. (3) Simon Hewavitarne Bequest edition of 1924, Vol. I, revised and edited by W. P. Mahathera. (4) A beautifully written palm-leaf manuscript in Sinhalese character. In this commentary the word 4 guru ’ is always used in this world (loke) as referring to the Buddha. The Blessed One is described as the possessor of ten potentialities (dasa baladharo) (Vol. I, p. 12). The commentator speaks of a land where the cows graze near the Ganges and the Yamuna (Ibid., p. 13). Anga and Magadha are described as having plenty of food (p. 15). There is a reference to the four Buddhas (cattaro Buddha) : sabbannu Buddha (all knowing), pacceko Buddha (individual), eatusacco Buddha (master of four truths), and suta Buddha (Buddha who has heard) (Ibid., p. 25). Saddhamma is explained in this commentary as the term which includes the five silas, ten silas, and four objects of recollection or mindfulness (p. 55). The Mahavana is described here as a big natural forest extending up to the Himalayas (p. 67). Pancaveda is meant here as the five Vedas including the Itihasa (p. 81). By vimuttaeitta the com- mentator means a mind which is free from the Kammatthanas (p. 104). Nathaputta is explained here as Nathassaputta or the son of Matha (p. 130). Mallika is mentioned as the daughter of a poor garland-maker (p. 140). According to the com- mentator, KisagotamI was kisa or lean because she had not got much flesh (p. 190). Loka refers to the khandhaloka (the world of constituents), dhatu loka (the world of elements), ayatana loka (the world of abode), sampattibhavaloka (the world 7 440 A History of Pali Literature of prosperity), and vipattibhavaloka (the world of adversity) (p. 201). There is a reference to the Mandakinlpok- kharani which is 50 yojanas in extent (p. 281) and to the Kailasa mountain inhabited by a celestial being named Nagadanta (p. 282). Gaya is mentioned here as a village (p. 302). Slha-nada is explained as great uproar (Vol. II, 46). Ganga and Yamuna are mentioned as two great rivers (p. 54). Dakkhinagiri is a janapada on the southern side of the hill encircling Rajagaha (p. 176). There is a reference to cow-killer who kills cows and severs the flesh from the bone (p. 218). The Manorathapurani 1 2 is a commentary on the Ahguttara Nikaya written by (4) Manoratha- Buddhaghosa at the request of a tfcffla named Bhaddanta.’ Anguttara Nikaya. The Manorathapurani deals with the following topics : sloth and stupor, haughtiness, desire for sensual pleasures, friendliness, mental emancipation, suffering, right realisation, functions of the mind, bojjhanga (supreme knowledge), thirty-two signs of a great man, puggala (human types), Tathagata, realisation of the four patisambhidas or analytical knowledge, ac- counts of Annakondanna, Sariputta and Moggallana, Mahakassapa, Anuruddha, Bhaddiya, Pindolabhara- dvaja, Punna-Mantaniputta, Mahakaccana, Culla- Maha-Panthaka, Subhuti, Revata, Kankharevata, Sona Kolivisa, Sona Kutikanna, Slvali, Vakkali, Rahula-Ratthapala, Kundadhana, Vangisa, Upasena, Dabba, Pilindavaccha, Bahiya-Daruciriya, Kumara Kassapa, Mahakotthita, Ananda, Uruvela Kassapa, Kaludayi, Bakkula, Sobhita, Upah, Nanda, Nandaka, Mahakappina, Sagata, Radha, Mogharaja, Maha- 1 There is a |ika on the Manorathapurani written by a pupil of Sumedha Thera who flourished in the reign of Parakramabahu. This work is also known as the Catutthasaratthamanj usa, 2 Dr. Max Wallesar has edited the first volume of this work for the P.T.S., London. The complete work has been printed and published in Ceylon, Burma, and Siam, Pali Commentaries 441 pajapatl GotamI, Khema, Uppalavanna, Patacara, Dhammadinna, Nanda, Sona, Sakula, Bkadda- Kundalakesa, Bhadda-Kapilani, Bliadda-Kaceana, Kisagotami, Sigalakamata, Tapassa-Bkallika, Sudatta Gahapati, Citta Gahapati, Hatthaka, Maha- nama Sakka, Ugga Gakapati, Sura, Jivaka Komara- bhacca, Nakulapita Gakapati, Sujata Senanidhita, Visakha Migaramata, Khujjuttara-Samavati, Uttara Nandamata, Suppavasa Koliyadhita, Suppiya, Katiyani, Nakulamata Gakapatani, Kaliupasika. 1 This commentary contains an interesting account of the tkeras and theris. As to the account of the theris contained in this commentary, the readers are referred to my work, “ Women in Buddhist Literature ”, Chap. VIII. An account of some of the prominent theras is given below. Anuruddha was the foremost among those who had the divine eye. At the time of the Buddha’s visit to Kapilavatthu, the Sakiyan princes, Anuruddha, brother of Mahanama, Bkaddiya, Ananda, Bhagu, Kimbila, and Devadatta followed by the barber Upali renounced the worldly life with the intention of becoming monks. They asked admission into the congregation and the Master ordained them (ManorathapuranI, P.T.S., Vol. I, pt. I, pp. 183-192). Pindola-Bharadvaja was also one of the eminent of the bhikkhus. He was born in a brahmin family at Rajagaha. He was versed in the three Vedas. He was called Pindola, for wherever he went he asked for food. He once heard the Master preaching the Norm at Rajagaha. Full of faith he asked for admission into the Order. The Blessed One or- dained him, as he soon attained arahatship {Ibid., pp. 196-199). Punna-Mantaniputta was the son of a brahman! named Mantanl. He was born in a brahmin family 1 Vide “ Women Leaders of the Buddhist Reformation ”, pub- lished in the J.R.A.S., 1893 ; it is an English translation of some portions of the Manorathapurani. 442 A History of Pali Literature at Donavatthunagara which was not far off the city of Kapilavatthu. He was the nephew of the thera Annakondanna, one of the five bhikkhus who were converted by the Master at Isipatana where he first set rolling the wheel of Law. It was through Annakondanna that Punna was inspired with faith in the Buddha. He received ordination and in due course attained arahatship. He had five hundred disciples who also attained arahatship under his guidance. He was also declared by the Lord as one of the foremost of the bhikkhus {Ibid., pp. 199-204). Mahdkaccdna was the foremost among those who could fully explain the brief utterances of the Tathagata. He was born as the son of a chaplain at Ujjem. At the request of the King Canda- pajjota, Mahakaccana went to the place where the Buddha was in order to bring the Blessed One to Ujjenl. Mahakaccana heard the Master preaching the Norm. At the end of the discourse he won arahatship. He informed the Buddha of king’s desire. The Blessed One did not grant his request, but bade him go back to Ujjeni and assured him that the king would be glad to see him alone. The king was highly pleased with Mahakaccana for his attainments {Ibid., pp. 204-209). Revata was the foremost among those who were dwellers in a forest. He was the younger brother of Sariputta. He received ordination from the bhikkhus and performed the duties of a monk in the forest. He attained arahatship in time {Ibid., pp. 223-230). Sona-Kolivisa was the foremost among those who put forth great efforts (araddhaviriyani). He was born in a Setthikula. He was brought up in great luxury. Once he heard the Master preaching the doctrine. He took permission from his parents and received ordination. He perceived that the highest end could not be attained in luxury. So he put forth great efforts and suffered every sort of morti- fications. But he could not attain arahatship. Pali Commentaries 443 He desired to return to the worldly life and perform meritorious acts. The Lord came to know the thera’s thought, and exhorted him. The thera in due course won arahatship (Ibid., pp. 231-237). Rakula-Ratthapdla. Rahula was the foremost of the Samaneras, and Ratthapala of the youths who left the world in search of ‘ amata ’. Rahula was the son of the Buddha and Ratthapala was bom in a setthi family of the kingdom of Kuru. At the time of the Buddha’s visit to Kapilavatthu Rahula received ordination from the Buddha. In course of time he attained arahatship. Once the Lord visited the Thullakotthita-nigama (in the Kururattha) — the place of Ratthapala’ s birth. Ratthapala took permission from his parents and received ordination from the Master and went with the Buddha to Savatthi. He attained arahat- ship. In order to see his parents he once went to Thullakotthita-nigama and admonished them. Then he came back to the place where the Buddha was (Ibid., pp. 251-260). Vangisa was born in a brahmana family at Savatthi. He was versed in the three Vedas. He leamt the ‘ chavasisa mantam ’ by which he could tell the place of birth of deceased persons. He travelled into different places and gained his living by this sippa. He once met Buddha and had conversation with him. The result was that Vangisa received ordination. He soon attained arahatship. Whenever he visited the Buddha he visited him with a hymn of praise. Accordingly he was reckoned as the foremost of the Patibhana- vantanam or those possessed of intelligence or ready wit (Ibid., pp. 266-270). Kumdra Kassapa was born at Rajagaha. His mother, when she was pregnant, received ordination and became a Samaneri. As the rearing up a child was not consistent with the life of a Samaneri, the child was reared up by Pasenadi, King of Kosala. When he grew up he received ordination, eventually won arahatship, and shined among the 444 A History of Pali Literature preachers. Accordingly he was reckoned as the foremost of the ‘ cittakathikanam ’ or a wise speaker, an orator or a preacher {Ibid., pp. 283-285). Mahakotthita was the foremost among those who possessed analytical knowledge. He was born in a brahmin family at Savatthi. He learned the three Vedas. He once heard the Master preaching the Norm. Full of faith he received ordination and attained arahatship through analytical know- ledge [Ibid., pp. 285-286). Ananda was the foremost among those who were vastly learned in the doctrine. He with Anuruddha, Bhaddiya, Bhagu, Kimbila, and Deva- datta followed by Upali received ordination from the Master. He was the personal attendant of the Buddha, and attained arahatship just before the work of the First Buddhist Council began {Ibid., pp. 286-296). Uruvela Kassapa, was the foremost of those who had great followings. He with his two brothers became ascetics of the Jatila sect. All the three had a good number of followers. The Lord first converted the eldest brother, Uruvela Kassapa, by showing him his supernatural powers. The next two brothers naturally followed suit {Ibid., pp. 297-300). TJpali was the foremost of those who knew the Vinaya rules. He was a barber. The Sakiyan princes Anuruddha, Ananda, and others with their attendant Upali, the barber, visited the Blessed One with the intention of becoming monks. They asked for admission into the Order, and in order to curb their pride, they requested that the barber should be first ordained. Their request was granted {Ibid., pp. 311-312). Buddhaghosa wrote commentaries Sf, three books of the Khuddaka kaya the Khud- Nikaya, e.g., (1) Khuddakapatha, dakagha Com. (2 ) Dhammapada, and (3) Sutta Nipata. Pali Commentaries 445 Khuddakapatha Atthakatha is known as the Paramattha j otika. 1 Like other commentaries of Buddhaghosa, the Paramattha j otika, too, contains a good deal of interesting information. To start with, there is a very interesting but mythical origin of the Licehavis which is summarised as follows : — “ There was an embryo in the womb of the chief queen of Benares. Being aware of it, she informed the king who performed the rites and ceremonies for the protection of it. With the embryo thus perfectly protected, the queen entered the delivery chamber when it was fully mature. With ladies of great religious merit, the delivery took place at the dawn of day. A lump of flesh of the colour of lac and of bandhu and jivaka flowers came out of her womb. Then the other queens thought that to tell the king that the chief queen was delivered of a mere lump of flesh while a son, resplendent like gold, was expected, would bring the displeasure of the king upon them all ; therefore, they, out of fear of exciting displeasure of the king, put that lump of flesh into a casket, and after shutting it up, put the royal seal upon it, and placed it on the flowing waters of the Ganges. As soon as it was abandoned, a god wishing to provide for its safety, wrote with a piece of good cinnabar on a slip of gold the words, ‘ the child of the chief queen of the King of Benares ’ and tied it to the casket. Then he placed it on the flowing current of the Ganges at a place where there was no danger from aquatic monsters. At that time an ascetic was travelling along the shore of the Ganges close by a settlement of cowherds. When he came down to the Ganges in the morning and saw a vessel coming on, he caught hold of it, thinking that it 1 There is a valuable edition of the Commentary on the Khudda- kapatha by Welipitiya Dewananda Thera and revised by Mahagoda Siri Kanissara Thera, Colombo, 1922. It includes the commentaries on Jataka, Sutta Nipata, Dham- mapada, and Khuddakapatha. 446 A History of Pali Literature contained rags (pamsukula), but seeing the tablet with the words written thereon and also the seal and mark of the King of Benares, he opened it and saw that piece of flesh. Seeing it, he thus thought within himself : ‘ It may be an embryo and there is nothing stinking or putrid in it ’, and taking it to his hermitage, he placed it on a pure place. Then after half a month had passed, the lump broke up into two pieces of flesh ; the ascetic nursed them with still greater care. After the lapse of another half month, each of the pieces of flesh developed fine pimples for the head and the two arms and legs. After half a month from that time, one of the pieces of flesh became a son resplen- dent like gold, and the other became a girl. The ascetic was filled with paternal affection for the babies, and milk came out of his thumb. From that time forward, he obtained milk from rice ; the rice he ate himself and gave the babies the milk to drink. Whatever got into the stomach of these two infants looked as if put into a vessel of precious transparent stone (mani), so that they seem to have had no skin (nicchavi); others said, ‘ The two (the skin and the thing in the stomach) are attached to each other (lina-chavi) as if they were sewn up together, so that these infants owing to their being nicchavi, i.e., having no skin, or on account of their being lina-chavi, i.e., attached skin or same skin, came to be designated as Iicchavis. The ascetic having to nurse these two children had to enter the village in the early morning for alms and to return when the day was far advanced. The cowherds coming to know this conduct of his, told him, ‘ Beverend Sir, it is a great trouble for an ascetic to nurse and bring up children ; kindly make over the children to us, we shall nurse them, do you please attend to your own business The ascetic assented gladly to their proposal. On the next day, the cowherds levelled the road, scattered flowers, unfurled banners, and came to the hermitage with music. The ascetic handed Pali Commentaries 447 over the two children with these words : ‘ The children are possessed of great virtue and goodness, bring them up with great care and when they are grown up, marry them to each other ; please the king and getting a piece of land, measure out a city, and install the prince there \ ‘ All right, sir promised they, and taking away the children, they brought them up. The children, when grown up, used to beat with fists and kicks the children of the cowherds whenever there was a quarrel in the midst of their sports. They cried and when asked by their parents, ‘ Why do you cry ? ’ They said, ‘ These nurslings of the hermit, without father and mother, beat us very hard Then the parents of these other children would say, 4 These children harrass the others and trouble them, they are not to be kept, they must be abandoned ’ (vijjitabba). Thenceforward that country measur- ing three hundred yojanas is called Vajji. Then the cowherds securing the good will and permission of the king, obtained that country, and measuring out a town there, they anointed the boy, King. After giving marriage of the boy, who was then sixteen years of age, with the girl the king made it a rule : 4 No bride is to be brought in from the outside, nor is any girl from here to be given away to any one The first time they had two children — a boy and a girl, and thus a couple of children was born to them for sixteen times. Then as these children were growing up, one couple after another, and there was no room in the city for their gardens, pleasure groves, residential houses and attendants, three walls were thrown up round the city at a distance of a quarter of a yojana from each other ; as the city was thus again and again made larger and still larger (visalikata), it came to be called Vesali. This is the history of Vesali” (Para- matthajotika on the Khuddakapatha, P.T.S., pp. 158-160). In the Khuddakapatha Commentary we read that at SavatthI, there was a householder who was 448 A History of Pali Literature rich and wealthy. He had faith in the Buddha. One day he fed the Buddha along with the Bhikkhu- samgha. Once King Pasenadi being in need of money sent for the householder who replied that he was concealing the treasures and he would see the king with them afterwards (pp. 216-217). While the Buddha was at Savatthi, many bhikkhus of different places went to him to learn kammatthana (objects of meditation). Buddha taught them kammatthana suitable to their nature. Five hundred bhikkhus learnt kammatthana from him and went to a forest by the side of the Himalayas to practise it. The tree deities of the place became frightened at seeing them there and tried to drive them out in various ways. The bhikkhus being troubled by them went to the Buddha to whom they related the story of their trouble. The Buddha said that they cherished no friendly feelings (metta) towards the deities and that was the cause of trouble. Accordingly the Buddha taught them mettasuttam and asked them to practise it. After- wards the deities became their friends (pp. 231 foil.). The Khuddakapatha Commentary 1 furnishes us with many new and important materials concerning religious and political history of ancient India. It has references to the hermitage of Anathapindika at Jetavana (p. 23), Kapilavatthu (p. 23), 18 "great monasteries in Rajagaha (p. 94), Sattapanni cave (p. 95), Vesal! (p. 161), Magadha, Gayasisa (p. 204), Ganga (p. 163), Bimbisara (p. 163), Licehavi (p. 163), Upah (p. 97), Mahakassapa (p. 91), Ananda (p. 92), Mahagovinda (p. 128), Visakha, Dhammadinna (p. 204), Mallika (p. 129), etc. In this commentary, the explanations are dis- proportionate to the short readings of the text. Its style is heavy and laboured, and its disquisitions are in many places redundant. It seems, therefore, 1 The KhuddakapS^ha Commentary has been edited for the P.T.S. by Helmer Smith from a collation by Mabel Hunt. Pali Commentaries 449 highly doubtful if this work can really claim to have been written by Buddhaghosa. The Dhammapada-atthakatha 1 * * * is a voluminous work which explains the stanzas of D »tSXShs a " the Dhammapada and contains a mass of illustrative tales of the nature of the Jatakas. It derives a considerable number of its stories from the four nikayas, the Vinaya, the Udana, the works of Buddhaghosa, and the Jataka Book. But it is more intimately related to the Jataka Book, for over fifty stories of the Dhammapada Commentary are either deriva- tives of Jataka stories or close parallels. In addition many other Jataka stories are referred to and many Jataka stanzas are quoted. So it is certain that the Jataka Book is earlier than the Dhammapada Commentary. The Dhammapada-atthakatha is a commentary on the stanzas of the Dhammapada which is an anthology of 423 sayings of the Buddha in verses. An analysis of each story in the Dhammapada Commentary shows that each story consists of eight subdivisions : (1) Citation of the stanza (gatha) to which the story relates, (2) mention of the person or persons with reference to whom the story was told, (3) story proper, or, more strictly, story of the present (Paecuppanna-vatthu), closing with the utterance of the (4) stanza or stanzas, (5) word-for- word commentary or gloss on the stanza, (6) brief statement of the spiritual benefits which accrued to the hearer or hearers, (7) story of the past, or, more accurately, story of previous existences (atlta-vatthu), and (8) identification of the personages of the story of the past with those of the story of the present. Sometimes the story of the past 1 Prof. H. 0. Norman has edited the complete volume for the P.T.S. ; Mr. E. W. Burlingame has translated it into English under the title of ‘ Buddhist Legends 5 in three parts (Harvard Oriental Series edited by Lanman, Vols. 28, 29, and 30); C. Duroiselle has translated it into English in the periodical Buddhism, VoL XI* Rangoon, 1905-1908. 450 A History of Pali Literature precedes the story of the present, and not infre- quently more than one story of the past is given (Buddhist Legends, pt. I, pp. 28-29). Mr. Burlingame in his Introduction to stories of Dhammapada Commentary (Buddhist Legends, pt. I, p. 26), has rightly said that the Dhamma- pada-atthakatha (as a matter of fact all other Pali atthakathas) is in name and form a commentary. But in point of fact it has become nothing more or less than a huge collection of legends and folk- tales. The exegesis of the text has become a matter of secondary importance altogether and is relegated to the background. The Jataka Book consists of 550 stories relating to previous births of the Buddha. Our present edition (Fausboll’s edition) is not an edition of the text but of the commentary. Each Jataka consists of the following sub- divisions : a verse together with a commentary without which the verse will be unintelligible, a framework of story stating when and where and on what occasion the story is supposed to have been spoken by the Buddha ; and finally the conclusion in which the characters of the story are identified with the Buddha and his contemporaries in a previous birth. We have pointed out the characteristics of a Jataka story and also of a Dhammapada-atthakatha story and it is not unreasonable to say that in general character and structure of parts, the Jataka Book and the Dhammapada-atthakatha do not differ. Doubts have been raised whether the work can really be attributed to Buddhaghosa. The colophon, however, definitely ascribes the authorship to the celebrated commentator, and there is hardly any reason to doubt its authority. The scheme of the commentary is systematic and can easily be followed. Each story has been amplified by a good story, and at the end of each story interpretations of words have been given. The language is easily intelligible. The work as a whole is full of materials Pali Commentaries 451 which, however, should be properly and carefully read and utilised for the study of social, religious, political, and economic conditions of India in the 5th century A.D. Besides, there are in this work humorous tales, animal stories, e.g., the story of Parileyyaka, legends of saints, e.g., Visakha, Pata- cara, etc. Some stories of the Dhammapada are derived from the Vinaya Pitaka, e.g., Devadatta, Bodhirajakumara, Channa, etc. ; some from Udana, e.g., Mahakassapa, Samavatl, Visakha, Sona Koti- kanna, Sundari, Nanda, Suppavasa, etc. Some of the Jataka stories correspond to some of the stories of the Dhammapada Commentary, e.g., Devadhamma, Kulavaka, Telapatta, Salittaka, Babbu, Godha, Cullapalobhana, Ananusociya, Kesava, Saliya, Kusa, Ghata, etc. The Dhammapada Commentary, Theri- gatha Commentary, and the Ahguttara Nikaya Com- mentary have some of the stories in common, e.g., KundalakesI, Patacara, Nanda, Khema, Dhamma- dinna, etc. Mr. Burlingame is able to point out that from the Samyutta are derived seventeen stories, fifteen of them almost word for word (Buddhist Le- gends, pt. I, pp. 45-46). Milinda Panha contains some of the stories mentioned in this work, e.g., Mattha- kundali, Sumana, Ekasataka brahmana, Pesakara- dhlta, Sirima, etc. (vide Buddhist Legends, pt. I, pp. 60-62). Parallels to the stories of this work are found in the Divyavadana and Tibetan Kandjur (Ibid., pp. 63-64). Buddhaghosa says in the pro- logue of the Dhammapada-atthakatha that he translated the Sinhalese commentaries into Magadhi (tanti) adding notes of his own at the request of the thera named Kumarakassapa (Dhammapada Commentary, Vol. I, pp. 1 and 2). Buddhaghosa often mixes up fact and fable without exercising any discrimination whatsoever as we find in the story of King Parantapa of Kosambl (Dhamma- pada-atthakatha, Vol. I, pt. II). The commentator also records the account of the elopement of Vasavadatta with Udayana as we find it in Bhasa’s Svapnavasavadatta. Ud ayan a had another wife 452 A History of Pali Literature named Magandiya, the daughter of a brahmin, in the Kuru kingdom (Udenavatthu, pp. 161 ff.) Anathapindika built a vihara known as the Jetavana Vihara for the Buddha at the expense of 54 Kotis of Kahapana (Dhammapada Commentary, Vol. I, pp. 4 - 5 ). A girl of Anathapindika’s family went to the kingdom of Satavahana and there she offered alms to a bhikkhu. A great thera informed Kang Satavahana of it and eventually the girl was made the chief queen of the monarch (Ibid., Burmese edition, p. 333). Buddhaghosa refers to flying through the air on the back of a garuda-bird made of wood and sufficient for the accommodation of three or four persons (Ibid., Vol. Ill, pp. 134 ff.). In the Dhammapada Commentary, Buddhaghosa makes mention of a bird called Hatthilinga which is described as an animal possessing the strength of five elephants. It was in the habit of looking back on the track already trodden (Vol. I, pt. II). Buddhaghosa refers to the Mahavihara in Ceylon (Dhammapada Commentary, Vol. IV, p. 74 ) where, presumably his commentaries were written. Prof. Hardy points out (J.B.A.S., 1898, pp. 741 - 794 ) that the story of the merchant Ghosaka as related by Buddhaghosa in his Manorathapuram, the com- mentary on the Anguttara Nikaya, differs from the same story told in the Dhammapada-atthakatha. It should be borne in mind that Buddhaghosa was not the writer of an independent commentary on the canonical texts, but he was for the most part translating or compiling from various Sinhalese commentaries, sometimes from the Maha-attha- katha, sometimes from the Mahapaccari, and some- times from the Kurunda-atthakatha. Buddhaghosa cannot, therefore, be held responsible for variations in the narratives which might have been due to the differences in the authorship of the great old com- mentaries which were the embodiments of joint labours of a large number of Buddhist sages and scholars who had been working at the interpretation of the Master’s sayings ever since they were uttered. Pali Commentaries 453 The Dhammapada-atthakatha abounds in references to kings, e.g., Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, Pasenadi ; to Acelakas, Niganthas, Ajivakas, Jatilas, Micchaditthikas ; to lakes, e.g., Anotattadaha ; to principal cities, e.g., Takkaslla, Kapilavatthu, Kururattha, Kosambi, Kosala, BaranasI, Soreyya, Magadba, Rajagaha, Savatthl, Vesali ; to mountains, e.g., the Himalayas, Sineru, Gandhamadana, Gijjhakuta ,* to principal Buddhist women, e.g., Mahapajapatl Gotami, Khema, Yasodhara, Sumana- devi, Mayadevi, Mallika, Patacara, Sujata, Rahula- rnata, Vasuladatta, Visakha, Suppavasa, Dinna, Kisagotaml, Rupananda ; to the heavens, e.g., Tavatimsa, Tusita ; to forests and tanks, e.g., Veluvana, Mahavana, Jetavana, Mahgalapok- kharan! ; to rivers, e.g., Gaxiga, Rohini (Vol. II, p. 99) ; to the famous physician Jivaka ; to ancient Indian tribes, e.g., Licchavis, Mallas ; to distinguished persons, e.g., Siddhattha, Sariputta, Mahinda, Rahula, Ananda, Vessavana, Sona Kutikanna, Moggallana, and Mendaka. In the Dhammapada-atthakatha we read that there lived at Kosambi a householder’s son, Kosambi- vas! Tissa Thera, who took ordination from the Buddha. His supporter offered his son who was seven years old to Tissa. The boy was made a samanera by Tissa and as the hair of the samanera was being cut, he attained arahatship (Vol. II, pp. 182-185). Buddhaghosa records legend which has some points of agreement with a story in the Skanda- purana (Ch. 5, Brahmakhanda). It is recorded that there lived at Kosambi a king named Parantapa. One day he sat under the sun with his pregnant wife who was covered with a red blanket when a bird named Hatthilihga having the strength of five elephants, took her to be a lump of flesh, came to her, and took her away with its claws. The queen thought that before it could eat her, she would cry out and it would leave her. It was in the habit of looking back on the track. The queen 454 A History of Pali Literature also cried accordingly and the bird left her. At that time rain poured heavily and continued through- out the night. Early in the morning when the sun arose, a son was bom to her. A hermit came to the spot where the son was born and saw the queen on the Nigrodha tree which was not far from his hermitage. When the queen introduced herself as a Ksatriyani, the hermit brought down the baby from the tree. The queen came to the hermitage of the sage who accompanied her with her infant son. The queen succeeded in tempting him to take her as his spouse and they lived as husband and wife. One day the hermit looked at the stars and saw the star of Parantapa disfigured. He informed her of the death of Parantapa of Kosambi. The queen cried and told him, “ He is my husband and I am his queen. If my son had lived there, he would have become the king now.” The hermit assured her that he would help her son to win the kingdom. Her son eventually became king and was known as Udayana. The new king married Samavati, a daughter of the treasurer of i Kosambi. Buddhaghosa records moreover the account of the elopement of Vasavadatta. with Udayana as we find it in the Svapnavasavadatta ■ by Bhasa (YoL I, pt. II). The Dhammapada Commentary gives us de- tails regarding the life of the Thera Mahakaccayana. We are told that when he was dwelling at Avanti, the Buddha was residing at the palace of the renowned upasika at Savatthi, Visakha Mgaramata ; nevertheless, though separated by such a long distance from the Master, yet whenever any sermon was delivered by the latter on Dhamma, Maha- kaccayana used to be present. Therefore a seat was reserved for him by the bhikkhus (Vol. II, pp. 176-177). We also read in the same commentary that when Mahakaccayana was living at the city of Kuraraghara in Avanti, an upasaka named Sona Kutikanno was pleased with him after listening to his religious sermon. The upasaka requested him 455 Pali Commentaries to give him ordination which was given (VoL IV, p. 101). A naga king named Erakapatta was taught by the Buddha at the foot of the Sattasiri- saka tree at Benares that it was very difficult to be bom as a human being (Vol. Ill, p. 230). A trader of Benares used to trade by putting his goods on the back of an ass. Once he went to Taxila for trade and gave his ass rest there by tailing down the goods from its back (Vol. I, p. 123). A trader of Benares was going to Savatth! with five hundred carts full of red cloth, but he could not cross the river as it was full of water, so he had to stay there to sell his goods (Vol. Ill, p. 429). At Benares there was a rich banker named Mahadhanasetthi. His parents taught him dancing and music. Another rich banker had a daughter who was trained in dancing and music and both of them were married. Mahadhanasetthi began to drink wine and was addicted to gambling, with the result that he lost his own wealth as well as his wife’s. Afterwards he began to beg for alms (Vol. Ill, pp. 129 foil.). A king of Benares leamt a mantra from a young brahmin by paying him 1,000 kahapanas as teacher’s fee. The king saved his life from the hands of the barber who was instigated by the senapati to kill him by that mantra (Vol. I, pp. 251 foil.). A brahmin of Taxila sent his son Suslma to learn Vedic mantra from a teacher who was his father’s friend. The teacher taught him well (Vol. Ill, p. 445). A young man of Benares went to Taxila to learn archery from a distinguished teacher and he was well versed in the art, and the teacher being satisfied gave his daughter in marriage to him (Vol. IV, p. 66). We read that a king of Benares went out in disguise to enquire whether any of his subjects spoke ill of him. For 1,000 kahapanas he leamt from a young brahmin of Benares a mantra which enabled him to read the evil thoughts of people (Vol. I, pp. 251 foil.). In spite of the good government, the country was not free from crime. Cakkhupala was a physician at Benares. He gave medicine to iff s II 456 A History of Pali Literature a woman who deceived him by telling a lie. He being angry with her gave her a medicine which made her blind (Yol. I, p. 20). Pasenadi, son of Mahakosala, was educated at Taxila and Mahali, a Iicchavi prince, and a Malla prince of Kusinara were his class-mates (Vol. I, pp. 337-338). Kosala was not inhabited by the setthis previous to Pasenadi of Kosala who asked Mendakasetthi and Dhanan- jayasetthi to settle in the country and they did settle there (Vol. I, pp. 384 foil.). Pasenadi of Kosala was enamoured of a beautiful woman and tried to win her by killing her husband, but he gave up this idea when warned by the Buddha (Vol. II, pp. 1 foil.). Some thieves were caught and brought before the king of Kosala. He ordered them to be bound in ropes and chains. They were thrown in prison. This information was given by the bhikkhus to the Buddha who was asked whether there was any stronger tie than this. Buddha replied, “ attach- ment to wives, sons, and wealth is stronger than other ties ” (Vol. IV, pp. 54-55). In Kosala a cowherd named Nanda was rich and wealthy. He used to go to Anathapindika’s house from time to time taking with him five kinds of preparations from cow’s milk. He invited the Buddha who accepted the invitation. Nanda continued charities for a week. On the seventh day Buddha delivered a ser- mon on dana, sfla, etc., upon which Nanda obtained the first stage of sanctification (Vol. I, pp. 322- 323). Mahasuvanna, a banker of SavatthI, had two sons, the first son became a bhikkhu under the Buddha and was known as Cakkhupala (Vol. I, pp. 3 foil.). Matthakundali was the son of a rich and stingy brahmin of SavatthI. Only by saluting the Buddha he went to heaven {Ibid., pp. 25 foil.). Thullatissa was the Buddha’s father’s sister’s son and lived at SavatthI as a bhikkhu. He was pacified by the Buddha {Ibid., pp. 37 foil.). Kali- yakkhinl was a YakkhinI worshipped by the people of SavatthI. She could foretell drought and excessive rainfall {Ibid., pp. 45 foil.). SavatthI Pali Commentaries 457 contributed a fair number of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunls who acquired fame and renown in the Buddhist congregation for the purity of their lives. Patacara was the daughter of a rich banker of Savatthl. She afterwards became a bhikkhunl after great bereavements and came to be known as Patacara (Vol. II, pp. 260 foil.). Kisagotami was the daughter of a setthi of Savatthl. After the death of her only child she went to the Buddha with the dead body and requested him to bring the dead to life. The Buddha delivered a sermon which led her to become a bhikkhunl {Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 270 foil.). Anitthigandhakumara fallen from the Brahmaloka was reborn in a rich family of Savatthl. He used to cry when touched by women. He was afterwards converted by the Buddha {Ibid., Vol. Ill, pp. 281 foil.). Vakkali bom in a brahmin family of Savatthl became a bhikkhu seeing the beauty of the Buddha’s body {Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 118). A servant of a brahmin of Savatthl became a bhikkhu and subsequently attained arahatship {Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 167). Nanda was the son of Mahapajapatl Gotaml. He was made a bhikkhu by the Buddha at Savatthl {Ibid., pp. 15 foil.). The Dhammapada Commentary refers to the long continued jealousy of the heretics towards Buddhism. Moggallana, one of the chief disciples of the Buddha, was struck by certain heretics with the help of some hired men (Vol. Ill, pp. 65 foil.). He used to dwell in Kullavalagama in Magadha. At first he was very lazy, but being encouraged by the Buddha he exerted strenuously and fulfilled savakaparami. It is to be noted that Sariputta who was a Magadhan obtained paramita here {Ibid., Vol. I, p. 96). The same commentary also gives us legends about Bimbisara, King of Magadha, who went to see the most beautiful palace of Jotiya in the mythic land of Uttarakuru. Ajatasatru was his son. Both of them took their meals at Jotiya’s palace. Jotiya presented Bimbisara with a valuable gem, the fight of which was enough to 458 A History of Pali Literature illuminate the whole house (Dh. Com., Vol. IV, pp. 209 foil.). A large number of heretics of the Samsaramocaka caste, who were opponents of Buddhism, employed some hired men to assault Moggallana, one of the chief followers of the Buddha (Dh. Conn, Vol. Ill, pp. 65 foil.). Two chief disciples of the Buddha went to Rajagaha and the inhabitants of Rajagaha showered charities upon them. A silk robe which was given in charity was given to Devadatta (Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 77 foil. ). A daughter of a banker of Rajagaha obtained Sotapatti (Ibid., Vol. Ill, p. 30). Sirima was a beautiful prostitute of Rajagaha. She asked pardon of Uttara, daughter of Punnakasetthi for her faults, in the presence of the Buddha. She afterwards became one of his lay devotees and spent a large sum for him and his disciples (Ibid., Vol. Ill, pp. 104 foil.). The mother of Kumarakassapa was the daughter of a banker of Rajagaha. When she grew up, she asked permission from her parents to receive ordination which was refused. She then went to her husband’s place. She pleased her husband very much and got permission from him to receive ordination (Ibid., Vol. Ill, pp. 144-145). A brahmin of Savatthi became an arahant of Gijjhakuta. He was very proud of seeing the beauty of the Buddha’s body. The Buddha told, ‘‘No use seeing my body, see my Dhamma and you will see me ” (Ibid., Vol. IV, pp. 117-118). This work further relates that Kundalakesi, a beautiful daughter of a banker of Rajagaha, remained unmarried till the age of sixteen. It is there incidentally pointed out that at this age women long for men (Vol. II, p. 217). Magha, a householder of Magadha, married his maternaluncle’s daughter named Sujata (Vol. I, p. 265). Ananda was enamoured of the beauty of his father’s sister’s daughter named Uppalavanna and wanted to marry her (Ibid., Vol. II, p. 49). Vepacitti, King of the Asuras, refused to give his daughter in marriage to any of the Asura princes. So he said, “ My Pali Commentaries 459 1 daughter shall choose for herself such a husband | as she sees fit He then assembled the host of | Asuras, made over a garland of flowers to his | daughter and said to her, “ Choose for yourself a husband who suits you The girl selected one i as her husband and threw the wreath over his ; head (Dh. Com., Vol. I, pp. 278-279). We are informed by this commentary that a rich man’s ! daughter, when she attained marriageable age, was lodged by her parents in an apartment of royal splendour on the topmost floor of a seven-storied I palace, with a female slave to guard her. No male ! servant was kept in that house (Vol. II, p. 217). Daughters of noble families did not ordinarily come out of their house, but they travelled in ■ chariots and the like while others entered an ordinary carriage or raised a parasol of a palmyra-leaf over their heads ; but if this was not available, they took the skirt of their undergarment and threw it over their shoulder (Vol. I, p. 391). From the J instances cited above it is reasonable to hold that elopement and the preservation of chastity inter alia contributed largely to the observance of 4 purdah ’ by the tender sex before or after marriage. But there are exceptions, Visakha, for example, while going to her father-in-law’s house just after her marriage entered the city of Savatthi not under the 4 purdah ’ but standing up in a chariot un- covered showing herself to all the city (Vol. I, pp. 384 foil.). Daughters of respectable families, who did not ordinarily stir out, used to go on foot during a festival, with their own retinue, and bathe in the river (Vol. I, pp. 190-191 and 388). Instances of dowry being given by the bride’s father are referred to in the Visakhayavatthu of the Dhamma- pada Commentary (Vol. I). The Savatthian treasurer, Migara, on the occasion of the marriage of his daughter, Visakha, well-known in the Buddhist literature, gave her as dowry five hundred carte filled with vessels of gold, five hundred filled with vessels of silver, five hundred filled "with copper 460 A History of Pali Literature vessels, five hundred filled with garments made of various kinds of silk, five hundred filled with ghee, five hundred filled with plows, plowshares, and other farm implements. Sixty thousand powerful bulls and sixty thousand milch cows, and some powerful bull-calves were also given to her. Princess Vajira was the daughter of Pasenadi of Kosala. She was given in marriage to Ajatasattu of Magadha. Kasigama was given to her by her father for bath and perfume money (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, p. 266). The Savatthian treasurer, Migara, gave his daughter, on her marriage, fifty crores of treasure to buy aromatic powders for the bath (Ibid., I, p. 398). The custom of collecting presents (punnakaram) on the occasion of a marriage ceremony is met with in the Dhammapada Com- mentary where we read that on the occasion of the marriage ceremony of Visakha, daughter of Dhan- anjaya setthi with the son of Migara setthi, presents including a hundred each of all kinds of gifts were collected from hundred villages (Vol. I, pp. 384 foil. ). After marriage the girl was sent to her father- in-law’s house with the following directions 1 1. Do not carry outside the indoor fire. 2. Do not carry inside the outdoor fire. 3. Give only to him that gives. 4. Do not give him that does not give. 5. Give both to him that gives and him that does not give. 6. Sit happily. 7. Eat happily. 8. Sleep happily. 9. Tend the fire. 10. Honour the household divinity. 1 Antoaggi bahi na mharitabbo, bahi a ggi anto na pavesetabbo, dadantass’ eva databbam* adantassa na databbam, dadantassapi adantassapi databbam, sukham nislditabbam ; sukham bhunji- tabbam, snkharh nipajjitabbam, aggi pariearitabbo, antodevata pi namassitabba’ ti idam dasavidham ovadam (Dh, Com,, I, 397- 398), . Pali Commentaries 461 These ten admonitions were interpreted as follows : — 1 . If the mother-in-law or other female members of the household engage in a private conversation within the house, their conversation is not to be communicated to slaves, whether male or female, for such conversation is tattled about and causes quarrels. 2. The conversation of slaves and servants is not to be communicated to persons within the household ; as such conversation is talked about and causes quarrels. 3. This means that one should give only to those who return borrowed articles. 4. This means that one should not give to those who do not return borrowed articles. 5. This means that one should help poor kinsfolk and friends who look for succour, without- considering their capability of repaying. 6. This means that a wife seeing her mother- in-law or her father-in-law should stand and not remain sitting. 7. This means that a wife should not eat before her mother-in-law, father-in-law, and husband have taken their meals. She should serve them first, and when she is sure that they have had all they care for, then and not till then may she herself eat. 8. This means that a wife should not go to- bed before her mother-in-law, father-in-law, and husband. She should first perform all the duties which she owes them and then she may herself lie down to sleep. 9. This means that a wife should regard her mother-in-law, her father-in-law, or her husband as a flame of fire or as a serpent king. 10. When a monk after keeping residence in a remote lodging comes to the door of a house, and the housewife sees him, she must give to such a monk whatever food there is in the house both 462 A History of Pali Literature hard and soft; and then she may eat (Dh. Com,, Vol I, pp. 403-404). A Magadhan householder, named Magha, had four wives at a time, viz., Nanda, Citta, Sudhamma, and Sujata (Ibid., I, p. 269). The first wife of a householder of SavatthI being barren brought another wife for her husband. When her eo-wife became pregnant, she was jealous and effected abortion by administering medicine. Thrice did this woman commit this heinous crime with the result that her co-wife succumbed at last to the effect of the abortive medicine. But the cruel woman did not escape the penalty for doing this sinful deed. She was beaten to death by her husband who declared her to be the cause of the death of his pregnant wife and destroyer of his line (Dh. Com., Vol. I, pp. 45 foil.). Besides her household duties a slave woman had to husk paddy (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, p. 321) and to go to market (Ibid., Vol. I, p. 20S). Khujjuttara, a maid-servant of Samavatl, queen of Udena, King of KosambI, had to buy flowers daily for eight kahapanas for the queen. But she used to steal four kahapanas daily. One day while she went to the garland-maker’s house to buy flowers, she heard the sermon delivered by the Buddha. She obtained sotapattiphalaxh. Since then she discontinued stealing and bought flowers for eight kahapanas. The queen questioned her how she had bought so many flowers for eight kahapanas. The maid-servant could no longer conceal anything, as by this time her faith in the Buddha had become very strong. She confessed her guilt and said that after hearing the Buddha’s sermon she had come to realise that stealing a thing is a sin. The queen asked her to repeat the Dhamma she had heard. Khujjuttara did so in the presence of the queen and her five hundred female attendants. The queen did not reproach her for her stealing four kahapanas daily, on the contrary, she praised her much for letting her hear the Buddha’s Dhamma. Since then the maid- Pali Commentaries 463 servant was regarded as a mother and teacher by the queen and her five hundred female attendants, who asked her to go to the Master daily to hear the Dhainma and repeat it to them. In course of time she mastered the Tripitaka (Dh. Com., Vol. I, pp. 208 foil.). Sirima was the youngest sister of Jlvaka, the well-known physician. She was a courtesan of unique beauty. She lived at Rajagaha. Once she was appointed for a fortnight by the female lay disciple, Uttara, wife of the treasurer’s son, Sumana, and daughter of the treasurer, Punnaka, for one thousand pieces of money per night (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 308-309) in order to minister to Uttara’s husband. One day she offended Uttara, but desiring to be on good terms with her again, she begged pardon of her. Uttara assured her that she would pardon her if the Exalted One would do the same. One day the Master and the congregation of monks came to Uttara’s house. When the Master had finished his meal, Sirima begged his pardon. The Teacher pronounced thanksgiving and delivered discourse to which Sirima listened attentively. Then she attained the first stage of sanctification. Since then she regularly gave alms to eight monks (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 104 foil.). On her death, Sirima’s dead body was not burnt. It was kept in a charnel-house (amakasusanam) and watched by a guard against its being devoured by crows and dogs. King Bimbisara informed the Buddha of her death, and the Buddha requested the king not to bum her dead body but to preserve it so that it could be seen by the bhikkhus daily for asubha- bhavana. The bhikkhus saw it daily and realised that the most beautiful body becomes rotten, worm- eaten, and finally the bones remain without flesh. The citizens, too, were compelled to behold Sirima’s dead body, for there stood the royal proclamation, “ All who refuse to do so shall be fined eight pieces of money ”. This was done with a view to impress on the citizens the idea of transitoriness of human 464 A History of Pali Literature beauty which is but skin-deep (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 106-109). Dinna was an upasika of the Buddha. She was the queen of King Uggasena. A king promised to the deity of a nigrodha tree that he would worship the deity with blood of one hundred kings of Jambudlpa, if he got the throne after his father’s death. He then defeated all the kings one by one and went to worship the deity, but the deity, seeing that many kings would be Idlled, took compassion for them and refused his worship on the ground that the queen of King Uggasena whom he defeated was not brought. The king had her brought and she preached a sermon on the avoidance of life- slaughter in their presence. The deity approved and the king refrained from life-slaughter and released the defeated and captured kings who praised Dinna for her act. It was due to her that so many kings were saved (Dh. Com., Vol. II, pp. 15 foil.). Kisagotam! came of a respectable family at Savatthi. She was married to a rich banker’s son who had 40 kotis of wealth (Dh. Com., Vol. II, pp. 270-275). Bodhisatta was her maternal uncle’s son. One day while the Bodhisatta was returning home after receiving the news of Rahula’s birth, he was seen by Kisagotam! from her palace. Buddha’s physical grace and charm gladdened the heart of Kisagotam! and she uttered that the mother who had such a child and the father who had such a son and the wife who had such a husband were surely happy (nibbuta); but the Bodhisatta took the word nibbuta in the sense of nibbanam. The Bodhisatta presented her with a pearl necklace for making him hear such an auspicious and sacred word (Dh. Com., Vol. I, p. 85). After the Bodhi- satta had become the Buddha, Kisagotam! once came through the sky to worship the Buddha ; but she saw that Sakka with his retinue was then seated before the Master. She, therefore, chose it not to descend and come near to the Buddha; Pali Commentaries 465 but did her worship from the sky and went away. Being questioned by Sakka who had seen Kisagotami performing her worship, the Buddha answered that she was his daughter. Kisagotami was the foremost among the bhikkhunis who used very rough and simple robes (Dh. Com., Yol. IV, pp. 156-157). Once Pasenadi invited the Buddha to teach Dhamma to queens Mallika and V asabh akhattiy a who were desirous of learning it. But as it was not possible for him to go everyday, the Buddha asked the king to engage Ananda for the purpose. MallikadevI in due course learnt it thoroughly well ; but V asabhakhattiya was inattentive and could hardly, therefore, learn it (Dh. Com., Vol. I, 382). Mallika once induced her husband. King Pasenadi, to go to the Buddha and receive instruc- tions from him, and thus saved the life of many living beings who were brought before the king for sacrifice to save the king himself from the evil effect of hearing four horrible sounds at midnight, and she made the following arrangements on the occa- sion of Pasenadi’s offering unique gift to the Buddha and the Buddhists : — 1. She made a canopy with sala wooden parts under which five hundred bhikkhus could sit within the parts and five hundred outside them. 2. Five hundred white umbrellas were raised by 500 elephants standing at the back of five hundred bhikkhus. 3. Golden boats were placed in the middle of the pandal and each khattiya daughter threw scents standing in the midst of two bhikkhus. 4. Each khattiya princess was found standing in the midst of two bhikkhus. 5. Golden boats were filled with scents and perfumes (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 183 foil.). MallikadevI had, however, to suffer after death, in the Avici hell, because she had once deceived her husband by telling a lie about her misconduct (Dh. Com., Yol. Ill, pp. 119 foil.). 466 A History of Pali Literature The daughter of Queen Mallika was also named Mallika. She was the wife of General Bandhula, but was childless for a long time. Bandhula, therefore, once for all, sent her to her father’s house, when on the way she went to the Jetavana to salute the Buddha and told the Master that her husband was sending her home as she was childless. The Buddha asked her to go back to her husband’s house. Bandhula came eventually to know of this fact, and thought that the Buddha must have got the idea that she would be pregnant. The sign of pregnancy was soon visible in her and she desired to drink water and bathe in the well-guarded tank. Her husband made her bathe and drink water of the tank (Dh. Com., Vol. I, pp. 349-351). Uttara and her husband were serving a setthi at Rajagaha. Once the setthi went to attend a famous ceremony and Uttara with her husband stayed at home. One morning, the husband of Uttara had gone to the fields to till the soil, and Uttara was going with cooked food to feed her husband there. On the way she met Sariputta who had just got up from nirodhasamapatti and offered the food to him with the result that she became the richest lady at Rajagaha and her husband became a setthi named Mahadhanasetthi (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 302 foil.). Punna was the maid-servant of a banker of Savatthx. Once while engaged in husking paddy at night, she went outside the house to take rest. At this time Dabba, a Mallian, was in charge of making arrangements for the sleeping accommoda- tion of the bhikkhus who were guests. Punna with some cakes went out to enquire of the cause of their movements with lights at night, and met the Buddha who had come out on that way for alms. She offered all the cakes to the Buddha without keeping anything for her, and the Buddha accepted all of them. Punna was thinking whether Buddha would partake of her food ; but the Buddha most unhesitatingly did partake of it in her house. The Pali Commentaries 467 effect of this offer was that Punna obtained sota- pattiphalam at the place where the offer was made (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 321 foil.). Rohini was Anuruddha’s sister. She was suffering from white leprosy, and did not go to her brother as she feared she might contaminate him. Anuruddha sent for her and asked her to build a rest-house for bhikkhus to get rid of her sin. She did so, and kept the rest-house clean even when it was under construction. After she had done it with great devotion for a long time, she eventually became free from her disease. Shortly afterwards the Buddha went to Kapilavatthu and sent for Rohini. When she came, he told her that she had been the queen of Benares in her former birth. The king of Benares was at that time enamoured of the beauty of a dancing girl. The queen knowing this was jealous of the girl and to punish her she put something in her cloth and poured in bathing water which produced terrible itching all over the body. On account of this sin, she had got this disease. She however obtained sotapattiphalam and the colour of her body was golden (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 295 foil.). A cultivator’s daughter was in charge of a paddy-field. She was once frying paddy in the field, when at that time Mahakassapa was engaged in meditation for a week in the Pipphali cave. Rising up from meditation he went to the girl for alms ; and she with a delightful mind offered fried grains to him which he accepted. While the girl was returning from the presence of Mahakassapa to the spot where she was frying she was smitten by a poisonous snake and died instantly. After death she was reborn in the golden mansion of the Tavatiihsa heaven on account of this meritorious deed, and was named there as Lajadevadhita who had come from heaven to get more merit by serving Mahakassapa. She used to cleanse his monastery and keep water ready for his use. But after two days, she was forbidden to serve him any more 468 A History of Pali Literature as she was found out to be a devi. She lamented much for not being able to serve the great arahat. The Buddha came to know of this and preached a sermon to her with the result that she obtained sotapattiphalam (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 6-9). The mother of Kumarakassapa had become pregnant before she renounced the worldly life ; but she was herself unaware of it. After she had become a bhikkhuni it was known that she was pregnant. The matter was referred to the Buddha who asked Upali to enquire into the matter. Upali referred to Pasenadi, Anathapindika, and Visakha. Visakha was afterwards solely entrusted to decide the matter. Visakha found out that she had become pregnant before her renouncing the world (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 144 foil.). Rupananda was the Buddha’s step-motlier. She thought that her eldest brother had renounced the world and had become a Buddha. Her younger brother Nanda was a bhikkhu ; Rahulakumara had also obtained ordination ; her husband too had become a bhikkhu ; and her mother Mahapajapati GotamI, a bhikkhuni. She, therefore, thought that as so many of her relatives had renounced the world, so she too must follow their path. She did not go before the Buddha as she was proud of her beauty while the Buddha used to preach imper- manence and worthlessness of rupa. The other bhikkhunis and bhikkhus always used to praise Buddha in her presence and told her that all, in spite of their having different tastes, had become pleased on seeing the Buddha (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, p. 115). Nanda, wife of Nandasena, a householder of Savatthi, had no faith in the Buddha. One day she thought of going to the Buddha with other bhikkhunis, but she would not show herself to the Buddha. The Buddha came to know that with other bhikkhunis Nanda too had come ; and he desired to lower down the pride of her beauty. By his miraculous power, the Buddha created a most beautiful girl by his side who at once engaged Pali Commentaries 469 herself in fanning the Buddha. Nanda saw the beauty of the girl, and readily discovered that her own beauty was much inferior. The attendant girl was seen gradually but miraculously attaining youth, the state of mother of one child, and the old age and disease and death. Nanda saw this happening before her eyes and gave up the pride of her beauty and came to realise the impermanence of physical beauty. The Buddha knowing the state of her mind delivered the sermon (Dh. Com., Vol. Ill, pp. 113 foil.). Visakha was the daughter of Dhananj ayasetthi, son of Mendakasetthi, who lived in the city of Bhaddiya in the kingdom of Ahga. The family of Mendaka was greatly devoted to the Buddha. Dhananjayasetthi at the request of Pasenadi, King of Kosala, went to his kingdom and settled at Saketa. Visakha was married to Punnavaddhana, son of Migarasetthi, who was, however, a follower of the Niganthas. After marriage, she lived with her father-in-law at Savatthl. One day Migara- setthi invited five hundred naked ascetics (niganthas) and when they came he asked his daughter-in-law to come and salute the arahats. She came hearing about the arahats and seeing them, she said, “ Such shameless creatures can’t be arahats. Why has my father-in-law called me ? ” Saying this she blamed her father-in-law and went to her residence. The naked ascetics seeing this, blamed the setthi and asked him to turn her out of the house as she was a follower of Samana Gotama. But the setthi knowing that it was not possible to do so, apologised to them and sent them away. After this incident the setthi sitting on a valuable seat was drinking milk-porridge with honey from a golden pot and Visakha stood there fanning him. At that time a Buddhist monk entered the house for alms and stood before him, but the setthi took no notice of him. Seeing that, Visakha said to the thera “ Go to another house, Sir, my father-in- law is eating a stale food ”, At this the banker 470 A History of Pali Literature grew angry. He then stopped eating and ordered ■ his men to drive her out. Thereupon, Visakha said that he should examine her shortcomings. ■; The setthi welcomed the idea and summoned her relations and told them that his daughter-in-law had said to a Buddhist monk that he was eating stale food while he was drinldng milk porridge |; with honey. Visakha’s relations enquired about • the truth of the statement. Visakha said that she . did not say so. She only said that her father-in- law was enjoying the fruition of his merit in the previous birth. In this way Visakha explained away everything that was considered by her father- in-law to bring blame upon her. While she was found not guilty by her relations, she prepared to leave the house of her father-in-law. Thereupon the banker apologised and entreated his daughter-in- law to remain in the house. She, however, con- sented to remain on one condition only, namely, that she could be allowed to entertain the bhikkhus in the house at her will. Next day she invited the Buddha to her house. The naked ascetics knowing that the Buddha had entered the house of Migara- setthi surrounded the house. Visakha requested her father-in-law to come and serve the Buddha himself. The naked ascetics prevented him from going there. Thereupon Visakha herself served the Buddha and his disciples and when their meal was finished, she again requested her father-in-law to come and listen to the sermon of the Buddha. The naked ascetics again said that it was extremely improper to go at that time, but when he went to listen to the Buddha’s sermon, he saw that the naked ascetics had gone there earlier and placed the curtain and requested the setthi to sit outside it. The setthi sat outside the curtain, listened to the Buddha’s sermon, obtained the fruition of the first stage of sanctifica- tion, went up to his daughter-in-law and said to her, “ Henceforward you are my mother ”. From that time Visakha came to be known as Migaramata or Migara’s mother. Migara was converted to Pali Commentaries 471 Buddhism. Visakka afterwards made a vihara at SavatthI at the cost of twenty-seven crores of coins (Dh. Com., Vol. I, pt. II, pp. 384 foil.). Sutta Nipata Commentary . — The Sutta Mpata Commentary written by Buddhaghosa is a mine of various sorts of valuable information — geographical, historical, religious, and otherwise. Illuminating definitions of raga, tanka, mana, dosa, moha, anusaya, and akusalamula ; and interpretations of the words, e.g., sati, brahmaloka, uposatha, sankappa, pamada, jhana, dhamma, gambhira- panna, musavada, panatipata, upadhi, etc., occur briskly in it sometimes systematically, sometimes at random. To give one example, the very interesting word ‘ Mbutta ’ is explained in connection with the account of Dhaniya, the cowherd. In con- nection with another account, namely, that of the Khaggavisana Sutta, we are referred to three kinds of dramas. Besides mentioning mountains and mountain caves, e.g., Gandhamadana and Canda- gabbha, the commentator reveals his knowledge of geography when he makes mention of Baranasx, Magadha, SavatthI, Kapilavatthu, Kosala, Neran- jara, etc., nor does he seem to be deficient in his knowledge of history, for he mentions Bimbisara, Sundariparibbajaka, and Kosalaraja Pasenadi. Bimbisara, we are informed, was called Magadha, because he was the lord of the Magadhas. He was the possessor of a big army, hence he was called Seniya. It adds, besides, that Bimbisara was so called because his colour was like that of excellent gold (p. 448). Rajagaha was ruled by famous kings like Mandhata and Mahagovinda. In the time of the Buddha, it became a city, and in other times, it came to be vacant and then inhabited by the yakkhas. Interesting side-lights are thrown by other accounts, a few of which may profitably be re- counted here. A carpenter of Benares prepared mechanical wooden birds by which he conquered a tract of land in the Himavanta and became the ruler of that land. His capital was known as SIS’ 9 ^ 472 A History of Pali Literature Katthavahanagara. He sent valuable presents to the king of Benares and made friendship with him. The king in return sent him the news of the advent of the Buddha Kassapa in Benares, but when they reached Benares the Buddha had obtained rnaha- parinibbana. Afterwards, the yuvaraja with a bhikkhu and the relics of the Buddha went back to the Katthanagara, and the bhikkhu was later on successful in converting the king and his subjects into Buddhism (Yol. II, pp. 575 foil.). A trader of Benares went to buy goods with 500 carts to a frontier country, and bought sandal wood (Vol. II, pp. 523 ff.). There lived at Savatthi a paribbajaka, named Pasura, who was a great disputant. He planted a branch of a Jambu tree declaring that he who would be able to hold discussion with him, would uproot it. Sariputta did uproot it. Pasura had a discussion with Sariputta about sensual pleasures and eye-consciousness with the result that the paribbajaka was defeated. The paribbajaka went to the Jetavana in order to be ordained by Sariputta and to learn Vadasattam (art of disputation). He met Laludayi at the Jetavana vihara. Thinking that this Laludayi must be greatly wise, he took ordination from him. He defeated Laludayi in disputation and made him a paribbajaka even while he was wearing the dress of a bhikkhu. Pasura again went to Savatthi to hold discussion with Gautama. He held discussion with Gautama but was defeated. The Buddha then gave him in- struction and he was converted into Buddhism (Vol. II, pp. 538 foil.). The J dtaka Commentary . — As to the authorship of the Jataka Commentary there is a great dispute which has not yet been settled. Some ascribe the authorship to Buddhaghosa. Buddhaghosa wrote a commentary on the Dhammasangani known as the Atthasalini. 1 It 1 There is & scholium on the Atthasalini called the Patha- maparamatthapakasinl. Bead Abhidhammakatha, a Pali prose Pali Commentaries 473 simply gives the meaning of the terms that occur in the Dhammasangani. In some Commentaries on places word-for-word explanations Pitaka-Me“ have been given. which ar ® apparently salim. tedious but are certainly useful to students of Buddhism . 1 The Atthasalini contains some historical and geographical information besides some explanations of certain technical terms of Buddhist psychology. It refers to some rivers, e.g., Aciravati, Ganga, Godavari, Heranjara, Mahi, Sarabhu, and Anoma. It also refers to some cities, islands, etc., e.g., Kasipura, Penambangana, Kosala, Isipatana, Jam- budipa, Jetavana, Tambapanni, Aparagoyana, Patali- putta, Pubbavideha, Bandhumati, Bharukaccha, Rajagaha, Saketa, SavatthI, Slhaladlpa. There are references to some historical personages as well, e.g., Ajita,_ Annakodanna, Abhayathera, Assagutta, Ananda, Alara Kalama, Uttiya, Udayi, Uddaka, Upaka, Kassapa, Channa, Dutthagamani, Abhaya, Dasaka, Dipamkara, Nagasena, Buddhaghosa, Bhaddaji, Mallika, Mahakassapa, Mahinda, Moggali- putta Tissa, Revata, VipassI, Vissakamma, Sariputta, Sujata, Sumana, Sonaka, Metteyya, Pingalabuddha- rakkhita, Cakkana Upasaka. Buddhaghosa in the introductory verses laid down that after he had already dealt with some subjects in his previous composition, the Visuddhimagga, he had only to : supplement it by way of writing a commentary on j work being a guide to metaphysics of Buddhism for beginners ! extracted from the Atthasalini. The Atthasalini has been edited by Prof. E. Muller for the Pali Text Society. A translation of this ;i work has been brought out by Mr. Pe Maung Tin, and revised ; by Mrs, Rhys Davids. It is widely studied by students of Buddhism and by the Burmese monks ; and is often quoted by authors of the Abhidhamma works. . j 1 Mr. Maung Tin speaks of the two Burmese translations of ; the Atthasalini, namely, old Nissaya (MSB. Bernard Free Library, j Rangoon) by Ariyalahkara of the earlier part of the 19th century, [ and the new Nissaya printed in Kemmendine, Rangoon, 1905, by \ Pyi Sad aw of the middle of the 19th century. On the whole the translation will be useful in reading the text. In the Bernard j Free Library, Rangoon, there are original manuscripts of the j Atthasalini. . ! 474 A History of Pali Literature the Dhammasangani. But though the Atthasalini aims to be an exposition of the Dhammasangani, yet there is some anomaly in the contents and arrangements of the two books. There are some chapters of the text which the commentary omits and some chapters which it adds independently of the text itself. Unlike the Dhammasangani the chapters in the Atthasalini are clearly marked so that the treatment is more scientific than that of the former. Buddhaghosa at the outset gives an introductory chapter. In this he deals with various questions, both literary and philosophical. His dissertation on literary subjects helps us to a great extent in fixing the chronology of the texts of the Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma. He says that the commentary on the Abhidhamma was sung in the First Council and was rehearsed in the succeeding Councils. Mahinda brought it to Ceylon and it was translated into Sinhalese. Buddhaghosa defines Abhidhamma as one which excels all other dhammas in qualities. The chief difference between Suttanta and Abhidhamma is that in the Suttanta the five aggregates are classified partially while in the Abhidhamma this classification has been done according to three methods, namely, the Suttanta classification, the Abhidhamma classification, and Catechism. He shows that Suttanta classification is incomplete and defective. He next deals with the Abhidhamma books themselves which are seven in number and records that the very nature of the Kathavatthu makes its position untenable in the very classification itself, for it dates from the in- cidents of the Third Council. But Buddhaghosa relying on the traditional number seven in the Abhidhamma class and showing the internal defects of Mahadhammapadaya or Mahadhatukatha as the possible substitutes for the Kathavatthu, holds that the Kathavatthu falls within Abhidhamma class particularly because Tissa followed the contents and method of the Teacher who himself foresaw this book. Pali Commentaries 475 The author then gives a table of contents of each of the seven Abhidhamma books after which he gives a history of the first Abhidhamma thought and compilation as emanating from the Buddha himself. To Sariputta he attributes the origin of the number and order of the books. Buddhaghosa quotes many poetical passages as an introductory explanation of the Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma Pitakas. He says that the Abhidhamma is intended for those only who think that there is “ I ”, “ This is mine ”, and who fail to understand that the ultimate self is merely a collection of things. The main purpose of the Abhidhamma is, according to him, to lay a distinction between mind and matter and to train one in higher and metaphysical understanding. The author then justifies the fact that the three pitakas are the words of Buddha himself, for those bhikkhus who are well practised in Vinaya arrived at the three kinds of knowledge while those who are well versed in the Sutta arrive at the six kinds of super-knowledge and bhikkhus well cultivat- ed in Abhidhamma arrive at the four analyses. He then explains why each of the nikayas or groups is so called. The first one is Digha, because it contains 34 long suttas. The second one con- taining 152 suttas is called Majjhima, because they are of medium length. The Samyutta Nikaya contains seven thousand seven hundred and sixty- two suttas. The Anguttara contains nine thousand five hundred and fifty -seven suttas. The Khuddaka is one which excludes the four nikayas, the Vinaya, the Abhidhamma, and includes such books as Khuddakapatha, Dhammapada, etc. Then follows an enumeration of the nine Angas, the eighty-four thousand units of texts. Buddhaghosa then says that the Abhidhamma is a pitaka by pitaka classification and holds it as a word of the Buddha. The Abhidhammikas claim to be the best expositors of the Dhamma. But the Abhidhamma is a field for the Buddha and not for 476 A History of Pali Literature others. The author quotes the Elder Tissabhuti who while seeking to trace the origin of the Abhi- dhamma at the place of the great enlightenment quoted Padesavihara Sutta where the Buddha intuited all his qualities and possessions. He then recommends the introduction of the Abhidhamma to all its readers. The author then compares the introductory portions both of the Sutta and the Abhidhamma. He says that unlike the Sutta which has one, the Abhidhamma has two intro- ductions, the one dealing with the life and equip- ment of the Buddha and the other with the events just before the Dhammacakkapavattana. The author then traces the history of Abhidhamma teaching in Ceylon. According to him, Abhidhamma, originated with faith and nurtured in the 550 Jatakas, was taught by the Buddha. It contained exactly Buddha’s words and was handed down by the unbroken line of teachers till the Third Council beginning with Sariputta and followed by the long line of disciples. An examination of the Atthasalini shows that it was composed after the Samantapasadika to which it refers in pages 97 and 98 of the P.T.S. edition. The Sammoha-vinodanl or the commentary on the Vibhanga (Vibhanga-atthakatha) written by Buddhaghosa has been edited for the P.T.S. by A. P. Buddhadatta Thera in 1923. This com- mentary was published in Burma several times, but in Ceylon about half of the book has been printed. In many places we find that this commentary and the Visuddhimagga comment on the same subjects. This book consists of 18 sections dealing with the expositions of five khandhas (e.g., rupa, vedana, sanna, sankhara, and vinnanam), ayatanas (spheres), dhatus (elements), sacca (truth), indriyas (senses), paceayakara (causes interdependent), satipatthana (right recollection), sammappadhana (right con- centration), iddhipadas (bases of miracles), seven bojjhangas (supreme knowledge), magga (the Noble Eightfold Path), jhana (stages of meditation). 477 Pali Commentaries appamanna (four appamannas consisting in an unlimited or perfect exercise of the qualities of friendliness, compassion, good will, and equanimity), sikkhapadas (precepts), patisambhida (analytical knowledge), nana (true knowledge), khuddaka- vatthu (minor points), and dhammahadaya (re- ligious heart). It should be noted that in the section on the dhatus, 32 parts of the body have been discussed. In the section dealing with truth, the noble truths (ariyasaccam) are dealt with. In the section on the Paceayakaras we find a dis- cussion of the topic of dependent origination. The Satipatthana Vibhahga should be read along with the Mahasatipatthana Suttanta of the Dlgha Nikaya and Satipatthana Suttanta of the Majjhima Nikaya. The Sammohavinodan! contains short notes on avijja (ignorance), kaya (body), jati (birth), jara (old age), tanha (desire), domanassa (despair), nibbana, nama-rupa (name and form), bhava (existence), bodhi (enlightenment), macchariya (sloth), marana (death), maya (illusion), etc. There is a tika on the SammohavinodanI known as the Sammohavinodanilinattha. The Dhatukathapakarana-atthakatha is a commentary on the Dhatukatha, written by Buddha- ghosa. It has 14 sections containing interpreta- tions of the five khandhas, twelve ayatanas (spheres), sixteen dhatus (elements), etc. The Puggalapannatti-atthakatha is a com- mentary on the Puggalapannatti. This work has been edited for the P.T.S. by G. Landsberg and Mrs. Rhys Davids (J.P.T.S., 1913-1914). The available manuscripts are — (1) palm-leaf Sinhalese manuscript procured for the P.T.S. by Gooneratne, (2) paper Sinhalese manuscript, and (3) Pyi Gyi Mandyne Press edition, Rangoon, in Burmese character. The Kathavatthu-atthakatha is a commentary on the Kathavatthupakarana written by Buddha- ghosa. According to this commentary (Kathavatthu Commentary), two truths, dukkliam and dukkha- 478 A History of Pali Literature samudayam, are mundane (belonging to the world of re-birth) and the other two truths (nirodha and nirodhagaminipatipada) are supramundane (belong- ing to the paths). Of the indxiyas, ten belong to the region of sense-desire, nine to the next two worlds, and three to the supramundane. Samaya- vimutta, according to the commentator, applies to sotapanna, sakadagami, and anagami, and asama- yavimutta applies to sukkhavipassaka-khlnasavas. Kuppadhamma is applied to an ordinary person who has attained eight samapattis. It is also applied to a stream-attainer and to an once-returner. It means a person who is unsteady or not firmly established in the path. It is so called because in his case the mental conditions which are antagonistic to samadhi and vipassana have not been com- pletely stopped nor well washed off, and it is for this reason that their attainment perishes and falls away. Akuppa-dhamma is applied to an ana- gami who has attained eight samapattis and to a khlnasava. It means a person who does not go astray. He is steady or firmly established in the path. Hindrances of samadhi and vipassana in such a person are completely destroyed. His attain- ment is not broken or destroyed by useless talks or by any other unsuitable act committed through negligence. The commentary further narrates that the term ‘Gotrabhu’ is applied to a person who has reached the family, circle, or designation of Ariyas by surpassing the family, circle, or designa- tion of ordinary persons through the knowledge acquired by meditation on Nirvana. According to the commentary, by meditation on ‘formlessness’ a person is freed from rupakaya (form) and by going through the sublime Eightfold Path he is freed from namakaya, therefore he is called ubhato-bhaga- vimutto. A person at first goes through different stages of meditation, then he realises nibbanam. There are six classes of kayasakkhi commencing from sotapattiphalattha to arahattamaggattha. Pali Commentaries 479 Ditthapatto. — He who thoroughly knows that this is suffering, this is the cause of suffering, this is the cessation of suffering, this is the path leading to the cessation of suffering, is one who has won vision. Dhammanusari. — It applies to one who has reached the first stage of sanctification because he moves by saddha or faith. Sattakkhattumparamo applies to one who obtains arahantship at the seventh birth. After the realisation of the fruition of sotapatti one is not reborn in a low family. He is reborn amongst devas and men six times only. The term Ekabiji is applicable to a streani- attainer who is reborn once only. Antara-parinibbayi applies to a person who obtains Nirvana before reaching the middle of the term of life. Upahacca-parinibbayi applies to a person who obtains parinibbana after passing the middle of the term of life but does not reach the end. Asahkharaparinibbayi applies to a person who attains complete passing away of mental impurities. Sasankhara-parinibbayi applies to a person who obtains the foregoing with instigation, with trouble, and with exertion. Akanitthagami. — According to this commentary, a person goes to the highest Brahmaloka passing through four intermediate Brahma worlds, namely, Aviha, Atappa, Sudassa, and Sudassi. Kalyanamitta means a good or spiritual friend. Hlnadhimutto means low inclination. Panltadhi- mutto means “ having good inclination ”. The commentary says that the seven learners and average men are restrained from sin through fear, but the Khinasavas have completely uprooted their fear, therefore they are called Abhayuparato. A person who has first obtained knowledge of previous births and deva-sight and then arahant- ship is called a tevijjo, i.e., possessed of three vijjas, namely, pubbenivasananam (knowledge of previous births), dibbaeakkhunanam (knowledge of deva- 480 A History of Pali Literature sight), and arahantaphalananam (knowledge of arahantship). A person attaining arahantship first and then the other two is also called tevijjo. Chalabhinno. — A person possessing six super- normal faculties or super-knowledges, namely, iddhi- vidha (various sorts of magical power), dibbasota (deva-ear), paracetonanam (power of knowing another’s thought), pubbenivasananam (power of remembering previous births), dibbaeakkhu (deva- sight), and asavakkhayananam (knowledge of des- truction of sinful tendencies) is called chalabhinno. Pubbakarf. — A person who does good to others before getting benefit from them. Katannakatavedx. — It means that a person who after having known that he has got some benefit from others does benefit to them afterwards. Kasambu means dirty and also bad smelling water. The word samkittisu means samkittetva katabhattesu. In time of famine an acelaka (naked ascetic) collects uncooked rice by begging from house to house and declaring the object of his begging ; he then cooks rice to be distributed among the acelakas. A good acelaka does not accept any kind of food. AnusotagamI puggalo means putthujjano or ordinary person. According to this commentary, by a fifth person is to be understood the person who has exhausted the sinful tendencies. The Yamakapakarana-atthakatha is a com- mentary on the Yamaka 'written by Buddhaghosa. Strictly speaking, it is a commentary on the Mula Yamaka, Khandha Yamaka, Ayatana Yamaka, Dhatu Yamaka, Sacca Yamaka, Samkhara Yamaka, Anussaya Yamaka, Citta Yamaka, Dhamma Yamaka, and Indriya Yamaka. The Mula Yamaka deals with the essence of the teaching of Gotama. In it is included the kusalamula. Mula here means the cause. The Khandha Yamaka deals with an account of the khandhas (aggregates), e.g., Rupa, Vinnana, Vedana, Sanna, and Samkhara. Pali Commentaries 481 The Ayatana Yamaha deals with ayatana or space, e.g., cakkhu, sota, kaya, rfipa, rasa, phottabba, etc. The Dhatu Yamaha contains an account of various dhatus or elements. The Sacca Yamaka treats of the four Aryan truths. The section on Samkhara Yamaka deals with kayasamkhara, vacisamkhara, etc. The Anussaya Yamaka is a section on attach- ment, e.g., kama, raga, etc. The Citta Yamaka deals with mind and mental states. The Dhamma and Indriya Yamakas deal with kusala, akusala, and avyakata dhammas and senses respectively, e.g., manindriya, jxvitindriya, domanas- sindriya. The Patthanapakarana-atthakatha, edited by Mrs. Rhys Davids for the P.T.S., London, is a com- mentary on the Patthana written by Buddhaghosa at the request of a monk named Cullabuddhaghosa (J.P.T.S., 1886). C. Works op Dhammapala The Vimanavatthu Commentary is practically a collection of stories illustrating Th CommentIry! :hu the Buddhist perspective of Heaven and Hell, or more correctly, the Buddhist idea of Heaven and Hell ‘ prevalent amongst the people of Northern India at the time of the Buddha and incorporated subsequently in the Buddhist Scriptures Y These stories help us to form an idea of the various grades of heaven, the pleasures of the Tavatimsa heaven, the joys and comforts of the dwellers in the Buddhist vimanas, location of the various vimanas, and the form of the vimana and its comforts which are but propor- tionate to meritorious deeds. 1 Bonaldshay — in his Foreword to the 4 Heaven and Hell in Buddhist Perspective ’ by Dr, B. C. Law. 482 A History of Pali Literature Synopses of Stories 1 1. Pithavimdna {pp. 5-6). — A girl, a great believer in the Buddha, once made the gift of a wooden stool to a thera whom she had offered food. In consequence of this meritorious deed, the girl was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven where she enjoyed joys and comforts of the heaven. As a reward of her offering a seat to a bhikkhu a woman of SavatthI obtained in heaven a vimana made of Veluriya (lapis lazulis). For presenting a pitha or a seat to an arhat whom she had offered food, a mistress of a house was reborn in the golden mansion of the Tavatimsa heaven. 2. Kunjaravimdna {pp. 31 foil.). — A daughter of a family of Rajagaha once entertained Sariputta with a seat and various kinds of food and drink, and presented him with new clothes and a conch. In consequence of this meritorious deed, she was reborn in the golden mansion of the Tavatimsa heaven. 3. Ndvdvimana {pp. 40 foil.). — A woman for offering drinking water to some thirsty bhikkhus was reborn by virtue of her meritorious deed in the Tavatimsa heaven. Another woman, too, for offering cold drink and oil to rub his feet with to a thera, was reborn after death in the same heaven. A slave girl of a brahmin of the village of Thuna in Kosala ran the risk of being beaten by her master and offered a pot of water to the Buddha to drink water from. The Buddha quenched his thirst as well as that of his entire Order and yet returned the pot full of water to the slave girl. The girl after death was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven where she was given other objects of heavenly -enjoyment. 4. Dipavimana {pp. 50-51). — For offering a light in the dusk before a preacher’s seat, an 1 For detailed summaries of these stories see my “ Heaven and Hell in Buddhist Perspective ”, Sec. II, pp. 36-85. Pali Commentaries 483. upasika after death, was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven in the Jotirasavimana. 5. Tiladakkhinavimdna (p. 54). — For present- ing to the Buddha a certain quantity of sesamum seeds in joined palms, a pregnant woman was reborn after death in the Tavatimsa heaven. 6. Patibbatdvimdna (pp. 56-57). — A beautiful and faithful wife, as a reward of her sweetness and sincerity, charity, and faithfulness, was reborn after death in the Tavatimsa heaven. 7. Sunisdvimana (p. 61). — For offering some portion of the cakes which she had got for her own use to an arahant, the daughter-in-law of a Savat- thian family was reborn after death in the Tavatimsa heaven. 8. Uttardvimdna (pp. 62-74). — By offering to Sariputta the whole of the food prepared and meant for her husband, Uttara, the loving wife of Punna, the servant of a banker of Bajagaha, performed a meritorious deed as a result of which her husband became the richest man in the whole city and was made the Nagarasetthi ; and both the husband and wife attained the first stage of sanctification by their deeds of charity in the shape of gifts to the Buddha and the congregation. Punna’s daughter was also named Uttara ; at one time she invited the Buddha and his disciples, listened to the Buddha’s religious discourse, and then attained the second stage of sanctification, while her husband and other relatives, who had thus an opportunity of hstening to the discourses of the Master, attained the first stage. Uttara on her death was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 9. Sirimavimana (pp. 75 foil.). — For offering alms to eight bhikkhus daily, and spending sixteen kahapanas on charity, Sirima the courtesan was reborn after death as a celestial nymph. 10. KesakdrivimJdna (pp. 86-89). — -A daughter of Kesakari, a brahmin of Benares, listened to the precepts of the Buddhist faith from a lay disciple, and, while meditating on those of impurities, attained 484 A History of Pali Literature tlie first stage and was, after death, reborn as an attendant of Sakka. 11. Dasivimana {pp. 91-92). — For serving four bhikkhus daily with hearty devotion and observing the true dhammas, a maid-servant was reborn after death as one of the beloved attendants of Sakka. 12. Lakhumdvimdna {pp. 97-98). — For pre- paring seats and supplying water to the bhikkhus in the asanasala daily, a woman called Lakhuma was established in the Sotapatti and was, after death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 13. Acdmaddyihdvimdna {pp. 100-101). — For offering her food and the acama which had been given her by the inmates of a house behind which she had taken shelter, to Mahakassapa, a woman of Rajagaha was reborn among the Nimmanaratidevas. 14. Canddlivimdna {pp. 105-107). — A candali once at the exhortation of Mahamoggallana fell down at the feet of the Buddha and worshipped him. On account of this meritorious deed, she was, on her death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 15. Bhadditthivimdna {pp. 109-110). — Bhadda, usually known as Bhadditthf, once offered good food and drink to four disciples of the Master with their followers, served them in every way, listened to their discourses, embraced the faith, and received the five silas. She, after death, was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven and worshipped the Buddha when the Master went there. 16. Sonadinndvimana (p. 115). — For serving bhikkhus, observing the precepts and the uposotha with perfect regularity, Sonadinna, a devoted upasika of Nalanda, attained Sotapatti and was reborn after death in the Tavatimsa heaven. 17. Uposathavimam (p. 115). — For similar meritorious deeds, Uposatha, another devoted upasika of Saketa, was reborn after death in the Tavatimsa heaven. 18. Bhikkhdddyikavimdna {pp. 118-119). — On account of her inviting the Buddha to have his Pali Commentaries 485 daily meal at her house and serving him in other ways, a woman of Uttaramadhura in SavatthI was, after death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 19. Uldravimana (pp. 120-121). — For offering the cake of her mother-in-law’s share to Maha- moggallana, a girl was reborn, after death, in the Tavatimsa heaven. 20. V cchuddyikavimdna (p. 124). — For similar reasons another girl also obtained the same good fortune. 21. Pallanlcavimdna (p. 128). — A daughter of an upasika at SavatthI was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven for her having been virtuous, free from anger, devoted, and an observer of the Sabbath. 22. Latdvimdna {pp. 131-132). — As a result of her gentle behaviour and practising charity and observing the Sabbath, Lata, a daughter of an upasaka of SavatthI, was reborn as a daughter of Vessavana Kuvera, and was appointed along with her four other sisters as a dancing girl by Sakka. 23. Quttilavimdna (pp. 137-148). — On account of various kinds of charity, 32 nymphs had become liberated from earthly life and came to be born as heavenly nymphs possessing splendour greater than that of other gods. When Guttila, the musician, saw them in Indra’s court, he, as remunera- tion for his songs, prayed that all the bright goddesses would recount to him the good deeds that had brought them to the heavenly regions. 24. Daddalhavimdna (pp. 149 foil.). — The Daddalhavimana illustrates that offering food and drink to the Samgha brings forth more merit than that to individual bhikkhus. 25. Pesavativimdna (pp. 156 foil.). — In con- sequence of the meritorious deed of offering her gold ornaments to be utilised for the erection of a stupa, a girl was reborn in the devaloka, and from that devaloka she was reborn in the family of a householder in Magadha. In this birth of her, she showed her respect to the dead body of Sariputta by worshipping it with scents, flowers, etc. And 486 A History of Pali Literature when she died with her mind full of respect for the Buddha, she was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 26. Mallikdvimdna ( p . 165). — For offering worship to the relic of the Buddha, Mallika, daughter of the king of Kusinara, was reborn, after death, in the Tavatimsa heaven. 27. VisdlakkMvimdna (pp. 169-170). — For daily sending garlands, perfumes, fruits, flowers, etc., to the stupa over the relic of the Buddha, Sunanda, a daughter of the garland-maker of Rajagaha, was born after death as an attendant of Sakka, who, on one occasion, addressed her as Visalakkhi. 28. Pdricchattakavimana (p. 173). — For wor- shipping the Buddha with Asoka flowers and showing respect to him in various ways, a certain woman was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 29. Manjetthakavimana (pp. 176-177). — As a result of her worshipping the Buddha with sala flowers, a certain maid-servant was, after death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 30. Pabhassaravimana (pp. 178-179). — For welcoming Mahamoggallana to her house, offering him a seat, and worshipping him, a daughter of a certain upasaka of Rajagaha was reborn, after death, in the Tavatimsa heaven. 31. Ndgavimdna (pp. 181-182). — For offering a pair of clothes to the Buddha and listening to a religious discourse of the Master, an upasika of Benares was, after death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven, 32. Abmavimana (p. 184).— The good deed of offering some rotten cooked rice,— not finding anything better without salt — to the Buddha, brought a poor woman named Aloma to the Tavatimsa heaven after death. 33. Kanjikaddyikavimdna (pp. 185-186). — For offering to the Buddha a medicated drink of rice- gruel that relieved the Master of his pain in the stomach, the wife of the Buddha’s physician was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven after death. Pali Commentaries 487 34. Viharavimana (pp. 187-189). — Visakha the great upasika of Savatthi once listened to a religious discourse of the Buddha and offered her mahalata ornament to the Master for the construction of a vihara, the merit whereof was given to her maid- servant. Visakha was, on that account, reborn in the Nimmanarati heaven where he became chief queen to the King Sunimmita, and the maid-servant was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 35. Caturitihivimana (pp. 195-196). — For mak- ing gifts to bhikkhus, four girls of the time of the Kassapa Buddha became celestial nymphs after death. At the time of Gautama Buddha they were in heaven. 36. Ambavimdna (p. 198). — For building a hermitage for bhikkhus and the Master, an upasika of Savatthi was, after death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 37. Pitavimdna (p. 200). — While on his way to worship a stupa, an upasika was killed by a milch-cow. She was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 38. Vandanavimdna ip. 205). — For making obeisance to a number of bhikkhus to whom she was filled with veneration and respect, a village woman was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 39. Rajjumalavimana (pp. 206-209). — For being instrumental in inviting the Buddha to her mistress’s house, a servant girl was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven after death. 40. M andukadevaputtavimdna (pp. 217-218). — A frog was trod upon by a cowherd while listening to a religious discourse of the Buddha. It was reborn, after death, in the Tavatimsa heaven. 41. Revativimdna (pp. 220 foil.). — Revati, wife of a householder of Savatthi, practised charity only when her husband was at home, and stopped all works of charity after the death of her husband. In consequence of this she had to experience suffering in different hells while enjoying blessings of the Tavatimsa heaven. if 1 io 488 A History of Pali Literature 42. Chattamanavakavimana (pp. 229-233). — Kn owing the impending death of Chatta, a son of a learned brahmana, the Buddha set out for him, and meeting him on the way converted him to the faith. For his devotion to the faith, Chatta, after death, was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 43. Kakkatakarasaddyakavimdna (pp. 243- 244). — For offering to a bhikkhu rice and crab soup which relieved him of an acute pain in the ear, a farmer of Magadha was reborn after death in the Tavatimsa heaven. 44. Dvampdlakavimdna (pp. 246-247). — For daily receiving bhikkhus with care and devotion and listening to their exhortations, a gatekeeper was converted to the faith, and was, after death, reborn in the Tavatiihsa heaven. 45. Karaniyavimana (p. 248). — For inviting the Buddha to his house and offering him food and drink, an upasaka was reborn, after death, in the Tavatimsa heaven. 46. Sudvimana (p. 250). — For offering two needles to Sariputta, a blacksmith was, after death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 47. Dwtiyasudvimana (p. 251). — For similar act of charity, a tailor acquired the same good fortune. 48. Nagavimdna (pp. 252-254). — For obtaining with difficulty eight flowers with which he worshipped the stupa, an upasaka was reborn as a devaputta in various vimanas, and came to the Tavatimsa heaven at the time of the Buddha Gautama. 49. Dutiyandgavimdna (pp. 254-255). — An upasaka of Rajagaha was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven on account of his charity and faithfulness and on account of his offering alms and drinks to the bhikkhus. 50. Tatiyanagavimana (pp. 255-257). — For offering rice with sugarcane juice and sugarcane pieces to three bhikkhus and then entertaining respectfully an offence for which he was beaten to death by his master, the keeper of a sugarcane Pali Commentaries 489 field at Rajagaha was reborn in the Mote-hall called Sudhamma of the gods. 51. Cularathavimdna (pp. 259-270). — For re- ceiving instruction in the faith from Mahakaceayana, building a vihara, and inviting a thera to come there, and for performing other meritorious deeds, Sujata, the banished son of the king of Asoka, was reborn after death in the Tavatimsa heaven. 52. Mahdrathavimdna (pp. 270-271). — For hav- ing worshipped the Buddha Vipassi with a garland of gold, a devaputta named Gopala was reborn at the time of Kassapa Buddha as the son of King KikT of Benares. In this birth he made immense gifts and received the Dhamma from that Buddha, and was accordingly reborn, after death, in the Tavatimsa heaven. Later, at the time of Gautama Buddha he learnt the principles of the faith from Mahamoggallana and became established in the Sotapatti. 53. Agdriyavimdna (p. 286). — In conse- quence of their offering charity to bhikkhus, a rich couple of Rajagaha were reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven, having a very large golden vimana full of celestial comforts. 54. PhaladdyaTcavimana (pp. 288-289). — For offering to Mahamoggallana four mangoes which were distributed by the Buddha to his four pro- minent disciples, and making over the merit of the gift to King Bimbisara, a gardener, after death, was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 55. UpassayaddyaJcavimdna (p. 291). — For placing one room at the disposal of a bhikkhu for one night and for entertaining him with food and drink, an upasaka of Rajagaha with his wife was, after death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 56. Bhilclchdddyakavimdna (pp. 292-293). — As a reward of his offering food to a bhikkhu, a house- holder was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 57. Y avapdlalcavimdna (p. 294). — For offering food to a bhikkhu a boy, who was at that time himself very hungry, was born, after death, in the Tavatimsa heaven. 490 A History of Pali Literature 58. Kundalwimdna (p. 295). — For making arrangements for bhikkhus for their stay at night and offering plenty of food and drink an upasaka, after death, was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 59. Uttar avimdna (pp. 297-298). — For listening to the Payasi Sutta delivered by Kumarakassapa Thera and embracing the Buddhist faith, as also for practising charity on a poor scale, King Payasi was, after death, reborn in the Catummaharajika devaloka. But his officer who spent all his wealth in charity was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 60. Cittalatdvimdna (p. 299). — For serving other people, and for being faithful, obedient, and devoted to the three gems, a poor man of Savatthi was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 61. Manithunavimana (p. 301). — For sweeping the path which the bhikkhus used when going out for alms, and for making all other arrangements for making their journey comfortable as well as for observing the precepts and offering charity, an upasaka was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 62. Suvannavimdna (p. 302). — For offering to the Buddha an excellent gandhakuti provided with all necessary comforts, an upasaka, after death, was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 63. Ambavimdna (pp. 305-306). — For inviting Sariputta to his garden and offering him water for bath and drinking, a gardener was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 64. Gopdlavimana (p. 308). — A hungry eowherd of Rajagaha offered Mahamoggallana the sour gruel meant for him. He was, as a result, reborn after death in the Tavatimsa heaven. 65. KanthaJcavimana (pp. 312-314). — The famous horse of Gautama, named Kanthaka, was, after death, reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven for its past services to Gautama, its master. 66. Anekavannavimdna (pp. 318-320).— A bhi kk hu who became a householder was in the habit of performing meritorious deeds, worshipping Caityas and listening to the discourses. He was, after Pali Commentaries 491 death, bom in the devaloka and was more powerful than Sakka. At the time of Gautama Buddha, he was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 67. SerisaJcavimdna {pp. 331 foil .). — In con- sequence of his failing to offer charities with a whole heart. King Payasi could not reach the Tavatimsa heaven, but was reborn in the lower heaven of Catummaharajikas, in a vacant vimana called Serisakavimana. 68. Sunilckhitavirndna {pp. 352 foil .). — An upasaka who was very much devoted to the worship of the Kassapa-Sammasambuddha and his caitya, was reborn, after death, in a golden mansion in the Tavatimsa heaven. It will be seen from the above account of the vimanas or celestial mansions that the form of the vimana and the comforts and pleasures provided therein are proportionate not only to the meritorious deeds done on earth, but also to the particular nature of the deeds themselves, as also to the desire of the dweller of the vimana. It appears, furthermore, that most of the departed spirits go to the Tavatimsa heaven. Only in rare eases do we read of a spirit passing to the regions of the higher gods, the Mmmanaratis. It is only in very exceptional cases indeed that spirits go to the Brahmaloka. Downward also we read only in one case of a king who went to the region of Catummaharajikas for stinginess of making gifts. Another thing that deserves notice is that the vimana may not always be in the heavenly regions. This is specially the case with the spirits in the lower heavens who are not sufficiently purified or whose attachment to things on earth is still rather keen. The spirits could at will come down on earth in the vimanas, and in several cases they came to the Buddha in their vimanas to listen to his discourse. 1 1 For fuller and more critical observations on these anecdotes see my “Heaven and Hell in Buddhist Perspective ’% Chap. Ill, pp. 86-9 1 . 492 A History of Pali Literature “The joys of heaven,” Lord Ronaldshay rightly observes, in his Foreword to my book on ‘ Heaven and Hell in Buddhist Perspective ’, “ are represented as being obtainable by means of what is suspiciously like a mercenary bargain, entered into in a spirit which far from being selfless is, on the contrary, frankly selfish This is quite obviously foreign to the lofty thought and teaching of Buddha himself. Petavatthu Commentary. — The Paramatthadi- pani 1 is a commentary on the Petavatthu, a work devoted entirely to the petas or spirits of the de- ceased. It was written by Dhammapala of Kanchi- puram 2 in Southern India and it contains details of stories compiled from Buddhist tradition handed down orally as well as recorded in the ancient atthakathas (or commentaries) preserved in Ceylon. Dhammapala’s atthakatha is a great storehouse of information about the individual petas or spirits, and these stories enable us to form an idea of the Buddhist conception of spirits and the spirit world. A short synoptical account of the stories of the Petavatthu Commentary may be catalogued as follows : — 1. Khettupama Peta (pp. 1-9). — A setthiputta who deserved to be reborn in the devaloka for a deed of charity towards Mahamoggallana was, however, born on a much lower plane as a tree spirit, owing to his affection towards Sulasa, a beautiful maiden of his town. As a tree spirit, he stole away Sulasa and kept her with him on the tree for some time. 2. Sukaramukhapeta (pp. 9 foil). — For having been unrestrained in speech, a bhikkhu was reborn 1 Petavatthu Commentary edited by Sou Dhammarama Tissa Nayaka Thera and Mapulagamacanda, j oti Thera ; finally revised by Mahagoda Siri Sfanissara Thera Tripitaka Wagiswaracarya and Pradhana Nayaka, Colombo. The Petavatthu with Sinhalese commentary by Jinavamsa Pannasara of Kosgoda, Colombo, 1893-1898, deserves mention, 2 The commentary has been edited for the P.T.S. by Prof. E. Hardy. Pali Commentaries 493 as a peta with the face like that of a swine or sukara. 3. Putimulchapeta (pp. 12 foil.). — A bhikkhu very much unrestrained in speech once created dissensions between two friends. As a punishment he was reborn as a peta under the name of puti- mukha, because his mouth used to give out a very bad smell on account of his having been wicked and unrestrained in speech. 4. Pitthadhitalikapeta (pp. 16 foil.). — In course of a discourse the Buddha approved of making offering to the departed spirits ; but added that sorrow, lamentation, and weeping were of no use to the petas, they only brought suffering to the living relatives. 5. Tirokuddapeta (pp. 19 foil.). — Some people for their misdeeds were reborn as petas ; but as they did not obtain any offering from their relatives, they were again bom as petas. Bimbisara, who was their former relative, however, gave a dinner to the whole Samgha and made over to the petas the merit thereof ; and the Buddha approved of it. 6. Panchaputtakhddakapeta (pp. 31 foil.). — For causing miscarriage to a pregnant woman, another woman was reborn as a pet! of evil look and suffered untold miseries. She was, however, freed from her miserable condition only when her former husband transferred the merit of a pious deed of charity to the peti. 7. Sattaputtakhadakapeta (pp. 36-37). — The story of the misdeed and its retribution is just like the previous one. 8. Oonapeta (pp. 38-42). — A son consoled his father who had become overpowered with grief at the death of his father by saying that he was weeping for one whose body was not even before him and could not even be seen or heard. 9. MahapesaJcarapeta (pp. 42-46). — The wife of the headman of a village was very malicious to- wards the bhikkhus whom her husband used to provide with cloth. The husband was reborn as a 494 A History of Pali Literature tree-god -while Ms wife came to live close by as a pet! who suffered boundless miseries, anguish, and pain. She was however released from her poor lot when her former husband, the tree-god, trans- ferred the merit of one of his deeds of charity to her. 10. Khaldtiyapeta (pp. 46-53). — As a result of both good and evil deeds, a woman in her next life found herself seated in a golden vimana, but oh account of her having stolen clothings of invited guests, she was naked. But when the merit of a pious act of a body of merchants was transferred to her, she became draped in finest garments. Sub- sequently she sent some presents to the Buddha and was as a result reborn in a golden palace in the Tavatimsa heaven. 11. Ndgapeta (pp. 53-61). — As a direct result of their unbelief and past misdeeds, husband and wife were reborn as a peta and pet! respectively, and used to beat each other with iron clubs. 12. Uragapeta (pp. 61-66). — Dhammapala, a brahmin of Benares, taught the members of his family not to lament at the death of anybody, and all of them acted accordingly. For tMs wise attitude they were rewarded by Sakka who was no other than their own son reborn in heaven as Sakka. 13. Mattakundalipeta (p. 92). — The son of a miserly brahmin who was reborn as a god came down to console Ms father in the guise of a peta and asked Mm not to lament for one whose dead body was not even visible (cf. Dhammapada Com- mentary, Vol. I, p. 28). 14. Satthikutasakassapeta (pp. 282-286). — In consequence of various serious misdeeds, four sons of settMs of Rajagaha suffered in hell for 60,000 years, and then became petas suffering in Loha- kumbM hell (cf. Dhammapada Commentary, Vol. II, pp. 68-73). 15. Bhogasamharapeta (pp. 278-279). — For cheating people, four women came to be reborn as petSs and became overwhelmed with great pain. Pali Commentaries 495 16. Akkharukkkapeta (pp. 277-278). — On account of his act of help and charity done to an upasaka, a man came to be reborn as a god living on earth. 17. Ambapeta (pp. 273 foil.). — An avaricious trader, after death, came to live as a peta ; and he was not relieved of his miserable plight until his daughter transferred the merit of her meritorious deed to him. 1 8. Pdtaliputtapeta (pp. 27 1 foil. ). — An upasaka on account of his attachment to a particular woman was reborn as a Vimanapeta where he with the help of his miraculous power enjoyed for some time the company of his lover. 19. Ganapeta (pp. 269 foil.). — A number of people of SavatthI, who formed a Gana and who were unbelievers, unfaithful, misers, and doers of evil deeds, were reborn after their death as petas and on one occasion they related in detail the story of their suffering to Moggallana. 20. Guthakhddakapeta (pp. 266-269). — A family bhikkhu was in the habit of speaking against other bhikkhus, and also induced a householder who had built for him a house to abuse them. Both of them on account of their misdeeds were reborn as petas. 21. Sdnuvdsipeta (pp. 177-186). — The son of the king of Benares once insulted a Pacceka Buddha, for which sin, he, after death, was reborn in the Avici hell. He was, however, reborn in the time of Gautama and eventually became a famous monk. But his relatives who all misbehaved with him came to be bom after death as petas. 22. Kumdrapeta (pp. 261-263). — Two princes of Kosala were, for committing adultery, reborn as petas. To relieve them of suffering, the Buddha asked the people to make offerings to the Samgha, and transfer the merit of the offerings to the petas. 23. Dhdtuvivannapeta (pp. 212-215). — A wealthy householder, who was an unbeliever, and used to speak ill of the relics, was reborn as a peta. 496 A History of Pali Literature 24. Ucchupeta {pp. 257 foil.). — A sugarcane farmer for his beating an upasaka with sugarcane- sticks was reborn as a peta. He, however, got rid of his sufferings, when he made an offering of a huge bundle of canes to the Buddha and Sarngha ; as a result of this offering, he was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. 25. Nandalcapeta {pp. 244-257). — Nandika, the commander-in-chief of the king of Surattha, for his unbelief, was reborn as a peta and resided on a nigrodha tree. But when his daughter transferred the merit of one of her meritorious deeds, he became a believer. 26. AmbasaJcIcTiarapeta {pp. 215 foil.). — A merchant of Vaisali for joking concealed the garment of his associate and had to go naked in his next birth though he was reborn as a god living on earth. But impressed by his exhortations. King Ambasakkhara offered his garments to bhikkhus so that the naked might get clothes to wear. 27. KutavinicchayiJcapeta {pp. 209 foil.). — For his past sins of speaking malicious words and cheat- ing people, a judicial officer of King Bimbisara had to eat the flesh taken out from his own body, though he was reborn as a devata for having kept upasotha for one night. 28. Dutiyaluddapeta {pp. 207 foil.). — As a result of his cruelty by day, a hunter used to be bitten by dogs in the daytime though he was reborn as a Vimanapeta enjoying happiness at night for his having ceased hunting by night. 29. Migaluddapeta {pp. 204 foil.). — Like the previous one. 30. Serinipeta {pp. 201 foil.). — Serin!, an un- believer, used to speak ill of the Samanas ; she was, therefore, reborn as a pet! in the petaloka suffering miserably. She was, however, at last freed from the petaloka by virtue of the merit transferred to him by the mother of an upasaka. 31. Kumarapeta {pp. 194 foil.). — An envious and stingy person used to speak' ill of the ascetics ; Pali Commentaries 497 but he was eventually prevailed upon to worship the Buddha and make an offering. After death, the son was reborn in the womb of a prostitute who threw him into a cemetery. He was eventually picked up by a wealthy householder to whose wealth he became later on the sole heir. 32. Bkusapeta (pp. 191 foil.). — A merchant of SavatthI used to cheat people in trade, his son was a sinner, his wife and daughter-in-law were also very greedy. They were all reborn, after death, as petas and petis in the Vindhya forest where they suffered terribly and miserably. 33. RaihaMrapeta (pp. 186 foil.). — For the good act of building a vihara for a Samgha, a pious woman was reborn as a Vimanapetl on account of some of her past misdeeds. 34. Abhijjamanapeta (pp. 168 foil ). — A hunter who delighted in the cruel sport of hunting was reborn as a peta naked and fierce in appearance and never saw any food or drink. He was, however, clothed and fed as a result of the charity of the minister of Kang Bimbisara of food and clothes to all upasakas. 35. Ubbaripeta (pp. 160 foil.). — At the death of her husband Culani Brahmadatta, king of Pancala, Ubbarl was overpowered with grief and she wept bitterly. The Master who was then Bodhisattva came to her, and by a discourse on kamma and on the many births and deaths, as also by expound- ing the Dhamma, consoled her lacerated soul. 36. Suttapeta (pp. 144 foil. ). — A boy who was an attendant of a paccekabuddha came to be reborn as a Vimanapeta on account of his attachment to a girl. By winning over her mother, the peta was, however, able to bring the girl to his abode where they lived together happily for some time. 37. Uttaramdtupeta (pp. 140 foil.). — Uttara, a woman, was stingy and a believer of false doctrines. She also used to curse those who were believers ; she was accordingly, after death, reborn as a petl, and suffered terribly for 55 years, when she was 498 A History of Pali Literature at last saved by the merit of a charity transferred to her by a thera. 38. Samsdramocakapeta (pp. 67 foil.). A girl of the Samsaramocaka caste who was a false believer was, however, made indirectly to salute a thera who wanted her to be saved from going to hell after death. She was reborn, therefore, as a petl, with some chance of salvation. The chance even- tually came, and she was freed from the petaloka. 39. Sdriputtattherassa Mdtupeti (pp. 78 foil.). A mischievous woman, who did not give food, drink, and habitation to the bhikkhus who came to her place as guests, was reborn as a pet! and had to suffer miseries. She was, however, relieved of her sufferings and reborn in the devaloka by Sariputta whose mother she had been in the fifth birth. 40. Mattapeti (pp. 82 foil. ). — -Matta, the barren wife of a householder of SavatthI, was very jealous of her husband and his second wife who were very loving and friendly towards each other, and daily made offerings to theras and bhikkhus. On account •of her jealousy and other misdeeds, she was reborn as a pet! and suffered terribly. She was, however, released from the petaloka by dint of the merit •of the second wife being transferred to her. 41. Nandapeta (pp. 89 foil ,). — Nanda, the wife of a householder, was, as a result of her misdeeds, reborn as a peti. One day she appeared before her husband who according to her direction made gifts of charity to the bhikkhus and the pet! was released from her miseries. 42. Dhanapalapeta (pp. 99 foil .). — Dhanapala, a miserly and sceptic merchant, was reborn as a peta in a desert where he could not get a drop of water to drink or grain to eat. After suffering for 55 years, he was, however, saved from suffering by a caravan of merchants who made offerings on his account to the Buddha and his disciples. 43. Culasetthipeta (pp. 105 foil.). — A stingy and sceptic householder of Benares was reborn after death as a peta with a body without flesh and Pali Commentaries 499 blood. The peta once approached King Ajatasattu, who, on his request and on his account, made offerings to the Buddha and his disciples, and the peta was relieved of his suffering. 44. Bevatipeta (pp. 257). — An unbelieving and uncharitable wife of a believing and charitable householder was reborn, as a result of her misdeeds, as a peti. But when she was asked by her husband to approve, and did so, of the meritorious acts done by him, she became a devata and resided with her husband in heaven. 45. Anhurapeta {pp. Ill foil.). — Ankura, the youngest son of the king of Uttaramadhura, was a charitable man. He learnt a good lesson, first from a deity of a nigrodha tree, and later on from a peta, that one should make gifts with his own hands, because the man charged with work might not do it in the right spirit. After death, he was reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven. These stories were evidently compiled with a purpose. Each one of them has a lesson, a moral which wants to drive home to the mind of the reader the effect of kamma after death. A man after death is reborn in the Tavatimsa heaven, or in the devaloka, and enjoys the good and healthy effects of kamma to the extent he during his life- time did good to others, especially to the Buddha and the bhikkhus of the Order, he was religiously and favourably minded towards Buddhism, he was charitable and he followed the right path by which of course was meant the Eightfold Path of Buddhism. But whosoever is guilty of misdeeds, of cruelty, of too much worldly attachment, of hatred or even lack of faith and devotion towards the Buddha’s religion or towards anyone belonging to that religious Order, or was an unbeliever or believer in false doctrines by which was certainly meant any doctrine other than Buddhism, that individual comes to be reborn, after death, as a peta or pet! ; he then suffers as the spirit of his deceased existence. And not until he or she does 500 A History of Pali Literature some good works or anybody else does it on their account — religious or charitable in the Buddhist sense — that he or she is delivered of his or her life of a peta or peti. The Theragatha Commentary written by Dhammapala 1 and known as Para- The mentary C ° m " matthadipanl contains accounts of theras mentioned in the Thera- gatha. The commentary refers to a number of important places of ancient India, e.g., Savatthi, Rajagaha, Kapilavatthu, Kosambi, Magadha, Campa, Yesali, Avanti, Saketa, Takkasxla, Bharu- kaccha, etc. Kings and tribes are also frequently mentioned : Pasenadi, Bimbisara, Candapajjota, Mallas, Vajjians, Sakians, etc., are a few of them. It is evident from a study of the contents of the commentary that the theras belonged to different castes, from the highest aristocracy to the lowest scavenger, but they looked to one another with fraternal affection and equanimity. Most of the theras lived contemporaneously with the Buddha. A brief summary of the principal theras is given below : — Subhuii was a nephew of Anathapindika. On the day when the Jeta grove, purchased by his uncle, was presented to the Exalted One, Subhuti was present. When he headed the Norm preached by the Blessed One, he realised the worthlessness of the worldly life. He left the world and developed his insight in the basis of love-jhana and won arahatship. The Exalted One declared him to be the chief of his disciples in universal amity and chief among such as were held worthy of gifts. Eotthita the Great was born in a very wealthy clan of brahmins. He perfected himself in the accomplishments of a brahmin. He found faith 1 It was edited by Suriyagoda Sumangala Thera and Webada Samgharatana Thera, and finally revised by Mahagoda Siri Sfanis- sara Thera ; Simon Hewavitarane Bequest Series, published by the Trustees, B.E.C.E., 2461/1918. The Pali Text Society has entrusted the editorship of this text to Dr. Przyluski and M. Durr. Pali Commentaries 501 in the Norm preached by the Exalted One and entered the Order. He gained insight, attained arahatship, and was ranked chief among those who were proficient in insight. Kahkha-Bevata was born in a wealthy family of Savatthi. He found faith in the Norm and entered the Order. The Master pronounced him to be the chief of the bhikkhus who practised Jhana. Punna of the Mantanis was born in an eminent brahmin elan. He was sister’s son of the Elder Kondanna. He accomplished the highest duties of a recluse, and in due course of time, the Master proclaimed Punna chief among the bhikkhus in preaching the Norm. Ddsaka was born as the child of a slave of Anathapindika who appointed him as gate-porter of the Jetavana vihara. His master freed him as he was virtuous. He left the world and was ordained accordingly. But he was slothful. He was soon inspired by the Buddha. Not long after he realised arhatship. Ahhaya was the bastard son of King Bimbisara. He was at first the follower of Nataputta, the Jain leader. He had a conversation with the Master. After the king’s death he left the world. He soon realised arhatship. TJttiya was born as the son of a brahmin. He left the world and became a paribbajaka, a wanderer. One day in course of his journey he came where the Exalted One was preaching, and entered the Order. He attained arhatship in time. Suppiya was born in a despised class, as one of a clan of watchman in a cemetery at Savatthi. He was converted by the Thera Sopaka. He entered the Order and attained to the highest. Qavampati was born as one of the four lay- companions of the Thera Yasa. He left the world hearing Yasa’s renunciation, and eventually won arhatship. Once the Lord with a great company of bhikkhus went to the Anjana grove. The accommodation being insufficient, the bhikkhus 502 A History of Pali Literature slept around the vihara on the sand banks of the river Sarabhu. At night the stream rose in flood. But the Thera Gavampati, as he was asked by the Master, arrested the rising stream by his mystic power . 1 V imala-kondanna was the bastard son of King Bimbisara. His mother was Ambapall. He left the world for the Order and attained arhatship. Channa, was a slave of Suddhodana’s household. He entered the Order when the Master returned after obtaining enlightenment to meet his kinsfolk. Out of his affection for the Lord, egoistic pride in ‘ our Buddha, our Doctrine ’ arose in him. He could not conquer this fondness nor perform his duty as a novice. He suffered the Brahmadanda as prescribed by the Buddha after the Lord’s Mahaparinibbana. Later on he attained arhatship. Tissa was a ruler of the town of Roguva. He was an absent ally of King Bimbisara. It was 1 Mrs. Rhys Davids rightly calls him, 44 a very Moses in psychic power”. She is perfectly right when she says that Gavampati has been lost in his last acts by the pi^aka tradition and we have to seek him in Chinese translations of possibly Mahasahghika originals. (Sakya or Buddhist Origins by Mrs. Rhys Davids, p. 128.) Mrs. Rhys Davids further points out that the Thera Gavampati praised in the Anthology as of mighty iddhi but else- where coming into, she thinks but one brief sutta (Samyutta, V, 436), declined to come for less worthy motives : this is according to the Chinese recensions translated further by Prof. Przyluski (Le council© de Raj agriha, pt. I, pp. 8, 30, 66, and 116). She further adds, 44 there seemed to be nothing worth while in trying to help the world, now that the light of it had faded out, save in fading out also which he proceeded to do. It may well be that the failure lay not in Gavampati’s will but in his physical inability to travel. But that it has been allowed to come in, as a serious reason for holding aloof from a Community in whom the mission spirit was still alive, is a sinister feature in the Compilers ” (Sakya, pp. 348- 349). It may further be noted here that Gavampati lives still in Burmese Buddhist tradition where he has been acclaimed as the 44 Patron saint of the Mons ” as well as the 44 patron saint of Pagan *\ He has been mentioned more than once in the Mon inscriptions of Pagan as one of those who assisted sage Bisnu in the foundation of the city of Sisit or Sriksetra, i.e., Old Prome. He thus becomes intimately associated with the Mon or Telaing tradition of Lower Burma as well. (E. P. Birminica.) Pali Commentaries 503 through Bimbisara that he renounced the -world and entered the Order. He won arhatship. VaccJmgotta was the son of a wealthy brahmin. He became a wandering recluse. He had a con- versation with the Lord. He entered the Order and in due course acquired sixfold abhinna. Ya.sa was the son of a very wealthy councillor at Benares. Seeing the worthlessness of the worldly life he forsook it and went to the Buddha for or- dination. He entered the Order and won arahatship. Pindola-Bharadvaja was the son of the chaplain to King Udena of Kosambl. He was versed in the brahmanical lore. He entered the Order and acquired sixfold abhinna. The Master pronounced him to be the chief among his disciples who were lion-roarers. Cunda the Great was the son of a female brahmin named Rupasarl, and younger brother of Sariputta. He followed the latter into the Order and won arhatship. Dhammapala was born as a brahmin’s son. Hearing from a certain thera about the Norm, he left the world and acquired sixfold abhinna. Dhaniya was born in a potter’s family and practised the potter’s craft. Seeing that the Buddha-Sasana helps one to be free from the sorrows of rebirth, he entered the Order and in due course won arhatship. Updli was born in a barber’s family. He left the world following Anuruddha and the other five nobles. In due time he won arahatship. The Master himself taught him the whole Vinaya Pitaka. He was ranked first among those who knew the Vinaya. Rahula was born as the son of Princess Yosodhara. The circumstances of his entering the Order are recorded in the Khandhaka. He won arhatship. Soria-Kutikanna was born in the country of Avanti in the family of a very wealthy councillor. He learned the Norm from the venerable Kaeeana 11 504 A History of Pali Literature the Great and entered the Order through him. He recited the sixteen atthakas and won arahatship. Kassapa of Uruvela was bom in a brahmin family. He learnt the three Vedas. Finding no vital truth in the scripture he became an ascetic. It is mentioned in the Vinaya texts how the Blessed One converted him and his two brothers having the fa mil y name Kassapa. This Kassapa was the chief of those bhikkhus who had great following. MalunJcya’s son was bom as the son of the king of Kosala’s valuer. His mother was named Malunkya. He left the world as a wandering ascetic. On hearing the Master’s teaching, he entered the Order and in due course won arahatship. Kaccdyana the Great was born as the son of the chaplain to the King Candapajjota of Ujjeni. At his father’s death he succeeded to the post of chaplain. The king coming to know the Buddha’s advent asked him to bring the Master there. He went to the Master who taught him the Norm. Afterwards he won arahatship. As bidden by the Master he himself went to the king and established him in the faith and then returned to the Master. Kappina the Great was bom in a raja’s family in the border country at a town named Kukkuta. At his father’s death he succeeded as raja. At that time there was a brisk trade between Savatthi and Kukkuta. Once some traders, who were followers of the Buddha, were brought to the king. The king heard the excellence of the Norm from the traders and forthwith renounced the world. The Master who was then at Savatthi thought it a proper time to see Kappina. The Lord then came to the banks of the Candabhaga where he met Kappina and his men. The Master preached the Norm and they all won arahatship. It is interesting to note as what Mrs. Rhys Davids has rightly pointed out (Sakya, p. 39) that an unrest of enquiry (as in the Digha, Vol. II, 151) is noticeable in the commentarial tradition of Pali Commentaries 505 another nobleman of North India, the raja Kappina. Mrs. Rhys Davids remarks in this connection thus, “ For us of European traditions the riding forth of the noble on a quest is familiar, but we do not find the Indian noble so doing in a similar tradition. We have the Jataka quest of King Kusa after his lady, but it is as a very exceptional procedure. The Christian knight went on a worthy quest : the aid of those who needed him. Kappina’ s interest was said to be in the new in knowledge. The purpose of the Sakyan prince was the combined purpose of the new in knowledge in order to bring help to men” (Sakya, pp. 39-40). This remark of Mrs. Rhys Davids seems to be just and fair. Revata . — When the Thera Revata had won arahatship he went from time to time with the great theras to visit the Master. Going thus one day to visit the Buddha he stayed not far from Savatthi in a forest. Now the police came round on the track of thieves. The thieves, however, dripped their booty near the thera and ran. The thera was arrested and taken to the king. The thera proved his incapability for stealing and taught the king the Norm. Anuruddha was born in the house of Amitodana, the Sakiyan. His elder brother was Mahanama, the Sakiyan, the son of the Master’s paternal uncle. He was summoned with the Sakiyan rajas to form a guard for the Master. Under the tuition of the Master himself he won arahatship. The Master ranked him foremost among those who had attained the celestial eye. Sariputta and Moggalldna the Great . — The stories of Sariputta and Moggallana the Great are taken together. In the days of Gautama Buddha they were playmates named Upatissa (Sariputta) and Kolita (Moggallana). They were born as brahmins. Disgusted with the worldly life they left the world and became followers of the wanderer Sanjaya. In Sanjaya’s teaching they found nothing genuine. Through Assaji, the bhikkhu, they found 506 A History of Pali Literature the Exalted One and were ordained by him. In course of time they won arahatship. Sariputta was ranked chief among the disciples in wisdom and insight and Moggallana was foremost in super- natural power of will. Ananda was born in the family of Amitodana, the Sakiyan. Ananda renounced the world with Bhaddiya and others and was ordained by the Exalted One. He became the permanent body- servant to the Blessed One — a favour which was denied to Sariputta and Moggallana and others. He won arahatship after the death of the Buddha and just before the holding of the First Council. Kassapa the Great was born in a brahmin family at the brahmin village of Maha-tittha in Magadha and was named Pippali-manava. He had not the intention of marrying. But he was married to one Bhadda Kapilani. Both of them lived separately. When Pippali-manava’s parents died, both of them decided to renounce the world. Kassapa was or- dained by the Master himself. In no time he won arahatship. The Master pronounced him chief among those who undertook the extra austerities. Phussa was born as the son of the ruler of a province. He shunned worldly desires. He heard a certain great thera preach the Norm and entered the Order. In due course he acquired sixfold abhinna (supernatural knowledge). Ahgulimala was born as the son of the brahmin Bhaggava, who was chaplain to the king of Kosala. As he was born in the conjunction of the thief’s constellation, he became a thief. He made a garland of the fingerbones and hung it round his shoulder as if decked for sacrifice. Both the king and the people were tired of him. The king sent a strong force to capture the bandit. The Exalted One, however, converted the robber-chief. Ahha-Kondanna was bom in the village of Donavatthu, not far from Kapilavatthu, in a very wealthy brahmin family. Anna-Kondanna and four others left the world in quest of Amata or Nirvana. Pali Commentaries 507 Buddha after attaining enlightenment preached his wheel sermon at Tripatana to those five ascetics. Sona-Kolivisa was bom at the city of Campa, in the family of a distinguished councillor. When the Blessed One had attained omniscience and began rolling the wheel of the Norm, and was staying at Rajagaha, Sona came to pay a visit to the Buddha. He heard the Master teach the Norm and obtained his parents’ consent to enter the Order. In due course he attained arahatship. Kappa was born in the kingdom of Magadha, as the son of a provincial hereditary raja. He was addicted to self-indulgence and sensuality. The Master out of compassion for him preached the Norm to him. Kappa entered the Order and in due course won arahatship. Punna ( Sundparanta ) was born in the Suna- paranta country, at the port of Supparaka, in the family of a burgess. Once he went to Savatthi with a great caravan of merchandise. There he heard the discourse of the Buddha. He entered the Order and in due course won arahatship. Nandalca was born at Campa in a burgess’s family. He was the younger brother of Bharata. When both of them heard that Sona-Kolivisa had left the world, they also renounced the worldly life. Bharata soon won sixfold abhinna. But Nandaka could not. Seeing an ox pulling a cart out of the bog after it had been fed with grass and water, Nandaka like the refreshed ox drew himself out of the swamp of Samsara. Within a short time he won arahatship. Lakuntaka-Bhaddiya was born in a wealthy family. Hearing the Master preach he entered the Order and won arahatship. Kassapa of the River was born in a clan of Magadha brahmins, as the brother of Uruvela- Kassapa. His religious inclination made him dislike domestic life, and he became an ascetic. How the Exalted One ordained him is recorded in the Khandhaka. 508 A History of Pali Literature Kassapa of Gaya was born in a brahmin family. He left the world and with a company of disciples dwelt at Gaya. The story of his conversion by the Master is recorded in the Khandhaka. Therigdihd Commentary . — The Therigatha Com- mentary 1 called the Paramatthadlpani written by the Thera Dhammapala appends explanatory stories to the verses of the Therigatha. These stories give ns accounts of women who gradually became theris. A summary of accounts of some of the important theris is given below : — A hhirupanandd — Nanda, so called for her great beauty and amiability, had to leave the world against her will owing to the sudden and untimely death of her beloved suitor Carabhuta. But as she was still very conscious of her beauty and always avoided the presence of the Buddha for fear of being rebuked on that account, she was one day urged upon to appear before the Buddha. And he, the Buddha, by his supernatural power transformed her into an old and fading figure. It had the desired effect and she became an arhat. Jenti . — Bom in a princely family at Vaisali, she won arahatship after hearing the Dhamma preached by the Buddha ; and later developed the seven sambojjhangas. Cittd . — Bom at Rajagaha, she one day, when of age, heard the Buddha preaching, and came to believe in his doctrine. She was ordained by Mahapajapatl, the GotamI, and later on won arahat- ship. StiJckd . — Bom in a rich family at Rajagaha, Sukka, when of age, came to believe in the Buddha’s doctrine and became a lay disciple. But one day hearing Dhammadinna preach she was much moved, became a follower of him, and later on attained arahatship with patisambhida (analytical knowledge). One day she gave to the bhikkhunxs a sermon so 1 It has been edited by E. Muller for the P.T.S., Pali Commentaries 509 engrossing that even the tree-spirit heard her with rapt attention. Seld . — Otherwise known as Alavika for her having been born in the kingdom of Alavi, she one day heard the Master and became a lay disciple. Not long after she became an arhant, and came to live with the Buddha at SavatthI, Mara once tried in vain to seduce her to choose the sensuous life. Siha . — Born at Vesali as the daughter of General Slha’s sister, she one day heard the Master teaching the Norm and thereupon entered the Order. For seven years she tried in vain to attain arahatship and she intended to die. When she was about to kill herself, she succeeded in impelling her mind to insight which grew within and she won arahat- ship. Sundari Nandd . — Born in the royal family of the Sakyas, beautiful Nanda renounced the world, but was still proud of her beauty. Buddha com- pelled her to come before his presence and taught her in the same way as in the case of Abhirupananda, and preached to her about the frail beauty of the body. She afterwards became an arhant. Khemd . — Beautiful Khema was the consort of King Bimbisara. Hearing that the Buddha was in the habit of speaking ill of beauty, she liked not to appear before him. One day, hearing the beauty of the Veluvana vihara, she came to see it. It happened that the Buddha was then living there, and she was led before him. The Buddha then illustrated with the example of a beautiful celestial nymph passing from youth through middle and old age to death the vanity of physical beauty and the suffering therefrom. Khema at once became a believer and came to attain arahatship. Anopamd . — Daughter of a banker of Saketa, and beautiful as she was, she was sued by many young men of influence. But thinking that there was no happiness in household life, she went to the Master, heard his teachings, and later on attained arahatship. 510 A History of Pali Literature Rohini . — Bom at Vesali in a prosperous brahmin family, she, when grown up, went to the Master and heard him preach. With her parents’ per- mission she entered the Order and soon attained arahantship. SubM . — Beautiful Subha, the daughter of a goldsmith of Rajagaha, saw the Master, who taught her the Dhamma. She then entered the Order under Mahapajapatl Gotam! and in course of time won arahantship. Tissd . — Born at Kapilavastu among the Sakyas, she renounced the world and afterwards attained arhantship. Sumedhd . — Daughter of King Konca of Man- tavati, she, on hearing the doctrine of the Buddha from the bhikkhunis, renounced the world, and soon acquiring insight, attained arahantship. Gandd . -—Coming of a brahmin family, she had to beg from door to door for food. One day she took her food from Then Patacara and other bhikkhunis. She then listened to the discourses of Theri Patacara, renounced the world, and after- wards succeeded in attaining arahantship with patisambhida (analytical knowledge). Gutta . — Coming of a brahmin family of Savatthl, she, with her parents’ consent, entered the Order under Mahapajapatl Gotami, and eventually attained arahantship together with patisambhida. Cold, Upacdld, and Sisupacdla . — Bom in Magadha, these three were younger sisters of Sariputta. On their brother leaving the Order, they too followed suit and afterwards attained arhantship. In vain Mara tried to stir up sensual desires in them. Uppalavannd . — Coming of a banker’s family at Savatthl, Uppalavanna was sued by many bankers’ sons and princes. But she renounced the world, received ordination, and gradually attained arhant- ship with patisambhida or analytical knowledge. Surmngalamdtd . — Coming of a poor family at Savatthl, and wife of a basket-maker, she one day Pali Commentaries 511 reflected on all she had suffered as a lay-woman. On this her sight quickened and she attained arhatship with analytical knowledge. Punna . — Born of a domestic slave at Savatthi in the household of Anathapindika, and with great merits acquired in her previous births, she obtained Sotapattiphalam, and afterwards defeated in debate a brahmin Udakasiddhika. Punna renounced the worldly life, entered the Order, and attained arahant- ship. Sundari . — Born at Benares, Sundari lost her brother, upon which her father renounced the world and became an arhant. Sundari then followed her father, left the world, entered the Order, and after hard striving attained arhantship with pati- sambhida. Vimala . — Born of a public-woman at Vesall, Vimala one day went to the house of Mahamog- gallana to entice him. The venerable thera rebuking her, she was ashamed and became a believer and lay-sister. Some time after she entered the Order and gradually attained arhantship. Mittakdlika . — Coming of a brahmin family in the Kuru kingdom, she, when of age, entered the Order of sisters. For seven years she strove hard and afterwards won arhantship with the analytical knowledge. Sakuld {Pakula ). — Born of a brahmin family at Savatthi, she early became a believer, and one day hearing the preaching of an arahat became so much convinced that she entered the Order. After- wards she attained arhantship and became fore- most among the bhikkhunis. Mutta ,. — Coming of a brahmin family of Savatthi, she, when twenty years old, went to Mahapajapatl GotamI and got ordination from her. She eventually became an arhant. Punna . — Daughter of a leading burgess of Savatthi, she, when twenty years of age, heard the Great Pajapati and renounced the world. In due course she attained arhantship. 512 A History of Pali Literature DantiJca . — Coming of a purohita family, she, when of age, entered the Order under Mahapajapati Gotaml at Rajagaha, and eventually attained arhant- ship with analytical knowledge. Vaddhesi . — Nurse of Mahapajapati Gotaml, she renounced the world following her mistress. For twenty-five years she was harassed by the lusts of the senses. " But one day hearing Dhammadinna preach the Norm, she began to practise meditation and soon acquired the six supernatural powers. TJttamd . — Coming of a householder’s family at Bandhumati, she in her old age heard Patacara preach and entered the Order and very soon became an arhant. Afterwards she converted thirty sisters who entered the Order, and they in their turn became arhants. Uttard . — Coming of a clansman’s family at SavatthI, she, when grown up, heard Patacara preach the Norm, became a believer, entered the Order, and became an arhant. Bhadda Kundalakesa . — Coming of the family of a banker at Rajagaha, she, when grown up, fell in love with one Satthuka, a purohit’s son. But Satthuka was avaricious and wanted to have all the jewels with which Bhadda had decked herself. In vain she pleaded that she herself and all her ornaments belonged to him. So when, Satthuka one day took Bhadda to the precipice of a cliff to give an offering, the latter pushed him over the precipice and he died. Bhadda then left the world, entered the Order of the Niganthas, and became an unequalled debator. One day she challenged Sari- putta to a debate but she was defeated, and went to the Buddha for refuge. Buddha discerned her maturity of knowledge, and she attained arhantship with analytical knowledge. Sdmd (I). — -Coming of a rich household at KosambI and moved by the death of one of her dear friends, she went to listen to the Elder Ananda and acquired insight. On the seventh day after this she became an arhat. Pali Commentaries 513 Sdmd (II ). — Another Sama coming of a clans- man’s family heard in her old age a sermon through which her insight expanded and she won arhantship with patisambhida (analytical knowledge). Uhbiri . — Coming of the family of a rich house- holder at Savatthi, beautiful Ubbiri was made a queen of the king of Kosala. But a few years after when her only daughter Jiva died, she wept bitterly, whereupon she was questioned and in- structed by the Buddha. She was then established in insight and in due course won arhantship. Kisdgotami . — Coming of a poor family at Savatthi, she, on the death of her only child, went to the Buddha with the dead body, and requested him to bring the dead to life. The Buddha then delivered a sermon upon which she became a bhikkhum, and later on an arhant. Patdcdrd . — Coming of banker’s family at Savatthi, she, when of age, eloped with her lover who afterwards became her husband. But un- fortunately enough the husband died of snake-bite and her son was drowned while crossing a river. She lost her brother and parents. She then became mad and went naked. But upon Buddha’s directing her to recover her shamelessness, she acquired consciousness ; and instructed by the Master she was established in Sotapattiphalam. Afterwards she became an arhant. Vdsitthi . — Coming of a clansman’s family at Vesali, she became mad with grief at the death of her only son. But when she came to Mithila and saw the Buddha she got back her normal mind, and she listened to the outlines of the Norm preached by the Buddha. She then acquired insight and became an arhant. Dhammadinna . — Coming of a clansman’s family at Rajagaha, Dhammadinna was married to a setthi named Visakha. But on his renouncing the world, she too followed and became a bhikkhuni in a village. By virtue of her merits acquired in a pre- vious birth, she soon became an arhant and was 514 A History of Pali Literature later on ranked by the Buddha as the foremost among the sisters who could preach. Dhamma . — Coming of a respectable family at SavatthI, Dhamma entered the Order on her husband’s death and became an arhant with thorough knowledge of the Norm in form and meaning. MettiJcd . — Daughter of a rich brahmin of Raja- gaha, Mettika lived the life of a recluse and eventually attained arhantship. Abhayd . — Coming of a respectable family at Ujjain, Abhaya renounced the world, entered the Order, and in course of time attained arhantship at Rajagaha. Bond . — Born at Rajagaha as the daughter of a purohita, Sona in her advanced years became a lay disciple first and afterwards entered the Order. Within a short time she attained arhantship, and Mara tried in vain to deviate her from this path. Bhadda Kdpildm . — Coming of a brahmana family of the Kosiya clan at Sagala, she renounced the world along with her husband and dwelt five years in a hermitage. She was then ordained by Mahapajapatl Gotami and soon won arhantship. She was later on ranked first among the bhikkhunis who could remember previous births. DMrd . — Born at Kapilavatthu in the noble clan of the Sakiyas, Dhira renounced the world with Mahapajapatl Gotami and was troubled in heart at the Master’s teaching. She strove for insight and eventually became an arhant. Sanghd . — Her story is exactly like that of Dhira. Sumana (I ). — Born at Kapilavatthu, Sumana (I) renounced the world, was ordained by Mahapaja- patl Gotami, and became gradually an arhant. Sumand (II ). — Born at SavatthI as the sister of the king of Kosala, Sumana (II) after the death of her grandmother went to the vihara, and there hearing the Buddha preach, asked for ordination in her old age. She eventually became an arhant Pali Commentaries 515 with, thorough knowledge of the Norm in form and in meaning. Addhakdsi . — Born in the kingdom of Kasi, Addhakasi became a prostitute. But later on she left the world and became ordained by a messenger sent by the Buddha himself. She soon attained arhantship with knowledge of the Dhamma in form and meaning. Bond . — Coming of a clansman’s family at Savatthi, Sona, following her husband, renounced the world in her old age and entered the Order. Her knowledge gradually matured as a result of her hard strife, and she attained arhantship. She was ranked first among the bhikkhunis for capacity of effort. Sujdtd . — Bom at Saketa in a treasurer’s family, Sujata one day visited the Buddha in the Angana Grove where the Master expounded the Norm to her in an inspiring lesson. Her intelligence being ripe, she at once became an arhant and was admitted to the Order of bhikkhunis. Vaddhamdtd . — Bom in a clansman’s family at Bharukaccha, Vaddhamata, hearing a bhikkhu preach, became a believer and entered the Order and eventually became an arhant. Ambapali . — Born spontaneously at Vesali in the king’s gardens at the foot of a mango tree, beautiful Ambapali was sued by many princes and afterwards became their courtesan. Later on, out of faith in the Master, she built a vihara and handed it over to him and the Order. And when she heard her own son preach the Norm, she worked for insight and soon attained arhantship. Capa . — Born in the Vankahara country as the daughter of the chief trapper, Capa, on the attain- ment of arhantship by her husband, renounced the world at Savatthi and attained arhantship. Subha . — Bom at Rajagaha in the family of an eminent brahmin, beautiful Subha received faith and became a lay disciple. Later on, she renounced the world, entered the Order under 516 A History of Pali Literature Mahapajapatl Gotami, exercised herself in insight, and soon attained arhantship with a thorough grasp of the Norm in form and meaning. Isiddsi . — Born at Ujjain as the daughter of a wealthy and virtuous merchant, she was married several times, but finding each husband undesir- able, she grew agitated and took orders under the Therl Jinadatta. She strove for insight and not long after attained arhantship together with thorough grasp of the Norm in form and meaning. The Paramatthadlpanl 1 is a commentary on the Cariyapitaka. Its author was Pa drpani. ha " Dhammapala. The British Museum has acquired a good manuscript of this commentary in Burmese character dated 1764 {vide J.R.A.S., 1904, 174). The P.T.S. has under- taken to edit this text. Dhammapala also wrote commentaries on the Udana and Itivuttaka. The Itivuttaka Commentary is being edited by the P.T.S. 1 It includes the commentaries on the Cariyapitaka, Thera- Therlgatha, Petavatthu, Vimanavatthu, Itivuttaka, and Udana. CHAPTER VI PALI CHRONICLES The Dipavamsa 1 or the chronicle of the island . of Lanka is the earliest known work ipavamsa. 0 | ^ It puts together certain well-known traditions handed down among the Buddhists of Ceylon, sometimes in a clumsy manner. Its diction is in places unintelligible, and its narrative is dull and interrupted by repetitions. Though it is composed in verse, curiously enough the verses are, here and there, intervened by prose passages (cf. Dipavamsa, pp. 33, 64-65). What inference should be drawn from the occurrence of the prose passages in a metrical composition is still a matter of dispute. The point to be settled is whether the traditions on which the Dipavamsa narrative is based were prevalent all in prose or all in verse or in both prose and verse. Its authorship is unknown. The canonical model of this work is to be traced in a number of verses in the Parivarapatha of the Vinaya Pitaka. 2 The Dipavamsa is an authorita- I 1 Dr. Geiger has published a valuable treatise known as “ Dipavamsa und Mahavamsa und die geschichtliehe iiberlie- ferung in Ceylon,” Leipzig, 1905. Translated into English by E. M. Coomaraswamy, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, Colombo, 1908. We invite our readers’ attention to Dr. Geiger’s interesting contribution to the Indian Antiquary, Vol. XXXV, p. 443, on the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa and the Historical tradition in Ceylon. 2 Cf. Parivarapatha, Vinaya Pitaka, Vol. V, p. 3. “ Tissatthero ca medhavi Devatthero ea pandito, | punar eva Sumano medhavi vinaye ca visarado, bahussuto Culanago gajo va duppadhamsiyo, J Dhammapalitanamo ca Rohane saHhupujito, tassa sisso mahapanno Khemanamo tipetaki | dipe tarakaraja va pahhaya atirocatha. Upatisso ca medhavi Phussadevo mahakathi, | punar eva Sumano medhavi Pupphanamo bahussuto mahakathi Mahasivo pitake sabbatthakovido, ] 518 A History of Pali Literature tive work well known in Ceylon at the time of Buddhaghosa, and, as a matter of fact, the great Pali commentator has copiously quoted from it in the introductory portion of his commentary on the Kathavatthu. Dr. Oldenberg has edited and trans- lated the book into English. He says that the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa are in the main nothing but two versions of the same substance, both being based on the historical introduction to the great commentary of the Mahavihara. The Dipavamsa follows step by step and almost word for word the traces of the original. According to Oldenberg the Dipavamsa cannot have been written before 302 A.D. because its narrative extends till that year. If we compare the language and the style in which the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa are written, it leaves no doubt as to the priority of the former. The Dipavamsa was so popular in Ceylon that King Dhatusena ordered it to be recited in public at an annual festival held in honour of an image of Mahinda in the 5th century A.D. {vide Dipavamsa, ed. by Oldenberg, Intro., pp. 8-9). An idea of its contents can be gathered from the summary given below. The first chapter gives an account of Buddha’s punar eva Upali medhavi vinaye ca visarado, Mahanago mahapaffio saddhammavamsakovido, ) punar eva Abhayo medhavi pitake sabbatthakovido, Tissatthero ca medhavi vinaye ca visarado, | tassa sisso mahapahho Pupphanamo bahussuto sasanam anurakkhanto Jambudipe patitthito. | Oulabhayo ca medhavi vinaye ca visarado Tissatthero ca medhavi saddhammavamsakovido | Culadevo ca medhavi vinaye ca visarado Sivatthero ca medhavi vinaye sabbatthakovido, ] etc naga mahapahha vinayannu maggakovida vinayam dipe pakasesum pitakam Tambapanniya ‘ti.” || Cf. also Dipavamsa, p. 32. Nibbute lokanathasmim vassani solasam tada, Ajatasattu catuvlsam, Vijayassa solasam ahu, samasatthi tada hoti vassam Upalipanditam, Dasako upasampanno U palitherasantike. yavata buddhasettbassa dhammappatti pakasita sabbazh XJpali vacesi navangarh jinabhasitam. Pali Chronicles 519 first visit to the island of Lanka. Gotama obtained perfect enlightenment at the foot of the Bodhi- tree. He surveyed the whole world and perceived the island of Lanka, a dwelling-place fit for saints. He foresaw that Mahinda, the son of the Indian King Asoka, would go to the island and propagate the Buddhist faith there. Accordingly he placed a divine guard over the island. He visited Lanka and drove the Yakkhas, the inhabitants of the place, out of the island. Buddha visited the island for the second time when the island was on the verge of being destroyed by a terrific war which ensued between the mountain- serpents and the sea-serpents. The Lord exhorted them to five in peace and all the serpents took their refuge in him. His third visit to the island was in connection with an invitation he got from the Naga King Maniakkhika of Kalyani. The Dipavamsa then traces Buddha’s descent from the Prince Mahasammata, the first inaugurated king of the earth. Gotama Buddha was the son of Suddhodana, chief of Kapilavatthu and Rahula- bhadda was the son of Gotama. Mention is also made of many other kings who reigned before Suddhodana and after Mahasammata. A brief account of the first two Buddhist Councils and the different Buddhist schools that arose after the Second Council is also given. The First Council was held under the presidency of Mahakassapa and under the patronage of Ajata- sattu. The first collection of Dhamma and Vinaya was made with the assistance of Upali and Ananda. The Second Council was held during the reign of Kalasoka. The Vajjiputtas proclaimed the ten indulgences which had been forbidden by the Tatha- gata. The Vajjiputtas seceded from the orthodox party and were called the Mahasamghikas. They were the first schismatics. In imitation of them many heretics arose, e.g., the Gokulikas, the Ekavyoharikas, the Bahussutiyas, etc. In all there 12 520 A History of Pali Literature were eighteen sects 1 — seventeen heretical and one orthodox. Besides these there were other minor schools. The Dlpavamsa further deals with the reign of the great Indian King Asoka, the grandson of Candagutta and son of Bimbisara, and the notable events that took place in his time. It was during his reign that Mahinda went to Ceylon and spread Buddhism there with the help of the Ceylonese Kong Devanampiyatissa who was a contemporary of Asoka the Great. It is said that this great king built 84,000 viharas all over the Jambudlpa. The Third Buddhist Council was held under the pres- idency of Thera Moggaliputta Tissa and under the patronage of Asoka. After the Council was over the thera sent Buddhist missionaries to different countries (Gandhara, Mahisa, Aparantaka, Maha- rattha, Yona, Himavata, Suvannabhumi, and Lanka) for the propagation of Buddha’s religion. The Dipavamsa gives a brief account of the colonisation of Ceylon by Vijaya, son of the king of Vanga, and also a systematic account of kings of Ceylon who ruled after Vijaya and their activities in promoting the cause of Buddhism. Sihabahu, king of Vanga, enraged at the bad conduct of Vijaya, his eldest son, banished him from his kingdom. Vijaya with a number of followers went on board a ship and sailed away on the sea. They in course of their journey through the waters visited the sea- port towns of Suppara and Bharukaccha and later on came to Lankadipa. Vijaya and his followers set on colonising this country and built many cities. Vijaya became the first crowned king of the island. After Vijaya we find a long list of kings among whom Devanampiyatissa stands out pre-eminent. 1 Vide Mrs. Rhys Davids, ‘ The sects of the Buddhists,’ J.R.A.S., 1891, pp. 409 foil.; schools of Buddhist belief, J.R.A.S., 1892, pp. 1 foil. Cf. Mahavamsa, chap. 5, Mahabodhivamsa, pp. 96-97, Sasanavamsa, p. 14, Kathavatthupakarana-attfiakatha, pp. 2, 3, 5. Pali Chronicles 521 It was during the reign of Devanampiyatissa that Buddhism was first introduced into Lanka through Mahinda who at the instance of Thera Moggaliputta Tissa, the President of the Third Council, went to Ceylon for the propagation of the Buddhist faith there. It may be noted here that the great Indian King Asoka was a contemporary of Devanampiyatissa and that they were in friendly terms. Asoka sent a branch of the Bodki-tree of the Tathagata to Lanka which was planted with great honour at Anuradhapura. After the death of Devanampiyatissa Buddhism was not in a flourishing condition. The immediate successors of the king were weak. The Damilas came over to Lanka from Southern India and occupied the country. The people were tired of the foreign yoke. They found in Dutthagamani, a prince of the royal family, who could liberate the country from the foreign domination. Duttha- gamani at the head of a huge army drove the Damilas out of the country. He was the greatest of the Sinhalese kings. Whether as a warrior or a ruler, Dutthagamani appears equally great. He espoused the cause of Buddhism and built the Lohapasada, nine storeys in height, the Mahathupa, and many other viharas. Indeed Buddhism was in its most flourishing condition during the reign of this great king. Dutthagamani was followed by a number of kings, among them Vattagamani was the greatest. His reign is highly important for the history of Buddhist literature. It was during his reign that the bhikkhus recorded in written books the text of the three pitakas and also the Atthakatha. Vattagamani was also succeeded by a number of unimportant kings. The account of the kings of Ceylon is brought down to the reign of King Mahasena who reigned for 27 years from circa 325 to 352 A.D. At the close of the 4th century A.D. there existed in Ceylon, an older work, a sort of chronicle 522 A History of Pali Literature of the history of the island from very early times. The work was a part of the Attha- Mah sonrees~ itS katha which was composed in old Sinhalese prose mingled with Pali verses. The work existed in the different monasteries of Ceylon and on it the Mahavamsa is based. The chronicle must have originally come down to the arrival of Mahinda in Ceylon ; but it was later carried down to the reign of Mahasena (4th century A.D.) with whose reign the Mahavamsa comes to an end. Of this work, the Dxpavamsa presents the first clumsy redaction in Pali verses. The Mahavamsa is thus a conscious and intentional rearrangement of the Dlpavaihsa as a sort of com* mentary on the latter. The author of the Mahavamsa is %■ or ' known as Mahanaman. 1 A well-known passage of the later Culavamsa alludes to the fact that King Dha- tusena bestowed a thousand pieces of gold and gave orders to write a dipika on the Dipavamsa. This dipika has been identified by Fleet with the Mahavamsa ; and if this identifica- tion be correct, then the date of its origin is more precisely fixed. Dhatusena reigned at the beginning of the 6th century A.D., and about this time the Mahavamsa was composed. Historicity of the The historicity of the work is estab- worij. fished by the following facts : — (a) As to the fist of kings before Asoka, namely, the nine Nandas, Candagutta, and Bimbisara, the statements concerning Bimbisara and Ajatasattu as contemporaries of the Buddha agree with can- onical writings, and, in respect of the names, with those of the Brahmanic tradition. In the number of years of Candagutta’s reign, the Ceylonese tradi- tion agrees with the Indian. Candagutta’s councillor Canaka (Canakya) is also known. Date. 1 Bead * Mahanama in the Dali Literature * by Rev. R. Siddhartha, published in LH.Q., VoL VIII, No. 3, pp. 462-465. Pali Chronicles 523 (b) The conversion of Ceylon, according to the chronicles, was the work of Mahinda, son of Asoka, and this is confirmed to a considerable extent by the fact that Asoka twice in his inscriptions (Rock Edicts XIII and II) mentions Ceylon to be one of the countries where he sent his religious mis- sionaries and provided for distribution of medicines. It receives further support from Hiuen Tsang who mentions Mahendra, a brother of Asoka, expressly as the man by whom the true doctrine was preached in Sinhala. Even before Mahinda, relations existed between India and Ceylon, for the chronicles relate that Asoka sent to Devanampiyatissa presents for his sacred consecration as the king of Ceylon. (c) An inscription from a relic-casket from Tope No. 2 of the Sanci group gives us the name of Sapurisasa Mogaliputasa who, according to the tradition, presided over the Third Council under Asoka’ s rule. There is no doubt that he is iden- tical with Moggaliputta Tissa of the Ceylonese chronicles. (d) The narrative of the transplanting of a branch of the sacred Bodhi-tree from Uruvela to Ceylon finds interesting confirmation in a repre- sentation of the story on the reliefs of the lower and middle architrave of the East gate of the Sanci Stupa. ( e ) The contemporaneity of Devanampiyatissa with Asoka is established on the internal evidence of the Dlpavamsa and the Mahavamsa, as well as by archaeological evidence. Another contemporaneity of Kang Meghavarman reigning from c. 352-379 A.D. with Samudragupta is established by the Chinese account of Wang Hiuentse. (/) There is a general historical reminiscence underlying the stories of the three Buddhist Councils recorded in the chronicles. But the historical statements are not always infallible ; and the longer the interval between the time of the events and the time when they are related, the greater the possibility of an error, and 524 A History of Pali Literature the more will be the influence of legend noticeable. As regards the period from Vijaya to Devanampiya- tissa, there is a considerable distrust of tradition and traditional chronology. Also during the period from Devanampiyatissa to Dutthagamani there is matter for doubt. " But in later periods we encounter no such difficulties and impossibilities. The chron- ology is credible, the numbers appear less artificial, and the accounts more trustworthy. In the ninth month after Buddhahood, when the Lord Buddha was dwelling at T th^Xh 5 gatl? f Uruvela, he one day personally went to Lanka and converted a large assembly of Yakkhas as well as a large number of other living beings. After this, he came back to Uruvela but, again in the fifth year of his Buddha- hood when he was residing in the Jetavana, he, in an early morning out of compassion for the nagas went to the Nagadrpa (apparently the north- western part of Ceylon) where he preached the five moral precepts and established the three refuges and converted many nagas. The Lord then came back to Jetavana, but, again in the eighth year of his Buddhahood the Teacher, while dwelling in the Jetavana, went to Kalyanx and preached the Dhamma, and then came back to Jetavana. The Chapter II gives a long list of kings be- ginning with Mahasammata from The Smmatl Iaha ' whose race sprang the Great Sage, the Tathagata. Descendants of this race of kings ruled in Kusavatl, Rajagaha, and Mithila, and they reigned in groups in their due order. One group whose chief was Okkaka ruled at Kapilavatthu and was known as the Sakyas. In this line was born Yasodhara, a daughter of King Jayasena, and she was married to Sakka Anjana. They had two daughters, Maya and Pajapatl, who were both married to Suddhodana, a grandson of Jayasena and son of Slhahanu. The son of Suddhodana and Maya was the Lord Buddha whose consort was Bhaddakaccana, son was Rahula, Pali Chronicles 525 great friend was Bimbisara, and another con- temporary was Bimbisara’s son, Ajatasattu. The First Buddhist Council 1 was convened three months after the parinirvana ^dst h counciisl" the Buddha (at Kusinara) in the Sattapanni Cave at Rajagaha where his nearest disciples followed by seven hundred thousand bhikkhus and a large number of laymen assembled to establish the most important rules of the Order as, according to their recollection, the Master himself had laid down. The work of the compilation was entrusted to Thera Ananda and Thera Upali. Thera Upali spoke for the Vinaya, and Thera Ananda for the rest of the Dhamma ; and Thera Mahakassapa seated on the thera’s chair asked questions touching the Vinaya. Both of them expounded them in detail and the theras repeated what they had said. The work of the First Council took seven months to be completed, and the Council rose after it had finished compilation of the Dhamma, and the Canon came to be known as thera tradition. A century after the parinibbana of the Buddha when Kalasoka was the reigning king, there were at Vaisali many bhikkhus of the Vajji clan who used to preach the Ten points of Buddhism. But the theras of Pava and Avanti with their leader, the great Thera Revata, declared that these Ten points were unlawful, and wanted to bring the dispute to a peaceful end. All of them followed by a large number of bhikkhus then went to Vaisali and there met the bhikkhus of the Vajji clan. Kalasoka too went there, and, hearing both sides, decided in favour of the true faith, held out by the theras of Pava and Avanti. The brotherhood then came together finally to decide, and Revata resolved to settle the matter by an Ubbdhikd wherein 1 Prof. Przyluski’s Le Concile de Raj agriha, pt. I, pp. 8, 30, 66, and 116 should be consulted. Bead also Buddhist Councils by Dr. B. C. Majumdar published in the Buddhistic Studies, edited by Dr. B. C. Law. Vide The Buddhist Councils held at Rajagriha and VesaK translated from Chinese by S. Beal. 526 A History of Pali Literature four from each of the two parties were represented. Thera Revata, in order to hold a Council, chose also seven hundred out of all that troop of bhikkhus, and all of them met in the Valikarama and compiled the Dhamma in eight months. The heretical bhikkhus who taught the wrong doctrine founded another school which came to bear the name Mahasanghika. The Third Council was held under better circumstances during the reign of King Asoka at the Asokarama in Patahputta under the guidance and presidentship of Thera Moggalliputta Tissa. Within a hundred years from the compilation of the doctrine in the Second Council, there arose eighteen different sects in the Buddhist Order with their respective schools and systems, and another schism in the Church was threatened. At this time, 218 years from the parinibbana of the Buddha, Asoka came to the throne, and after a reign of four years, he consecrated himself as king in Pataliputta. And, not long after, Samanera Nigrodha preached the doctrine to the king, and confirmed him with many of his followers in the refuges and precepts of duty. Thereupon the king became bountiful to the bhikkhus and eventually entered the doctrines. From that time the revenue of the brotherhood was on the increase but the heretics became envious, and they too, taking the yellow robe and dwelling along with the bhikkhus, began to proclaim their own doctrine as the doctrine of the Buddha, and carry out their own practices even as they wished. They became so unruly that King Asoka was obliged to arrange an assembly of the community of bhikkhus in its full numbers at the splendid Asokarama under the presidency of Thera Moggalliputta Tissa. Then did the king question one by one on the teachings of the Buddha. The heretical bhikkhus expounded their wrong doctrine, upon which the king caused to be expelled from the Order all such bhikkhus and their followers. Only the rightly believing bhikkhus answered that the Lord taught the Pali Chronicles 527 Vibhajja-doctrine, and this was supported and confirmed by Thera Moggalliputta Tissa. Three thousand learned bhikkhus were then selected to make a compilation of the true doctrine under the guidance of the great thera, and they completed their work at the Asokarama in nine months. Vijaya of evil conduct was the son and prince regent of King Sihabahu, ruler of The coming and the kingdom of Lala ; but he consecration of was banished from the kingdom by Vijaya and others. pj s f a ther for his many intolerable deeds of violence. Boarded on a ship with his large number of followers with their wives and children, Vijaya first landed at Supparaka, but afterwards, embarking again, landed in Lanka in the region called Tambapanni, where he eventually married and consecrated himself as king and built cities. After his death, he was succeeded by his brother’s son Panduvasudeva who married Subhad- dakaccana, and consecrated himself as king. He was in his turn succeeded by his son Abhaya who was followed by Pandukabhaya. Between Pandu- kabhaya and Abhaya there was no king for 17 years. Pandukabhaya’s son Mutasiva followed his „ father and was succeeded by his second son Devanampiyatissa wnose friend was Dhammasoka whom he had never seen, but to whom he was pleased to send a priceless treasure as a gift. Dhammasoka ap- preciated the gift, and sent as a return-gift another treasure to Devanampiyatissa who was now con- secrated as king of Lanka. After the termination of the Third Council, Moggalliputta Tissa Thera, in order to establish the religion in adjacent countries, sent out learned and renowned missionaries to Kasmir, Gandhara, Mahlsamandala, Vanavasa, Aparantaka, Maharattha, Suvannabhumi (Burma), and to the Yona country. To the lovely island of Lanka, he sent Mahinda, the theras Itthiya, IJttiya, Sambala, and Bhaddasala to preach the religion. 528 A History of Pali Literature Mahinda came out to Lanka with, four theras and Sanghamitta’s son Sumana, the gifted samanera. Even on their landing many devas, nagas, and supannas were converted to the doctrine, and he with his followers entered the capital city where people thronged to see him, and he preached the true faith unto them. The wise King Devanampiyatissa heard him explain some of the miracles and teachings and episodes of the life of the Buddha, and became one of his most devoted patrons. The king then built for the great thera the Mahavihara, henceforth known as the Mahameghavanarama, which the thera accepted. Next the king built for him and his followers another vihara on the Cetiyapabbata, henceforth known as the Cetiya- pabbata-vihara, which too the thera accepted. The wise king then became eager to enshrine one of the relics of the Great Lord the Buddha in a stupa, so that he and the followers of the faith might behold the Conqueror in his relics and worship him. At his request Mahinda sent Sumana to King Dhammasoka with the instruction to bring from him the relics of the Sage and the alms-bowl of the Master, and then to go to Sakka in the fair city of the gods to bring the collar-bone of the Master from him. Sumana faithfully carried out the instruction, and when he landed down on the Missaka mountain with the relics, the king and the people were all filled with joy, and thirty thousand of them received the pabbajja of the Conqueror’s doctrine. Later on the king sent his nephew and minister Arittha again to Dhammasoka to bring the Bodhi- tree which at Dhammasoka’s approach severed of itself and transplanted itself in the vase provided for the purpose. Arittha then came back on board a ship across the ocean to the capital with the holy tree and a gay rejoicing began. With the Bodhi- tree came also Therl Sanghamitta with eleven followers. The Tree and its Saplings were planted with due ceremony at different places, and royal Pali Chronicles 529 consecration was bestowed on them. Under the direction of the Thera Mahinda who converted the island, Devanampiyatissa continued to build viharas and thupas one after another, and thus ruled for 40 years, after which he died. He was succeeded on the throne by his son, Prince Uttiya ; but in the eighth year of his reign, the great Thera Mahinda, who had brought light to the island of Lanka, died at the age of sixty ; and the whole island was struck with sorrow at his death, and the funeral rights were observed with great ceremony. After a reign of ten years Uttiya died, and was _ . .. _ . followed by Mahasiva, Suratissa, two u " agama?I ' Damilas, Sena and G-uttaka, Asela and Elara, a Damila from the Cola country, in succession. Elara was killed by Dutthagamani who succeeded the former as king. Gamani, for such was his original name, was born of Prince Kakavannatissa, overlord of Maha- gama, and Viharadevi, daughter of the king of Kalyani. Gamani was thus descended through the dynasty of Mahanaga, second brother of Devanam- piyatissa. Kakavannatissa had another son by Viharadevi named Tissa, and both Gamani and Tissa grew up together. Now when they were ten and twelve years old, Kakavannatissa, who was a believing Buddhist, wanted his sons to make three promises ; first, they would never turn away from the bhikkhus, secondly, the two brothers would ever be friendly towards each other, and, thirdly, never would they fight the Damilas. The two brothers made the first two promises but turned back to make the third, upon which their father became sorry. Gamani gradually grew up to sixteen years, vigorous, renowned, intelligent, majestic, and mighty. He gathered round him mighty and great warriors from far and near villages, as well as from the royal and noble families. Gamani developed a strong hatred towards the Damilas who had more than once usurped the throne of Lanka, and became determined to quell them down. Now he had 530 A History of Pali Literature gathered a strong army of brave and sturdy warriors round him, he approached his father for permission to make war on the Damilas. But the king, though repeatedly requested, declined to give any such permission. As a pious Buddhist devoted to the cult of ahimsa, he could not give permission for war that would result in bloodshed and cruelty. He also dissuaded the warriors to fight for his sons. Gamani, thereupon, became disgusted with his father, and went to Malaya ; and because of his anger and disgust towards his father, he was named as Dutthagamani. In the meantime King Kaka- vannatissa died, and there arose a deadly scramble for the throne between the two brothers, Duttha- gamani and Tissa. Two battles were fought with considerable loss of life, and Dutthagamani eventually became victorious. Peace was then con- cluded and the two brothers began to live together again. He took some time to provide for his people who had suffered during the last wars, and then went out to fight against the Damilas. He overpowered Damila Chatta, conquered Damila Titthamba and many other mighty Damila princes and kings. Deadly were the wars that he fought with them, but eventually he came out victorious, and united the whole of Lanka into one kingdom. Gamani was then consecrated with great pomp, and not long after he himself consecrated the Maricavatti vihara which he had built up. Next took place the consecration of the Lohapasada ; but the building up of the Great Thupa was now to be taken up. He took some time to the obtaining of the wherewithal, i.e., the materials of the thupa from different quarters, and then began the work in which masons and workmen from far and near did take part, and at the beginning of which a great assemblage of theras from different countries took place. When the work of the building had considerably advanced, the king ordered the making of the Relic-chamber in which the relics were afterwards enshrined with due eclat, pomp, and Pali Chronicles 531 ceremony. But ere yet the making of the chatta and the plaster work of the monument was finished, the king fell ill which later on proved fatal. He sent for his younger brother Tissa, and asked him to complete the thupa, which Tissa did. The ill king passed round the Cetiya on a palanquin and did homage to it, and left with Tissa the charge of doing all the work that still remained to be done towards it. He then enumerated some of the pious works he had done in his life to the theras and bhikkhus assembled round his bed, and one of the theras spoke to him on the unconquerable foe of death. Then the king became silent, and he saw that a golden chariot came down from the Tusita heaven. Then he breathed his last, and was immediately seen reborn and standing in celestial form in a car that had come down from the Tusita heaven. Dutthagamani was succeeded by his brother Saddhatissa who ruled for 18 years, tc in — Ten ktn and built many cetiyas and viharas. s ' ° ' He was followed by Thulathana, Lahjatissa, Khallatanaga, and Vattagamani. The last named was a famous king during whose reign the Tamilas became powerful and again usurped the throne. Vattagamani was thus followed by Damila Pulahattha, Damila Bahiya, Tamila Panaya- maraka, Damila Pilayamaraka, and Damila Dathika. But the Damilas were dispossessed of their power not long after by Vattagamani, who now ruled for a few more years. After his death, his adopted son Mahacull , . Mahatissa reigned for 14 years with J even ngs - piety and justice. He was followed by Coranaga, Tissa, Siva, Damila Vatuka, Brahmin Mliya, Queen Anula, Kutakanna Tissa, Bhati- kabhaya, and Mahadathika Mahanaga. 1 All of them had short reigns and were builders of viharas 1 In the list of Ancient Kings of Ceylon the name of Daru- bhatikatissa appears after Damila Vatuka (vide Geiger, Mahavamsa, Introduction, p. xxxvii). 532 A History of Pali Literature and cetiyas. Anula was a notorious queen and to her love intrigues at least four kings, Siva, Tissa, Damila Vatuka, and Brahmin Niliya, lost their lives. ’ Except Tissa, they were all upstarts and they rightly deserved the fate that had been theirs. After Mahadathika’s death, Amandagamani m . Abhaya, his son, followed him on weve mgs. ^ irone _ g e was followed by Kanirajanutissa, Culabhaya, Queen Slvali, Ilanaga, Candamukha Siva, Yasalalakatissa, Subharaja, Vankanasikatissaka, Gajabahukagamani, and Mahallaka Naga in succession. Most of these longs were worthless, and their merit lay only in the building or extension of viharas and other religious establishments and in court-intrigues. Two of them, Ilanaga and Subharaja were, however, comparatively more noted for their acts of bravery and valour exhibited mostly in local wars. After the death of Mahallanaga, his son Bhatika- _ . , , . tissaka reigned for 24 years. He JLiixrt66ii KIU&S* *11 i • * was followed m succession by Kanitthatissaka, Khujjanaga, Kuncanaga, Sirinaga, Tissa, Abhayanaga, Sirinaga, Vijayakumaraka, Samghatissa, Sirisamghabodhi, Gothabhaya, and Jetthatissa who are grouped together in a chapter entitled “ Thirteen Kings ” in the Mahavamsa. Scarcely there is anything important enough to be recorded about these kings, besides the fact that most of them ruled as pious Buddhists, always trying to further the cause of the religion by the foundation and extension of religious establishments, and that they carried out the affairs of the kingdom through wars, intrigues, rebellions, and local feuds. King Jetthatissa was succeeded by his younger -r*. M _ brother, Mahasena, who ruled for 27 years and during whose reign, most probably, the Mahavamsa was given its present form. Originally it ended with the death of King Dutthagamani, but now it was probably brought up-to-date. On his accession to the throne, he forbade the Pali Chronicles 533 people to give food to any bhikkhu dwelling in the Mahavihara on penalty of a fine of hundred pieces of money. The bhikkhus thus fell in want, and they left the vihara which remained empty for nine years. It was then destroyed by the ill- advisers of the king and its riches were removed to enrich the Abhayagirivihara. The king wrought many a deed of wrong upon which his minister Meghavannabhaya became angry and became a rebel. A battle was imminent, but the two former friends met, and the king, repentant of his mis- deeds, promised to make good all the harm done to the religious establishments of Lanka. The king rebuilt the Mahavihara, and founded amongst others two new viharas, the Jetavana vihara and the Manihira vihara. He was also the builder of the famous Thuparamavihara, as well as of two other nunneries. He also excavated many tanks and did many other works of merit. Dr. Kern says in his Manual of Indian Buddhism that the Mahavamsa deserves a special notice on account of its being so highly important for the religious history of Ceylon. Dr. Geiger who has made a thorough study of the Pali chronicles, has edited the text of the Mahavamsa for the P.T.S., London, and has ably translated it into English for the same society, with the assistance of the late Dr. M. H. Bode. G. Tumour’s edition and translation of this text are now out of date. Prof. Geiger has translated it into German. Mrs. Bode has retranslated it into English and Dr. Geiger himself has revised the English translation. There is a commentary on the Mahavamsa known as the Mahavamsatlka (Wamsatthapakasini revised and edited by Batuwantudawe and Nanissara, Colombo, 1895) written by Mahanama of Anuradha- pura. This commentary is helpful in reading the text. It contains many additional data not found in the text. Readers are referred to the Mahawanse, ed. by Tumour, Ceylon, 1837, Maha- vamsa revised and edited by H. Sumangala Batu- 534 A History of Pali Literature wantudawe, Colombo, 1883, and Cambodjan Maha- vamsa by E. Hardy, J.R.A.S., 1902. There is a Sinhalese translation by Wijesinha, Colombo, 1889 (chapter and verse). It has long been ascertained that both Dipa- vamsa and Mahavamsa owe their Dipavamsa and origin to a common source — the paredy amsa e ° m ’ Atthakatha-Mahavamsa of the Mahavihara monastery, which, evi- dently was a sort of chronicle of the history of the island from very early times, and must have formed an introductory part of the old theological com- mentary (atthakatha) on the canonical writings of the Buddhists. Both Oldenberg and Geiger, the celebrated editors of the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa respectively, are of opinion that this Atthakatha- Mahavamsa was composed in Sinhalese prose, inter- spersed, no doubt with verse in the Pali language. This book (Mahavamsa-atthakatha) existed in various recensions in the different monasteries of the island, and the authors of both Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa borrowed the materials of their works from one or other of the various recensions of that Atthakatha. This borrowing presumably was independent, and quite in their own way ; but even then, in the main, they are nothing but two different versions of the same thing. But as the Dipavamsa had been composed at least one century and a half earlier than the Mahavamsa, it shows perhaps more faithfulness to the original, i.e., to the Attha- katha, for, as Oldenberg points out, that the “ author of the Dipavamsa borrowed not only the materials of his own work but also the mode of expression, and even whole lines, word for word, from the Atthakatha. In fact, a great part of the Dipavamsa has the appearance ijpt of an independent, continual work, but of a^composition of such single stanzas extracted from a work or works like the Atthakatha ’V But the author of Dlpavaihsa (Oldenberg), Introduction, p. 6. Pali Chronicles 535 the Mahavamsa is not so fettered in his style or execution. Coming as he did at least one century and a half later (i.e., the beginning of the 6th century A.D.) than the author of the Dlpavamsa •when the islanders had attained much more freedom in their learning and writing of the Pali language he evidently showed greater ease and skill in his use of the language, as well as in his style and composition, and finally, a more free and liberal use of the material of his original. It is well known that Mahanaman was the author of the Mahavamsa, whereas we are com- pletely in the dark as to the name of the author of the Dlpavamsa. A further proof of the fact that both the authors were indebted to a common source is provided by a very striking coincidence of the two narratives, namely, that both the chron- icles finish their accounts with the death of King Mahasena who flourished about the beginning of the 4th century A.D. It was not much later that the Dlpavamsa was composed, but as the Mahavamsa was composed still later, we might as well expect the bringing down of the narrative to a later date. But this was not the case, apparently for the fact that their common source, the Atthakatha-Maha- vamsa of the Mahavihara monastery, as shown by Oldenberg, was very intimately connected with King Mahasena with whose reign the glorious destinies of the monastery came practically to an end, and there the Atthakatha could only logically stop its account. 1 But the historical writers of the Mahavihara fraternity did not at once bring down their account to the reign of Mahasena. The Atthakatha-Maha- vamsa seems to have originally brought down its account only to the arrival of Mahinda in Ceylon ; but it was laffer on continued and brought down to the reign of Mahasena, where both the Dlpavamsa and the Mahavamsa as already noticed, came to an end. 1 Dlpavamsa (Oldenberg), Intro., p. 8. 13 536 A History of Pali Literature That the Dipavamsa was well known to the author of the Mahavamsa is evident from the very arrangement of the chapters and events of the narrative, so much so that the Mahavamsa seems to be more an explanatory commentary on the earlier chronicle. The account in the Dipavamsa is condensed, and the sequence of events and characters presents the form more of a list and catalogue than of any connected account. The Mahavamsa, on the other hand, is elaborate, more embellished, and seems rather to explain the cata- logue of events and characters of the earlier chronicle so as to give it the form of a connected narrative. Geiger rightly thinks in this connection that “ the quotation of the Mahavamsa of the ancients in the prooemium of our Mahavamsa refers precisely to the Dipavamsa ’V The well-known passage of the Culavamsa (38. 59) ** datva sahassam dipetum Dipavamsam samadisi” which Fleet translates as “ he (King Dhatusena) bestowed a thousand (pieces of gold) and gave orders to write a dipika on the Dipavamsa ” also lends support to this view, 1 2 for this Dipika, Fleet says, is identical with Mahavamsa. It is interesting to compare the more important chapters of the two chronicles to see how their subject-matters agree or differ. We have already indicated that their contents are almost identical ; in the Dipavamsa they are condensed, and in the Mahavamsa, elaborate. After an identical account of the race of Mahasammata, both the earlier and later chronicles proceed to give a more or less detailed account of the three Buddhist Councils. The account of the First Council is almost the same. Five hundred chosen bhikkhus assembled under the leadership of Mahakassapa in the Satta- panna cave at Rajagaha and composed the collec- tion of the Dhamma and the Vinaya. The Dipa- 1 Mahavamsa (Geiger), Intro. , p. xi. 2 Mahavamsa (Geiger), Intro., p. xi, where Geiger quotes Fleet. Pali Chronicles 537 vamsa mentions the fourth month after the Master’s death as the time at which the First Council was held. This was the second Vassa-month, i.e., Savana. This date is substantially confirmed by that pro- vided by the_ Mahavamsa which mentions the bright half of Asada, the fourth month of the year as the beginning of the Council. But as the first month was spent in preparations, the actual pro- ceedings did not begin till the month of Savana. The account of the Second Council too is sub- stantially the same. It was brought about by the dasa-vatthuni of the Vajjians of Vesalx, a relaxation of monastic discipline ; and 700 bhikkhus took part in the discussion of the Council. It was held in the 11th year of the reign of Kalasoka ; there is, however, a slight discrepancy about the locality where the Council was held. The Mahavamsa mentions the Valikarama, whereas the Dlpavainsa mentions the Kutagarasala of the Mahavana monastery as the place of the Council. The tradi- tion of a schism in the Second Council is also identical in the two chronicles. The Dlpavainsa states that the heretical monks held a separate Council called the Mahasamglti, and prepared a different redaction of the Scriptures. The tradition is also noticed in the Mahavamsa where it is related that they formed a separate sect under the name Mahasamghika. The account of the Third Council is also identical. It was held at Pataliputta under the presidency of Tissa Moggaliputta and lasted for nine months. The list of Indian kings before Asoka and pieces of historical account connected with them, the traditional date of the Buddha’s parinirvana, and the duration of reigns of individual Indian kings are always almost identical in both the chronicles. The story of the conversion of Ceylon, that of the coming of Vijaya and his consecration, the list and account of Ceylonese kings up to Devanam- piyatissa and that of the latter’s contemporaneity with King Dhammasoka, are for all practical purposes 538 A History of Pali Literature the same. But before the two chronicles take up the account of Mahinda’s coming to Ceylon, the Mahavamsa inserts a somewhat elaborate account of the converting of different countries under the efficient missionary organisation of Moggaliputta Thera. The Mahavamsa thus rightly stresses the fact that it was a part of the religious policy of the great thera that Mahinda came to Ceylon. Here again the accounts of the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa are identical ; then follow the identical accounts of Mahinda’s entry into the capital, his acceptance of the Mahavihara and that of the Cetiyapabbata-vihara, the arrival of the relics, the receiving and coming of the Bodhi tree, and the Nibbana of the Thera Mahinda. From Vijaya to Devanampiyatissa the tradition and traditional chronology are almost identical ; there is only a discrepancy about the date of Devanaihpiyatissa himself. The earlier chronicle states that King Devanampiyatissa was consecrated king in the 237th year after the Buddha’s death, whereas the Mahavamsa places it on the first day of the bright half of the ninth month, Maggasira (Oct. -Nov.), showing a discrepancy involved probably in the chronological arrangement itself. 1 The account of the kings from the death of Devanampiyatissa to Dutthagamani is also identical in the two chronicles. But the Mahavamsa is much more detailed and elaborate in its account of King Dutthagamani, giving as it does in separate chapters the topics of the birth of Prince Gamani, the levying of the warriors for the war of the two brothers, Gamani and Tissa, the victory of Duttha- gamani, the consecrating of the Maricavatti vihara, the consecrating of the Lohapasada, the obtaining of the wherewithal to build the Mahathupa, the beginning of the Mahathupa, the making of the relic-chamber for the Mahathupa, the enshrining of the relics and finally his death ; whereas the 1 See Mahavamsa (Geiger), Intro., pp. xxxi foil. Pali Chronicles 539 Dipavamsa touches, and that also in brief, the two accounts only in their main outline. The list and account of the later kings from Dutthagamani to Mahasena in the Dipavamsa are very brief. In the Mahavamsa, however, though the essential points and topics are the same, the accounts differ considerably in their detail which may be due to the more liberal use by the author of the original as well as of other historical and traditional sources than the Atthakatha-Mahavamsa. He might have also used those indigenous historical literature and tradition that might have grown up after the author of the Dipavamsa had laid aside his pen. This is apparent from a comparison of the respective accounts of any individual king, say, the last Kang Mahasena. Thus the Dipavamsa relates that while he was in search of really good and modest bhikkhus, he met some wicked bhikkhus ; and knowing them not he asked them the sense of Buddhism and the true doctrine. Those bhikkhus, for their own advantage, taught him that the true doctrine was a false doctrine. In consequence of his intercourse with those wicked persons, he per- formed evil as well as good deeds, and then died. The Mahavamsa account is otherwise. It gives the story of his consecration by Sanghamitta, the account of the vicissitudes of the Mahavihara, how it was left desolate for nine years, how a hostile party succeeded in obtaining the king’s sanction for destroying the monastery, why for this fault of the king the minister became a rebel, how the Maha- vihara was reconstructed and came to be again inhabited by bhikkhus, how an offence of the gravest kind was made against Thera Tissa and how he was expelled, how the king built the Manihlra-vihara, destroying the temples of some brahmanieal gods, and how he built many other aramas and viharas, and a number of tanks and canals for the good of his subjects. One such instance as just noticed is sufficient to explain the nature of the difference in the accounts 540 A History of Pali Literature of individual kings as given in the two chronicles. The duration of ruling years as given to individual kings is in most cases identical; there are only a few discrepancies, e.g., with regard to the reigns of Sena and Gutta, Lajjitissa (the Mahavamsa gives the name as Lanjatissa), Niliya, Tissa Yasalala, Abhaya, and Tissa. In the case of Sena and Gutta, the Dipavamsa gives the duration of rule as 12 years, whereas the Mahavamsa gives it as 22 years. The Dipavamsa gives 9 years 6 months to Lajjitissa, whereas the later chronicle gives 9 years 8 months. Niliya is given 3 months in the earlier chronicle, but in the later chronicle he is given 6 months. Tissa Yasalala is given 8 years 7 months, and 7 years and 8 months respectively ; and the order of rule of Abhaya and Tissa of the Dipavamsa is transposed in the Mahavamsa as Tissa and Abhaya, and Abhaya is given only 8 years in place of 22 as given by the Dipavamsa. In the early days of the study of the Ceylonese chronicles, scholars were sceptical The value of the about their value as sources of icies. authentic historical tradition and information. But now after lapse of years when the study of Indian and Ceylonese history has far advanced, it is now comparatively easy for us to estimate their real value. Like all chronicles, the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa contain germs of historical truth buried deep under a mesh of absurd fables and marvellous tales. But if they do contain mainly myths and marvels and read more like fantasies, they are like other chronicles of their time. This, however, should not be used as any argument for completely rejecting the chronicles as positively false and untrustworthy. It is, however, important that one should read them with a critical eye as all records of popular and ecclesiastical tradition deserve to be read. Buried in the illumination of myths, miracles, and legends, there are indeed germs which go to make up facts of history, but they can only Pali Chronicles 541 be gleaned by a very careful elimination of all mythical and unessential details which the pious sentiment of the believer gathered round the nucleus. “ If we pause ”, Geiger rightly says, “ first at internal evidence then the Ceylonese chronicles will assuredly at once win approval in that they at least wished to write the truth. Certainly the writers could not go beyond the ideas determined by their age and their social position, and beheld the events of a past time in the mirror of a one-sided tradition. But they certainly did not intend to deceive hearers or readers.” 1 The very fact that both Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa are based on the earlier Atthakatha- Mahavamsa, a sort of a chronicle which itself was based upon still earlier chronicles, ensures us in our belief that they contain real historical facts, for, with the Atthakatha, the tradition goes back several centuries, and becomes almost contemporary with the historical incidents narrated in the chronicle. Even in the very introductory chapters, there are statements which agree with other canonical writings, and find confirmation in our already known facts of history. Such are the statements that Bimbisara was a great friend of Buddha, and both Bimbisara and Ajatasattu were contem- poraries of the Master. There does not seem to be any ground for rejecting the tradition of the chronicles that Gotama was five years older than Bimbisara, though the duration of rule ascribed to each of them disagrees with that ascribed by the Puranas. But whatever that might be, there can hardly be any doubt as to the authenticity of the list of Indian kings from Bimbisara to Asoka provided by the chronicles. The Jain tradition has, no doubt, other names ,* “ this ”, as pointed out by Geiger, “does not affect the actual agree- ment. There can be no doubt that the nine Nandas as well as the two forerunners of Asoka, Candagutta 1 Mahavamsa — Geiger, Intro., p. xv. 542 A History of Pali Literature and Bindusara, were altogether historical person- ages.” But more than this is the complete agree- ment of the Ceylonese and Pauranic tradition in the duration of reign, namely 24, ascribed to Candagutta. The discrepancy of the two traditions in respect of regnal duration of Bindusara and Asoka, namely 3 years and 1 year respectively, is almost negligible. Still more interesting is the name of Canakka (Canakya), the brahmin minister of Canda- gutta, who was known to the authors of the Dlpa- vamsa and the Mahavamsa. So much with regard to the historical value of the Ceylonese chronicles in respect of Indian history. But more valuable are the chronicles with regard to the history of Ceylon. As regards the oldest period from Vijaya to Devanampiyatissa the chronicles are certainly untrustworthy to the extent that the duration of years ascribed to each reign seems incredible in view of the fact that they appear to be calculated according to a set scheme, and present certain insuperable difficulties of chronology with regard to one or two reigns, e.g., of King Pandukabhaya and Mutasiva. Moreover, the day of Vijaya’s arrival in Ceylon has been made to synchronise with the date of Buddha’s death, which itself is liable to create a distrust in our mind. But even in the first and the earliest period of Ceylonese history, there are certain elements of truth which can hardly be questioned. Thus there is no ground for doubting the authenticity of the list of kings from Vijaya to Devanampiyatissa ; nor is there any reason for rejecting the account of Pandukabhaya’s campaigns, as well as the detailed account of the reign of Devanampiyatissa, which seem decidedly to be historical. We have also sufficient reason to believe the contemporaneity and friendship of Tissa and Asoka who exchanged greetings of gifts between themselves. As for the period from Devanampiyatissa to Mahasena, the chronicles may safely but intelligently be utilised as of value. There are no doubt gaps in Pali Chronicles 543 the traditional chronology which have been care- lessly filled in, notably in the period from Deva- nampiyatissa to Dutthagamani, but after Duttha- gamani there is no such careless and fictitious filling in of gaps, nor any set-up system of chronology, and on the whole the fist of kings and their duration of reigns are credible. But even where the chrono- logy is doubtful, there is no ground whatsoever for doubting the kernel of historical truth that lies mixed up with mythical tales in respect of the account of each individual reign, say, for example, of the reign of Dutthagamani. It may, therefore, be safely asserted that the Ceylonese chronicles can be utilised, if not as an independent historical source, at least as a repository of historical tradition in which we can find important confirmatory evidence of our information with regard to early Indian and contemporary Ceylonese history. But the chronicles must be considered to be of more value for the ecclesiastical history not only of Ceylon but of India as well. With regard to this there are certain notices in the chronicles that have helped us to start with almost definite chronological points which are equally important in respect of the political history of the continent and its island. One such fixed point is provided by the chronicles where it has been stated that 218 years after the Sambuddha had passed into Nirvana when Asoka was consecrated. This corner stone has helped us to ascertain one of the most knotty and at the same time most useful starting points of Indian history, namely, the year of the Buddha’s parinirvana and his birth, which, according to the calculation based on the date just cited are 483 B.C. and 563 B.C, respectively. 1 Next in point of importance with regard to the history of Buddhism is the conversion of the island by Mahinda, who is represented in the chronicles as a son of Asoka. Historians have doubted the 1 See Mahavamsa (Geiger), Secs. 5 and 6. Introduction. 544 A History of Pali Literature tradition in view of the fact that there is no mention of it in the numerous edicts and inscriptions of Asoka. Geiger has very ably shown that this argument is at least an argumentum e silentio and can hardly be conclusive. The tradition of the chronicles is unanimously supported by the tradition of the country itself, and finds further confirmation in the account of Yuan Chwang who expressly states that the conversion of Ceylon was the work of Mahendra or Mahinda, who is, however, represented as a brother of Asoka. But it must not be understood that Ceylon was converted all on a sudden by Mahendra or Mahinda. Similar mission must have been sent earlier ; “ a hint that Mahinda’s mission was preceded by similar missions to Ceylon is to be found even in Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa when they relate that Asoka, sending to Devanariipiyatissa with presents for his second consecration as king, exhorted him to adhere to the doctrine of the Buddha.” 1 Geiger has also been able to find very striking confirmation of the history of the religious missions as related in the chronicles in the relic-inscriptions of the Sanchi stupa, No. 2. 2 He has thus pointed out that Majjhima who is named in the Mahavamsa as the teacher who converted the Himalaya region and Kassapagotta who appears as his companion in the Dipavamsa are also mentioned in one of the inscriptions just referred to as * pious Majjhima ’ and ‘ pious Kassapagotta, the teacher of the Himalaya In another inscription also Kassapa- gotta is mentioned as the teacher of the Himalaya. Dundubhissara who is also mentioned in the chronicles as one of the theras who won the Himalaya countries to Buddhism, is mentioned in another inscription as Dadabhisara along with Gotiputta (i.e., Kotiputta Kassapagotta). The thera, i.e., Moggaliputta Tissa, who is described in the chronicles 1 Mahavamsa, p. xix. Pali Chronicles 545 as having presided over the Third Buddhist Council, is also mentioned in another inscription as Mogali- putta. These facts are guarantee enough for care- fully utilising the chronicles as an important source of information for the early history of Buddhism. This would be far more evident when we would consider the accounts of the three Buddhist Councils as related in the two chronicles. The authenticity of the accounts of these Councils had during the early days of the study of the two chronicles often been doubted. But it is simply impossible to doubt that there must lie a kernel of historical truth at the bottom of these accounts. As to the First Council, both the northern and southern traditions agree as to the place and occasion and the President of the Council. As to the Second Council, both traditions agree as to the occasion and cause of the first schism in the Church, namely, the relaxa- tion of monastic discipline brought about by the Vajjian monks. As to the place of the Council, the northern tradition is uncertain, but the southern tradition is definite inasmuch as it states that it was held hi Vesali under King Kalasoka in 383/2 B.C. and led to the separation of the Mahasamghikas from the Thera vada. The Ceylonese tradition speaks of a Third Council at Patahputra in the year 247 B.C. under King Dhammasoka which led to the expulsion of certain disintegrating elements from the community. The northern tradition has, how- ever, no record of a Third Council, but that is no reason why we should doubt its authenticity. Geiger has successfully shown that the “ distinction between two separate Councils is in fact correct. The Northern Buddhists have mistakenly fused the two into one as they confounded the kings, Kalasoka and Dhammasoka, one with another. But traces of the right tradition are still preserved in the wavering uncertain statements as to the time and place of the Council.” 1 1 Mahavamsa (Geiger’s Tr.) r pp* lix-lx and. M* 546 A History of Pali Literature The succession of teachers from Upali to Mahinda as provided by the chronicles is also interesting from the view-point of the history of early Buddhism. The succession list which includes Upali, the great authority on Vinaya at the time of the Buddha, Dasaka, Sonaka, Siggava, Moggali- putta Tissa, and Mahinda, may not represent the whole truth, they even might not all be Vinaya- pamokkha, i.e., authorities on Vinaya ; but the list presents at least an aspect of truth, and is interesting, presenting, as it does, “ a continuous synchronological connexion between the history of Ceylon and that of India The list can thus be utilised for ascertaining the chronological arrange- ment of early Indian history as well as of the teachers of early Buddhism. The chronicles can still more profitably be utilised as a very faithful record of the origin and growth of the numerous religious establishments of Ceylon. They are so very elaborately described and the catalogue seems to be so complete that a careful study may enable us to frame out a history of the various kinds of religious and monastic establish- ments, e.g., stupas, viharas, cetiyas, etc., of Ceylon. Thus the history of the Mahavihara, the Abhavagiri vihara, the Thuparama, Mahameghavanarama, and of a host of others is recorded in elaborate detail. Incidentally they refer to the social and religious life led by the monks of the Order as well as by the lay people. It is easy to gather from the chronicles that the great architectural activity of the island began as early as the reign of Devanampiyatissa and continued unabated during each succeeding reign till the death of Mahasena. The numerous edifices, tanks, and canals whose ruins now cover the old capitals of the island were built during that period, and their history is unmistakably recorded in the chronicles. Religious ceremonies and pro- cessions are often vividly described, and they give us glimpses of the life and conditions of the time. Not less interesting is the fact, often times related Pali Chronicles 547 as a part of the account of these religious edifices, of very close intercourse with more or less important religious centres of India, namely, Rajagaha, Kosamhl, Vesall, Ujjeni, Puppliapura, Pallava, Alasanda (Alexandria), and other countries. Every important function was attended by brother monks and teachers from the main land to which the Ceylonese Icings and people turned for inspiration whenever any question of bringing and enshrining a relic arose. There are also incidental and stray references which are no less valuable. The Maha- vamsa informs us that King Mahasena built the Manihiravihara and founded three other viharas, destroying temples of the (brahmanical) gods. It shows that brahmanical temples existed side by side, and religious toleration was not always the practice. As for the internal political history and foreign political relations with South India, specially with the Damilas, the chronicles seem to preserve very faithful records. No less faithful is the geographical information of India and Ceylon as supported by them. But most of all, as we have hinted above, is the information contained in them, in respect of the history of Buddhism and Buddhist establish- ments of the island. There is hardly any reason to doubt the historicity of such information. The Culavamsa 1 is not an uniform and homo- geneous work. It is a series of u avainsa. additions to, and continuations of, the Mahavamsa. The Mahavamsa is the work of one man — Mahanama, who compiled the work during the reign of Dhatusena in the 6th century A.D. But the single parts of the Culavamsa are of different character, written by different authors at different times. The first who continued the chronicle was according to Sinhalese tradition the Thera Dham- 1 Edited by Dr. W. Geiger in two volumes for the P.T.S., London, translated into English by Geiger and Mrs. R. Rickmers, 1980. 548 A History of Pali Literature makitti. He came from Burma to Ceylon during the reign of King Parakkamabahu II in the 13th century A.D. Between the Chapters 37 and 79 no trace is found of the commencement of a new section. This part of the chronicle seems to be the work of the same author. So it is clear, if the Sinhalese tradition is authentic, their about three quarters of what we call the Culavamsa (pages 443 out of 592 pages of Geiger’s edition of the Culavamsa) were composed by Dhammaldtti. The second section of the Culavamsa begins with the reign of Vijayabahu II, the successor of Parakkamabahu I, and ends with that of Parak- kamabahu IV. Hence it follows, the second part of the Culavamsa consists of the Chapters from 80 to 90, both inclusive. The third portion begins with the Chapter 91 and ends with the Chapter 100. The Mahavamsa gives us a list of kings from Vijaya, the first crowned king of Ceylon, to Mahasena. Mahanama simply followed here his chief source, the Dipavamsa, which also ends with King Mahasena. The Culavamsa, however, begins with the reign of King Sirimeghavanna, son of Kang Mahasena, and ends with Sirivikkamarajasiha. The first section of the Culavamsa begins with Sirimeghavanna and ends with Parakkama- bahu I. Evidently this portion gives a chronological account of 78 kings of Ceylon. Altogether eighteen paricchedas are devoted to the glorification of the great national hero of the Sinhalese people, Parak- kamabahu I. Revd. R. S. Copleston has called this portion of the Culavamsa the “ epic of Parakkama ”. This king was noted for his charity. He not only made gifts of alms to the needy, but also to the bhikkhus. As a warrior this king also stands out pre-eminent. The Colas and Damilas came to Lanka from Southern India and occupied Anuradha- pura. Parakkama fought many battles with them and drove them out of the country and became Pali Chronicles 549 kin g of the united Lanka. He then espoused the cause of the Buddhist Sarngha. He built many great viharas and thupas. He also constructed many vapis and uyyanas. The second portion of the Culavamsa begins with Vijayabahu II and ends with Parakkama bahu IV. Thus it refers to 23 kings of Ceylon. The third section begins with Bhuvanekabahu III and ends with Kittisirirajasiha. Thus it refers to 24 kings. The last chapter gives a brief account of the last two kings, e.g., Sirirajadhirajaslha and Sirivik- kamarajasiha. There are in both the chronicles, the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa, interesting List of Pali tests references to Pali texts affording chronicles. very usetul materials lor the history of Pali literature as well as of early Buddhism in Ceylon. In the Dipavamsa references are not only made to Vinaya texts, the five collections of Sutta Pitaka, the three Pitakas, the five Nikayas (they are not separately mentioned), and the ninefold doctrine of the Teacher comprising the Sutta, Geyya, Veyyakarana, Gatha, Udana, Itivuttaka, Jataka, Abbhuta, and Vedalla, but also to the seven sections of the Abhidhamma, the Patisambhida, the Niddesa, the Pitaka of the Agamas and the different sections, namely, Vaggas, Pannasakas, Saihyuttas, and Nipatas into which the Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, and Anguttara Nikayas are respectively divided. Mention is also made separately of the two Vibhangas of Vinaya, namely, Pari vara and Khandhaka, the Cariyapitaka, the Vinaya Pitaka, the Patimokkha, and the Atthakatha. We find further mention of the Kathavatthu of the Abhi- dhamma, the Petavatthu, the Saecasamyutta, and the Vimanavatthu. Of Suttas and Suttantas separate mention is made of the Devaduta Sutta, Balapandita Suttanta, Aggikkhanda Suttanta, Asivisa Suttanta, Asivisupama Suttanta, Ana- 550 A History of Pali Literature mataggiya Sutta, Gomayapindaovada Suttanta, Dhammacakkapavattana Suttanta, and the Maka- samaya Suttanta. Index of Pali texts in the Dipavamsa Abhidhamma, 5, 37 ; 7, 58. Abbbuta, 4, 15. Aggikkhandha Suttanta, 14, 12. Anamataggiya Suttanta, 14, 45. Atthakatha, 20, 20. Agamas, 4, 12 ; 4, 16. Asivisa Suttanta, 14, 18. Asivisupama Suttanta, 14, 45. Itivuttaka, 4, 15. Udana, 4, 15. Kathavatthu, 7, 41 ; 7, 56. Khandhaka, 7, 43. Geyya, 4, 15. Gatha, 4, 15. Gomayapindaovada Suttanta, 14, 46. Cariyapitaka, 14, 45. Jataka, 4, 15 ; 5, 37. Dhutahga (precepts), 4, 3. Dhamma, 4, 4 ; 4, 6. Dbatuvada precepts, 5. 7. Dhammacakkapavattana Suttanta, 14, 48. Devaduta Sutta, 13, 7. Nipatas, 4, 16. Niddesa, 5, 37. Nikayas, 7, 43. Pitakas, 4, 32 ; 5, 71 ; 7, 30 ; 20, 20. Parivara, 5, 37 ; 7, 43. Pannasakas, 4, 16. Petavatthu, 12, 84. Patimokkha, 13, 55. Patisambhida, 5, 37. Vinaya, 4, 3 ; 4, 4 and 6 ; 7, 43. Veyyakarana, 4, 15. Vedalla, 4, 15. Yaggas, 4, 16. Pali Chronicles 551 Vimanavatthu, 12, 85. Balapandita Suttanta, 13, 13. Vinaya Pitaka, 18, 19 ; 18, 33 ; 18, 37. Vibhahgas, 7, 43. Mahasamaya Suttanta, 14, 53. Sutta, 4, 15 ; 4, 16. Sutta Pitaka (pancanikaye), 18, 19 ; 18, 33. Samyuttas, 4, 16. In the Mahavamsa too we find numerous mentions of Pali texts. But, curiously enough, refer- ences to independent texts are much less compre- hensive than that of the earlier chronicle; though mentions of Suttas and Suttantas mainly of the three Nikayas, the Ahguttara, the Majjhima, and the Samyutta, as well as of the Sutta Nipata and the Vinaya Pitaka are much more numerous. There are also several references to Jatakas. The three pitakas are often mentioned as important texts, but only the Abhidhamma and the Vinaya are mentioned by name, and that too only once or twice in each case. Index of Pali Texts in the Mahavamsa Abhidhamma Pitaka, 5, 150. Asivisupama Sutta (Ahguttara Nikaya), 12, 26. Anamatagga Samyutta (Samyutta Nikaya), 12, 31. Aggikkhandopama Sutta (Ahguttara), 12, 34. Kapi Jataka, 35, 31. Kalakarama Suttanta, 12, 39. Khajjaniya Suttanta (Samyutta N.), 15, 195. Khandhakas (Sections of the Mahavagga and Cullavagga of the Vinaya Pitaka), 36, 68. Gomayapindisutta (Sam. N.), 15, 197. Culahatthipadupama Suttanta (Majjhima N.), 14,22. Cittayamaka (Ref. Yamakappakarana of the Abhidhamma), 5, 146. Jataka (tales), 27, 34 ; 30, 88. Tipitaka, 4, 62 ; 5, 84 ; 5, 112 ; 5, 118 and 119 ; 5, '210; 27, 44. 552 A History of Pali Literature Tittira Jataka, 5, 264. Devaduta Suttanta (Majjhima N.), 12, 29. Dhammacakkapavattana-suttanta (Mahavagga of the V.P.), 12, 41 ; 15, 199. Balapandita Suttanta (Samyutta N,), 15, 4. Brahmajala Suttanta, 12, 51. Vessantara Jataka, 30, 88. Vinaya, 5, 151. Maha-narada-Kassapa Jataka, 12, 37. Mahappamada-suttanta (Samyutta N.), 16, 3. Mahgala Sutta (Sutta Nipata), 32, 43. Mahamangala Sutta (Sutta N.), 30, 83. Mahasamaya Suttanta (Dlgha Nikaya), 30, 83. Samacitta Sutta ( Samacitta vagga in the Duka Nipata of the Anguttara Nikaya), 14, 39. Sutta Pitaka, 5, 150. The Ceylonese chronicles incidentally refer to a large number of countries and Geographical ref- localities, important in the history lonese chronicies ey " of Buddhism, in India and Ceylon. Most of them come in for mention as a result of their association with the life and religion of the Buddha, or in connection with the historical interrelation, or the part played by them in the history of India and Ceylon. Most of these places and countries are already known from other, mainly Buddhist, sources, and few of them require any new identification. Even then, they add to our geographical knowledge, and not a few of the references are of more than passing usual interest. Such are, for example, the references to Alasanda in the city of the Yonas in the Mahavamsa, or to Yonaka in the Dlpavamsa in connection with the building of the Great Thupa, and the sending of Missions by Moggalliputta respectively. Alasanda, as is well known, is Alexandria in the land of the Yonas, probably the town founded by Alexander in the country of the Paropanisadae near Kabul. The chronicles refer in common to the following places and countries in India and Ceylon: Pali Chronicles 553 North and North-West India — Gandhara — modern Peshawar and Rawalpindi districts. Yona or Yonaka — The foreign settlements on the North-Western Frontier, perhaps identical with the Grseco-Bactrian kingdom. Anotatta laka — One of the seven great lakes in the Himalayas. Western India — Aparantaka — comprises modern Gujrat, Kathia- war and the sea-coast districts. Suppara (Dip) or Supparaka (Mah) — Surparaka (Sans), modern Sopara in the Thana district, north of Bombay. Maharattha — modern Maharastra. Mid-India and Eastern India — Kapilavatthu — the birth place of Gotaina, and capital of the Sakya tribe in Nepal. Kusavat! — identical with later Kusinara. Kusinara — a town of the clan of the Mallas in modern Nepal. Giribbaja — or Rajagriha, modern Rajgir in Bihar. Jetavana — a park and monastery near Savatthi in the Kosala country. Madhura — another name for Mathura, modern Muttra. UjjenI — now Ujjain in the Gwalior State ; old capital of Avanti. Uruvela — in ancient Buddha-Gaya in Gaya district. Kasi — modern Benares district. Isipatana — the famous deer park of Benares where Buddha first turned the Wheel of Law. Tamalitiya (Dip) or TamalittI (Mah) — Tamra- lipti, modern Tamluk in the district of Mdnapur, Bengal. 554 A History of Pali Literature Pataliputta — identical with modem Patna and the adjoining region. Pupphapura — Puspapura, identical with ancient Pataliputra. Baranasi — modern Benares. Mithila — modern Tirhut in Bihar. Rajagaha — modern Rajgir in Bihar. Vahga (Dip) or Vanga (Mah) — identical roughly with Eastern Bengal. Vesali — modem Basar in Muzaffarpur, north of Patna. The Deccan and South India — Vinjha (Dip), Vinjhatavi (Mah) — The Vindhya mountain with its dense forests. Damila — The Tamil country. Ceylon — Suvannabhumi — not in Ceylon, generally identi- fied with Lower Burma comprising the Rammannadesa. Malaya — Central mountain region in the interior of Ceylon. Abhayagiri — outside the north gate of Anu- radhapura. Dighavapi — probably the modern Kandiya- Kattu tank in the Eastern Province. Silakuta — northern peak of the Mihintala mountain. Jetavana — a park and monastery near Savatthi in the Kosala country. Kalyani — modem Kselani, the river that flows into the sea near Colombo. Cetiyapabbata — the later name of the Missaka mountain. Nandanavana — between Mahameghavana where the Mahavihara now stands and the southern wall of the city of Anuradhapura. Lanka is identified with the island of Ceylon. Missakagiri (Dip), — pabbata (Mah) — modem Mihintala mountain, east of Anuradhapura. Pali Chronicles 555 The Dipavamsa, however, exclusively mentions several countries and places which are not mentioned in the Mahavamsa. North and North-West India — Kurudipa — probably identical with Uttarakuru. Takkaslla — modem Taxila in the 1SL-W. frontier province. Sagala (reading doubtful) — modern Sialkot in the Punjab. Western India — Bharukaccha — modern Broach, an ancient sea- port in Kathiawar. Lalarattha — identical either with Lata in modern Gujerat or Radha in Bengal. Sihapura — capital city of Lata or Radha country. Mid-India and Eastern India — Anga — identical with modern Bhagalpur region in Bihar. Campa — modern Patharghata in the district of Bhagalpur. Magadha — a tribe dwelling in the territory now represented by modem Patna and Gaya districts in Bihar. Malla — a republican tribe of ancient Kuslnara and Pava. Vardhamanapura — Vardhamanabhukti of in- scriptions : modem Burdwan. Veluvana — the famous bamboo-garden monas- tery in Raj agriha, modern Rajgir. Vedissa — Vidisa, modern Bhilsa in the Gwalior State. Hatthipura — Hastinapura ( Sans ) — generally identified with an old town in Mawana Tahsil, Meerut. Indapatta — Indraprastha, near modern Delhi. 556 A History of Pali Literature It may be noticed in this connection that in the Dipavamsa, Ahga, Magadha, Vanga, andMalla are mentioned in the plural, not as Vanga in the singular as in the Mahavamsa. The tribal signi- ficance has been maintained in the Dipavamsa, whereas in the later chronicle it has been over- looked. Ceylon — Anuradhapura — ancient capital of Ceylon, now in ruins. Aritthapura — in North Central province, north of Habarana. Naggadipa — probably an island in the Arabian Sea. Tambapanni — most probably identical with the island of Ceylon. The Mahavamsa likewise refers exclusively to several countries and places not mentioned in the Dipavamsa. North and North-West India — Alasanda — Alexandria, the town founded by Alexander in the Paropanisadse country. Uttarakuru — a country north of Kasmira, mentioned in Vedic and Pauranic literature. Kasmira — modern Kashmir. Mid-India and Eastern India — Avanti — the region round modern Ujjain in Gwalior. Madda — the country lay between the Ravi and the Chenab, roughly identical with the country round the modem district of Sialkot. Mahavana — a monastery in the ancient Vajji country mentioned also by Fa-Hien. Dakkhinagiri vihara — a vihara in Ujjeni. Payaga — modem Allahabad. Pava — a republican state inhabited by the Mallas. Pali Chronicles 557 Kosambi — modern Kosam in Allahabad, on the Jumna, capital of the Vatsas. South India and the Deccan — Cola — the ancient Chola country whose capital was Kanehipviram, modern Conjeeveram. Mahisamandala — identical with Mandhata island on the Narbada, ancient capital — Mahismatx, a district south of the Vindhya. Vanavasin — modern Vanavasi in north Kanara, preserves the older name. Ceylon — Akasa Cetiya — situated on the summit of a rock not very far from the Cittalapabbata monastery. Kadamba nadi — modern Malwatte-oya by the ruins of Anuradhapura (Kadambaka nadi in the Dipavamsa). Karinda nadi — modern Kirindu-oya in the Southern province where must be located the Panjali-pabbata. Kala Vapi — built by Dhatusena by banking up the river Kalu-oya or Gona nadi. Gambhira nadi — 7 or S miles north of Anu- radhapura. Gona nadi — modern Kalu-oya river. Jetavanarama near Abhayagiri dagoba in Anuradhapura. Tissamahavihara — in South Ceylon, north-east of Hambantota. Tissavapi — a tank near Mahagama. Thuparama — a monastery in Anuradhapura. Pathama Cetiya — outside the eastern gate of Anuradhapura. Manihira — now Minneriya, a tank near Pulon- naruwa. Mahaganga — identical with Mahaweeliganga river. Mahatittha— identical with modern Mantota opposite the island of Manaar. 558 A History of Pali Literature Mahameghavana — south of the capital Anu- radhapura. Dvaramandala — near Cetiyapabbata (Mihintale), east of Anuradhapura. Pulinda — a barbarous tribe dwelling in the country inland between Colombo, Kalutara, Galle and the mountains (Geiger-Mahavamsa, p. 60, Note 5). Ambatthala — immediately below the Mihintale mountain. Besides these, there are many other references to countries and places of Ceylon of lesser importance. They have all been noticed and identified in Geiger’s edition of the Mahavamsa to which we are indebted for the identification of places in Ceylon noticed above. The Buddhaghosuppatti deals with the life Buddhaghosup- and career of Buddhaghosa, the patti. famous commentator, less authentic than the account contained in the Culavamsa. It gives us an account of Buddhaghosa’s boyhood, his admission to the priesthood, his father’s conversion, voyage to Ceylon, Buddhaghosa as a witness, per- mission to translate scriptures, his object attained, return to India, and his passing away. The book is written in an easy language. It is more or less a historical romance. As to the historical value of this work readers are referred to my work, ‘ The Life and Work of Buddhaghosa ’ (Ch. II, pp. 43-44). The Buddhaghosuppatti has been edited by James Grey and published by Messrs. Luzac & Co., London. Grey has also translated the book into English. The stories in the Milinda Panha, the Mahavamsa and the Buddhaghosuppatti are so similar that one doubts it very much that the author of this work borrowed the incidents from the Milinda Panha and the Mahavamsa and grafted them on to his own. A critical study of the Buddhaghosuppatti does not help us much in elucidating the history of Pali Chronicles 559 Buddhaghosa. The author had little authentic knowledge of the great commentator. He only collected the legends which centred round the remarkable man by the time when his work was written. Those legends are mostly valueless from the strict historical point of view. Grey truly says in his introduction to the Buddhaghosuppatti that the work reads like an Arthurian Romance ”. The accounts given by the Buddhaghosuppatti about the birth, early life, conversion, etc., of Buddhaghosa bear a great similarity to those of Milinda and Moggaliputta Tissa. In the interview which took place between Buddhaghosa and Buddha- datta, the latter is said to have told Buddhaghosa thus, “ I went before you to compile Buddha’s word. I am old, have not long to live and shall not, therefore, be able to accomplish my purpose. You carry out the work satisfactorily ”. In Buddhadatta’ s Vinayaviniechaya we read 1 that Buddhadatta requested Buddhaghosa to send i him the commentaries when finished that he might j summarise them. This request was complied with i by Buddhaghosa. Buddhadatta summarised the i commentary on the Abhidhamma in the Abhidham- j mavatara and the commentary on the Vinaya in j the Vinayaviniechaya. The above statement in I the Vinayaviniechaya which is more authoritative than the Buddhaghosuppatti is in direct contra- diction to the statement in the latter book. The author has made a mistake in the sixth chapter of the Buddhaghosuppatti in which it is stated that Buddhaghosa rendered the Buddhist scriptures into Magadh!. In the seventh chapter of the same book we read that after the lapse of three months when he completed his task, the works of Mahinda were piled up and burnt. Buddhaghosa translated the Sinhalese commentaries into Magadh! and not the texts themselves. Had it been so there would not have been any occasion for burning the works of Mahinda. On the other hand they would have been carefully preserved as the only reliable and 560 A History of Pali Literature authentic interpretation of the sacred texts. It has been distinctly stated in the Mahavamsa that the texts only existed in the Jambudipa and Buddhaghosa was sent to Ceylon to translate the Sinhalese commentaries into Magadhi. If the tradition recorded in the Mahavamsa is to be believed, then only we can get an explanation for the destruction of Mahinda’s works. The Saddhammasamgaha is a collection of Saddhaimnasam- good sayings and teachings of the gaiia. Master. There are prose and poetry portions in it. It consists of nine chapters. It was written by Dhammakityabhidhana Thera. It has been edited by Nedimale Saddhananda for the P.T.S., London. The Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Ahguttara, and Khuddaka Nikayas are mentioned in it. The books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka are referred to in this work. There are references in it to the Vajjiputtakas of Vesall and Yasa’s stay in the Kutagarasala in the Mahavana. It is mentioned in this book that Moggaliputta Tissa recited the Kathavatthu in order to refute the doctrines of others. This treatise contains an account of the missionaries sent to various places to establish the Buddha’s religion. Thera Majjhantika was sent to Kashmir and Gandhara, Mahadeva Thera to Mahisamandala, Rakkhita Thera to VanavasI, Yonaka-Dhammarakkhita Thera to Aparantaka, Mahadhammarakkhita Thera to Maharattha, Maha- rakkhita Thera to the Yonaka region, Majjhima Thera to the Himalayan region, Sonaka and Uttara to Suvannabhumi, and Mahinda Thera to Lanka with four other theras, Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala, and Bhaddasala. Besides, there is a reference to the Buddha preaching his Dhamma to the inhabitants of the city of Campaka (Campakanagaravasinam). The Sandesa-Katha has been edited by Minayeff „ , „ in J.P.T.S., 1885. It is written mostly m prose* It dilates on many points, e.g., the composition of Abhidhammat- thasamgaha by Thera Anuruddha, the composition Pali Chronicles 561 of a commentary known as the Abhidhammat- thavibhavini by Thera Sumangalasami, etc. It refers to many kingdoms, e.g., Suvannabhumi, Ramanna, Jayavaddhana, Ayuddhaya, Kamboja, Sivi, Cina, etc. The Mahabodhivamsa has been edited by . Mr. Strong for the P.T.S., London. This work was written by Upatissa (Upatissatheravarena viracito). The Sinhalese edition by Upatissa and revised by Sarandada, Colombo, 1891, deserves mention. There is a Sinhalese translation of this work in twelve chapters. Prof. Geiger says that the date of the composition of the Mahabodhivamsa is the 10th century A.D. (Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, p. 79). According to some it was composed within the last quarter of the 4th century A.D. Strong points out in the preface to his edition of the Mahabodhivamsa that the author has treated his subject with freedom and prolixity. Most of the events in the early history of Buddhism pass under the shadow of the Bo-tree. The author has borrowed largely from the sources as well as from the actual text of the Mahavamsa, but there is abundant evidence that he employed other materials as well. This work contains discourses on the attainment of bodhi (enlightenment), the attainment of bodhi by Ananda, passing away of the Buddha who was endowed with ten potentialities, the first three Buddhist convocations (sangiti), landing of Mahinda at Lanka, accepting Mahavihara and Cetiyagiri, things wor- shipped by the Buddhas, advent of Duminda, etc. The following manuscripts of the Mahabodhi- vamsa are available : — (1) A manuscript on paper in the Sinhalese character in possession of the P.T.S., England. (2) A palm-leaf manuscript in L the Sinhalese character in possession of the P.T.S., England. (3) A palm-leaf manuscript in the Sinhalese character in the librarv of the British Museum. 562 A History of Pali Literature (4) A palm-leaf manuscript in the Burmese character in the Library of the India Office. The Thupavamsa contains an account of the _ . thupas or dagobas built over the upavamsa. re }j cs 0 f the Buddha. Readers’ attention is invited to a paper on this book by Don Martino de Zilva Wickremasinghe (J.R.A.S., 1898). Tins work has not yet been edited by the P.T.S., London. A Sinhalese edition of this work is available (ed. by Dhammaratana, Paeliyagoda. 1896). In the Thupavamsa we are told that the Thera Moggaliputta Tissa sent theras Historical aiiu- (elders) to different parts of India vanjsa. for the propagation of the Buddhist faith. He sent Majjhantikathera to Kasmira and Gandhara, Mahadevathera to Mahimsakamandala, Rakkhitathera to Vanavasi, Yonaka-dhammarakkhitathera to Aparantaka, Mahadhammarakkhitathera to Maharattha, Maha- rakkhitathera to Yonakaloka, Majjhimathera to Himavanta, Sonathera and Uttarathera to Suvannabhumi, and Mahinda and four other theras to Tamba-Pannidipa. It may be added here that the Thera Mahinda and the Ther! Sahghamitta, son and daughter respectively of Asoka, were instrumen- tal in propagating Buddhism in Ceylon. The Maha- vamsa also states the same thing, and it further says that Moggaliputta Tissathera was a contem- porary of Asoka and that he presided over the Buddhist Council which was held under the patronage of this great monarch. It appears from both the Mahavamsa and the Thupavamsa that the Thera Moggaliputta Tissa sent these theras to different parts of India at his own initiative. There is no mention of Asoka having taken any part in this acti- vity, though such an important event occurred during his time and in his own kingdom mainly. But in his Rock Edict XIII, Asoka says that he Pali Chronicles 563 despatched ambassadors to countries in and outside India. He further says in his Rock Edict II that he provided for the distribution of medicines in different countries. In both the Edicts Asoka mentions Ceylon (Tambraparni). But how to reconcile these two accounts which we find in the Mahavamsa and the Thupavamsa on the one hand and the lithic records of Asoka on the other ? Dr. Geiger in his introduction to his translation of the Mahavamsa (pp. xvi-xx) says that before Mahinda relations existed between continental India and Ceylon and efforts were made to transplant the Buddhist doctrine to Ceylon. But with Mahinda this process came to a successful end. Besides, Mahinda’ s mission was preceded by similar missions to Ceylon. The Dlpavamsa and the Mahavamsa relate that Asoka, sending to Devanampiyatissa with presents for his second consecration as king, exhorted him to adhere to the doctrine of the Buddha. The history of the missions as related in ' Dlpavamsa, Mahavamsa, and Thupavamsa receives most striking confirmation in the inscriptions. The names of the theras Majjhima and Kassapagotto (who appears as Majjhima’s companion in the Dlpavamsa) occur in the Bhilsa Topes (Sanchi . group and Sonari group) as teachers of the Himalayas. The name of Moggaliputta Tissa also occurs in the Sanchi group. Further, according to Griinwedel, the transplanting of a branch of the sacred Bodhi- tree from Uruvela to Ceylon is represented in the East Gate of the Sanchi Topes. Dr. Geiger has successfully proved the trust- worthiness of the Ceylonese chronicles. He in an ingenious and convincing way has shown that the two accounts, which we find in the inscriptions of Asoka and the Ceylonese chronicles, are not un- trustworthy. Asoka strove to propagate Buddhism in and outside India. Moggaliputta Tissathera also played an important part in spreading Buddhism in countries within India. The conversion of 564 A History of Pali Literature Ceylon was achieved by Mahinda and his followers, who were despatched by Moggaliputta Tissathera, and also by Mahinda’s sister Sahghamitta. It is thus clear from what Geiger says that there were two separate attempts to propagate Buddhism in the time of Asoka. The first attempt was made by the king himself who sent ambassadors to countries both in and outside India. The second attempt was made by Moggaliputta Tissathera, the then head of the Buddhist Church, after the Third Council was over. But this attempt was confined to India only. That the success of Buddhism both in India and outside countries was largely due to the support it got from kings like Bimbisara, Pasenadi, Asoka, Kanishka, and Harshavardhan and also from the Pala kings of Bengal, nobody can dispute. If it did not receive royal patronage, it would have surely met the same fate as Jainism did. Taking this important fact into consideration, we shall not be unjustified to say that Asoka must have lent ungrudging help to Moggaliputta Tissathera. From what has been stated above and from the grounds which we will state below it will not be unreasonable to say that there were no two separate attempts, but a single attempt for the propagation of the Buddhist Faith, and that in this attempt both Asoka and Moggaliputta Tissathera played important parts. But why the names of Asoka and Moggaliputta Tissathera are absent respectively from the Ceylonese chronicles and the inscriptions of Asoka ? In a general way Asoka says that he sent ambassadors, who were undoubtedly Buddhist monks, to different countries. He does not even make mention of his own son and daughter who did great service to the cause of Buddhism. He must have sent ambassadors in collaboration until the leading theras of the time. It will be unjust to accuse such a great king like Asoka that he intentionally out of self-complacency and self- conceit did not mention Moggaliputta Tissathera Pali Chronicles 565 and other leading theras. But such is not the case with the authors of the Ceylonese chronicles. They have intentionally excluded the name of Asoka, and thereby have enhanced the position of the Buddhist Samgha, and the prestige of its leaders. There is no lack of fables and tales in the chronicles. There are also statements which are untenable. But these are meant for the glorification of the Buddha, His Dhamma, and His Samgha only. Tamalitti, a harbour in the region at the mouth of the Ganges, now Tamluk. At Ge °f)at > a hlCal Tamalitti the Chinese pilgrim Fa- Hien embarked for Ceylon in the beginning of the 5th century A.D. Oandhdra comprises the districts of Peshawar and Rawalpindi in the northern Punjab. Kasmira is the modern Kashmir. Mahimsakamandala is generally taken as the modern Mysore. Fleet takes it as the territory of Mahisha of which the capital was Mahismatl. Agreeing with Pargiter he places this capital on the island of the Narbada river, now called Mandhata. Mahimsakamandala is, therefore, a district south of the Vindhya mountains. Vanavdsi — The Vanavasakas or Vanavasins are mentioned in the Mahabharata and Harivarhsa, as a people dwelling in Southern India. There is also a modern town Vanavasi in North Kanara which seems to have preserved the old name. Apardntaka, the western ends, comprising the territory of Northern Gujarat, Kathiawar, Kachcha, and Sind. Maharattha, the country of the Marathas. Yonaloka — The Yonas are also mentioned together with the Kambojas, in the Rock Edicts V and XIII of Asoka. V. Smith says that they must mean the clans of foreign race (not necessarily Greek) on the north-western frontier, included in the Empire of Asoka. Suvannabhumi — The general opinion is that Suvannabhumi is lower Burma with adjacent 566 A History of Pali Literature districts. Fleet says that it might be the country in Bengal called Karnasuvarna, or else the country along the river Son, a river in Central India, and tributary of the Ganges on its right bank, which is called Hiranyavaha ‘ the gold bearer ’. Vedisa is the modern Bhilsa in Gwalior State, situated 26 miles north-east of Bhopal. Rdmagama — The Koliyas of Ramagama were a tribe related to the Sakiyas. The river Rohini flowed between the territories of the Koliyas and Sakyas. In the Sumangalavilasinl the capital of the Koliyas is called Vyagghapajja. Pdvd was the capital of the Mallas. Missaka Pabbata, now the mountain Mihintale, 8 miles to the east of Anuradhapura, is also called the Cetiyapabbata. The text of the Thupavamsa may be con- veniently divided into three main Three, chapters chapters. The first chapter com- their resume. prises the previous births OI the Buddha. The second chapter deals with the life of the Buddha from his birth to the attainment of his Mahaparinibbana and also the distribution of the bodily relics of the Buddha by the brahmin Dona and the building of a great thupa at the south-eastern part of Rajagaha by Ajatasattu of Magadha at the instance of the Thera Mahakassapa in which the bodily relics of the Buddha from Vesall, Kapilavatthu, Allakappa, Vethadipa, Pava, Kuslnara, and Rajagaha were deposited. The third or the last chapter treats of the later history of the relics. The author justifies his composition of the „ . _ Thupavamsa in Pali, when there are already two other versions of the same text, one in the Sinhalese language and the other in the Magadhi, by saying that the Sinhalese version is not conducive to the good of all, and that the Magadhi version is full of con- tradictory words and that it is not exhaustive. The author goes to explain what is meant by a Pali Chronicles 567 thupa. He says that there are four kinds of persons who are worthy of thupas : Tathagato, Paceeka- Buddha, Tathagata-savako, and Raja-cakkavattl. A thupa is a cetiya in which the relics of any one of the above four have been deposited. As for example, the Kancanamalika Mahathupo contains the relies of Gotama Buddha who has fulfilled the thirty paramitas, attained the supreme knowledge, set rolling the wheel of law, and performed other duties and won the anupadisesa-nibbana. The author then gives a detailed account of the Buddhas who appeared in this earth for the salvation of mankind. He speaks of the Buddhas who pre- ceded Gotama Buddha and the thupas that were erected in honour of them. He then sums up the life of Gotama Buddha in a masterly way and gives a detailed account of the thupas, that were erected over the relics of Gotama Buddha, with their later history. We shall now deal with the story of Sumedha Tapasa who was born as the Bodhisatta several times during the period in which the twenty-four Buddhas appeared in this earth for the welfare of the worldly beings and who himself appeared in this earth as the 25th Buddha, called Gotama Buddha. In the time of the Buddha Dlpankara, the brahmin Sumedha lived in the city of AmaravatL He was versed in the Brahmanical lore. He lost his parents in his boyhood. When he came of age he inherited a vast fortune. But knowing that the world is full of miseries and that money is the source of misery, he made up his mind to distribute his wealth among the needy. One day he gave away his wealth to the poor and left the world and dwelt in the Himavanta. Meanwhile the Buddha Dlpankara came to Rammanagara and the inhabitants of the city invited the Blessed One and his followers to take their meal at a certain place highly decorated for the purpose. The people began repairing the road 15 568 A History of Pali Literature connecting the proposed place and the Vihara in which the Lord dwelt. Sumedha heard the news and offered his service. He was given a muddy place to cleanse. Before the place was cleansed the Buddha with his followers reached the place. Sumedha at once fell flat on the muddy place with the determined desire to become a Buddha in a later birth and the Buddha and his followers crossed the muddy place treading over his body. The Blessed One while crossing the muddy place over Sumedha’s body predicted that Sumedha would surely become Gotama Buddha in future. The Buddha Dipankara went to the place where he had been invited, took his meal, and exhorted all to do good deeds and went away. The Blessed One attained anupadisesanibbana in the Nandarama and the people raised a great thupa. In the time of the Buddha Kondahna, the Bodhisatta was born as a great king named Vijitavf. He made immense gifts to the Bhikkhu Samgha with the Buddha at its head. The Lord predicted that the Bodhisatta was destined to become Gotama Buddha in future. When the king heard the Buddha preaching he made up his mind to renounce the worldly life. He did leave the world. He performed many meritorious acts and was born in the Brahmaloka. The Buddha attained Parinib- bana in the delightful Candarama and a cetiya, measuring 7 yojanas in extent, was raised by the people. In the time of the Buddha Mangala, the Bodhi- satta was born as a brahmin named Suruci. He invited the Buddha to his house for seven days and heard the Blessed One preaching. The Lord pre- dicted that the Bodhisatta would become Gotama Buddha in future. When the Bodhisatta heard this prediction, he left the worldly life and adopted the life of a monk. In due course he was born in the Brahmaloka. The Buddha won Parinibbana in due course and the people raised a great thupa. In the time of the Buddha Sumana, the Great Pali Chronicles 569 Being was born as a Naga king named Atula. He invited the Buddha and his followers to his house and served them with dainty dishes. The Lord predicted that he would be the Buddha Gotama in future. The Blessed One attained Parinibbana in due course and a thupa was raised. In the time of the Buddha Revata, the Bodhi- satta was born as a brahmin named Atideva. He heard the Buddha preaching and was established in the silas. The Blessed One predicted that he would be Gotama Buddha in future. In the time of the Buddha Sobhita, the Bodhi- satta was born as a brahmana named Ajita. He heard the Buddha preaching and was established in the silas. The Lord predicted that he would be the Buddha Gotama in future. In the time of the Buddha Anomadassi, the Bodhisatta was born as a Yakkhasenapati. He made immense gifts to the Bhikkhu Samgha with the Buddha at its head. The Buddha predicted that he was destined to be the Buddha Gotama. In the time of the Buddha Paduma, the Bodhi- satta was born as a lion who for seven days without going out in search of food saw the Buddha engaged in the Mrodha-samapatti. The Blessed One predicted that the lion would be born as the Buddha Gotama in future. In the time of Buddha Narada, the Bodhisatta renounced the worldly life and invited the Buddha and his followers to a sumptuous feast. The Buddha predicted that he would be the Buddha Gotama in future. In the time of the Buddha Padumuttaro, the Bodhisatta was born as a great king named Jatila. He made immense gifts to the Buddha and his followers. The Buddha predicted that he would be the Buddha Gotama in future. In the time of the Buddha Sumedha, the Bodhisatta was born as a youth named Manavo possessing immense riches. He distributed his wealth and made immense gifts to the Buddha 570 A History of Pali Literature and his followers and heard the Buddha preaching and was established in the saranas or refuges. The Buddha predicted that he would be the Buddha Gotama in the near future. In the time of the Buddha Sujata, the Bodhisatta was born as a great king. He heard the preaching of the Buddha and distributed in charity his riches to the Buddha and his Samgha. He renounced the world and always made great gifts. The Buddha predicted that he would be the Buddha Gotama in future. In the time of the Buddha PiyadassI, the Bodhisatta was bom as a youth named Kassapa. He mastered the three Vedas. Once he heard the discourses of the Buddha and distributed his immense riches. He was established in the sflas and saranas. The Buddha predicted that he would be the Buddha Gotama in future. In the time of the Buddha AtthadassI, the Bodhisatta was born as a great ascetic named Susima. He heard the religious discourses of the Buddha and worshipped the lord with great honour. The Blessed One predicted that Susima was destined to become a Buddha in future. In the time of the Buddha Dhammadassi, the Bodhisatta was born as Sakka, the king of gods. He worshipped the lord with great honour. The Blessed One predicted that he would be a Buddha in future. In the time of the Buddha Siddhattha, the Bodhisatta was born as a great ascetic named Mangala. He picked up jambu fruits and offered them to the Buddha. The Blessed One predicted that he would be the Buddha Gotama in future. In the time of the Buddha Tissa, the Bodhisatta was born as a Khattiya of great fame and wealth. He renounced the worldly life. He worshipped the Buddha with great honour. The Blessed One predicted that he would be a Buddha in future. In the time of the Buddha Phussa, the Bodhi- satta was bom as a Khattiya king named Vijitavl. Pali Chronicles 571 He gave up the worldly life, learnt the three pitakas, and performed the silas and paramitas. The Buddha predicted that he was destined to be a Buddha in future. In the time of the Buddha Vipassi,the Bodhisatta was horn as a Naga king named Atula. He made a gift to the Buddha of the great golden throne adorned with seven kinds of gems. The Blessed One predicted that he would become a Buddha in future. In the time of the Buddha Sikhi, the Bodhisatta was horn as a king named Arindamo. He made immense gifts to the Bhikkhu Samgha with the Buddha at its head. The Blessed One predicted that he would be a Buddha in future. In the time of the Buddha Vessabhu, the Bodhisatta was born as King Sudassana. He made immense gifts to the Buddha and his Samgha. The Blessed One predicted that Sudassana would be born as Buddha in future. In the time of the Buddha Kakusandha, the Bodhisatta was bom as King Khema. He made immense gifts to the Buddha and his Bhikkhu Samgha, heard the discourses of the Buddha, and gave up the worldly life. The great teacher predicted that he should be a Buddha in future. In the time of the Buddha Konagamana, the Bodhisatta was born as a lung named Pabbata. He accompanied by his ministers went to the teacher and heard the Master preaching. He made many gifts by way of charity to the Bhikkhu Samgha with the Buddha at its head. Afterwards he received ordination from the Buddha, The Blessed One predicted that the King Pabbata would be a Buddha in future. In the time of the Buddha Kassapa, the Bodhi- satta was born as a youth named Jotipala. He was well versed in the three Vedas. He with Ghatikara went to the place where the Buddha was. He heard the Master preaching. He took pabbajja and learnt the three pitakas. The teacher predicted that he was destined to be a Buddha. 572 A History of Pali Literature The Buddha Gotama having passed through successive births during the period ap er ' in which the twenty-four Buddhas beginning with Dipankara appeared in this earth was born as King Vessantara having performed the Paramitas. He was then born in the Tusita heaven. He was entreated by the Devatas to be born among men in order to work out their salvation. The Buddha consented to their proposal and observing the time, the island, the country, the family, and the extent of lifetime of her who will bear him, he was born in the Sakya family. He was bred and brought up in luxury. On four occasions while going out to enjoy in the gardens he saw an old man, a diseased person, a dead man, and a samana respectively. Seeing the miseries of the world he was bent upon renouncing the world. He left the world leaving behind his wife and only son. On the bank of the Anoma he cut off his hairs and wore the robes of a monk forsaking his royal garments. He first went to Alava and Uddaka and being unsatisfied with their discourses went to the river Neranjara and sat at the foot of the Bodhi tree meditating. He was fully enlightened. He became the Buddha. Being entreated by Brahma to preach the doctrine he evolved, he went to Benares and preached the doctrine there to the Pancavaggiya bhikkhus. Thousands of men and women gradually became his followers. The Blessed One attained Mahaparinibbana at Kuslnagara in the Upavattana of the Mallas. The body was wrapped up with corded cotton and new cloth and was kept in an iron trough containing oil and was covered with another iron trough. Pour Malla chiefs followed by others tried to light up the coffin but failed in their attempt. It was then told by Anuruddha that the coffin could not be lighted before the Thera Mahakassapa, who with his followers was on the way to Kuslnara from Pava, would arrive at the place and pay his obeisance to the Lord. In due course the thera arrived. Fire was set to the Pali Chronicles 573 coffin. When the body was burnt and the fire extinguished, the bones from the coffin were taken out to be distributed. The claimants for the bodily relics of the great teacher were the Mafias of Kusinara, King Ajatasattu of Magadha, the Licchavis of Vesali, the Sakya rulers of Kapilavatthu, the Bulis of Allakappa, the Koliyas of Ramagama, a brahmana of Vethadipaka, and the Mafias of Pava. At first the Mafias of Kusinara were unwilling to part with any portion of the relics. A strife became imminent. But the brahmin Dona by an impressive speech succeeded in bringing about reconciliation among those present. The relics were divided into eight equal portions. The Brahmana Dona kept for himself the teeth of the Master without telling others about it. But Sakka, the king of gods, stole the teeth and brought the same to the heaven of gods. When Dona, after distributing the relics, did not find the teeth, he took the bowl in which the relics were originally kept. The Moriyas of Pipphalivana who came late had to content them- selves with the ashes only. Eight great thupas were built over the relics of the Buddha at the following places : Rajagaha, Vesali, Kapilavatthu, Allakappa, Ramagama, Vetha- dipa, Pava, and Kusinara. But the relics which were deposited at Ramagama were taken and kept by the Nagas with great care and honour. These relics (of Ramagama) were afterwards taken to Ceylon. At the suggestion of the Thera Mahakassapa King Ajatasattu collected the bodily relics of the Buddha from Vesali, Kapilavatthu, Allakappa, Vethadipa, Pava, and Kusinara and deposited them together with the relics at Rajagaha under a great thupa at the south-eastern part of Rajagaha. At the time of Asoka, eighty-four thousand Chapter III. cetiyas were built over the relics of the Buddha. We shall now proceed to give a detailed account of the same. King Bindusara had one hundred 574 A History of Pali Literature sons. At the time when Bindusara was ill, Asoka, who was Governor of TJjjenl, hurried to Rajagaha, the capital of the Magadha kingdom, to usurp the throne. Bindusara died and Asoka having killed all his brothers except Tissa Kumara took possession of the royal throne. But Asoka’s consecration took place four years after. At first Asoka was not a patron of the Buddhists. He like his father support- ed the brahmins and other sects. One day he noticed the improper conduct of them while taking meals. He became highly dissatisfied with them. Thenceforth he began to feed the Buddhist monks and became their great patron. One day the king saw his nephew Nigrodha Samanera, son of Sumana, who was Asoka’s elder brother, passing through the royal courtyards. The king was highly satisfied with Nigrodha’s calm demeanour. The king sent his minister for the Samanera. When Nigrodha came, the king received him with great honour. The Samanera admonished the king by reciting the Appamadavagga of the Dhammapada. The king with his followers was established in the three saranas and five silas. Throughout his kingdom he built 84,000 viharas in 84,000 cities. He found out the relics that were deposited in the south-eastern part of Rajagaha by King Ajatasattu and deposited them in the 84,000 viharas that he built. He further became a ‘ dayada 5 of the Dhamma by allowing his son Mahinda and his daughter Sanghamitta to become members of the Buddhist Samgha. Meanwhile the Thera Moggaliputta Tissa in order to propagate the Buddha’s Dhamma sent Majjhantikathera to Kasmira and Gandhara, Mahadevathera to Mahimsakamandala, Rakkhita- thera to Vanavasi, Yonakadhammarakkhitathera to Aparantaka, Mahadhammarakkhitathera to Maharattha, Maharakkhitathera to Yonakalokam, Majjhimathera to the Himavantadesa, the theras Sona and Uttara to Suvannabhumi, and the theras Mahinda, Ittiya, Uttiya, and Bhaddasala to the Pali Chronicles 575 Tambapannidlpa. All tbe theras succeeded in their mission. The Thera Mahinda together with his companions went to Ceylon when Devanampiyatissa was ruling there. King Devanampiyatissa was a great friend of Asoka, though the two had never seen each other. The Ceylonese king knowing that the theras were disciples of the Buddha received them with great honour. The people of Ceylon together with their king became followers of the Buddha. Many were established in the saranas. The king with his 500 wives was established in the first stage of sanctification when they heard the Thera Mahinda preaching the Vimaiiavatthu, Petavatthu, and Saccasamyutta. When the thera preached the Devaduta Suttanta to the masses, they were also placed in the first stage of sanctification. At the request of the Thera Mahinda the King Devanampiyatissa sent the Samanera Sumana to King Asoka in order to have relics so that he could build a thupa. Sumana went to Pataliputta and got from King Asoka relics contained in the bowl used by the Buddha. He then saw Sakka, the king of gods, and got from him the Buddha’s right eye. Sumana came back to Lanka with the relics. The relics were received by Devanampiyatissa with great care and honour. A great vihara was built and the right eye of the Buddha was placed in it. Anuladevi, Devanampiyatissa’ s brother’s wife, became desirous of receiving pabbajja. At the suggestion of the Thera Mahinda, Devanampiyatissa sent his nephew Arittha to Asoka in order to bring a branch of the Bodhi tree to Ceylon and also to bring the Therl Sanghamitta who would give pabbaj ja- to Anula. King Asoka received Arittha with great honour when the latter came to Pataliputta. The king readily consented to send a branch of the Bodhi tree and the Theri Sanghamitta to Ceylon. In course of time Arittha came back to Ceylon with the branch and Sanghamitta. The branch was transplanted at Anuradhapura with great honour. Anuladevi with five hundred young ladies received 576 A History of Pali Literature the pabbajja ordination from the then Sanghamitta. They gradually attained arahatship. The great King Devanampiyatissa built thupas throughout Tambapannidlpa at the interval of a yojana. Devanampiyatissa was followed by a succession of rulers : Uttiya, Mahasiva, and Suratissa. But Suratissa was defeated by the Damilas who usurped the throne of Lanka for some time. But the Damilas were overpowered by Asela, a son of Mutasiva. But a Damila named Elara came over to Lanka from the Chola country, defeated and killed Asela and became king of Ceylon. Elara, however, could not rule for long, for he was killed and defeated by King Dutthagamani. King Devanampiyatissa’s second brother was Uparaja Mahanaga. The king’s wife desiring that her son should be king, tried every means to put an end to Mahahaga’ s life. Mahanaga accompanied by his wife and followers fled to Rohana and thence to Mahagama and began to rule there. His wife bore him two sons, Yatthalatissa and Tissa. After Mahanaga’s death Yatthalatissa ruled over Maha- gama. After Yatthalatissa’s death his son Gotha- bhaya became king. Gothabhaya was succeeded by Kakavannatissa who had two sons, Gamini Abhaya and Tissa. The country was under the yoke of the Damilas. Dutthagamani, when he came of age, expressed his desire to fight with the Damilas. But his father did not permit him to do so out of affection. But Dutthagamani became very turbulent and repeat- edly expressed his desire to free the country from the yoke of the Damilas. He fled from Mahagama as he was angry with his father. He was accordingly called Dutthagamani. After the death of Kakavannatissa, Tissa, who was then at Dxghavapi, came to Mahagama and performed his duties to the departed soul. He being afraid of his brother came back to Dlghavapi with his mother and the elephant Kandula. Dutthagamani Pali Chronicles 577 came back to Mahagama and became king. On his accession to the throne he sent messengers to his brother demanding his mother and the elephant. Tissa refused to accede to the demand. The two brothers met in the battle-field. Dutthagamani was defeated in the battle. Dutthagamani again marched with a huge army against his brother. This time he came out successful. The theras of the island brought about reconciliation between the two brothers. Dutthagamani then decided to drive the Damilas out of the island. He marched with a mighty army against the Damilas. He first went to Mahiyangana and inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Damilas and built the Kancuka thupa at Mahiyangana. The past history of this thupa may be told here. At the time of the Buddha’s visit to Lanka at the ninth month of His Enlighten- ment, Sumana, the Lord of gods, got from the Buddha his (the Blessed One’s) hairs as relics to worship. A thupa was raised 7 cubits in height over the relics at Mahiyangana, the place which the Buddha visited. After the Buddha’s Mahaparinibbana, Sarabhu, Sariputta’s disciple, came to Lanka with the collar- bone of the Buddha and deposited it in the same cetiya which was made 12 cubits in height. Deva- nampiyatissa’s brother Culabhaya made the cetiya 30 cubits in height and Dutthagamani after defeating the Damilas made the cetiya 80 cubits high. Dutthagamani succeeded in defeating and killing the thirty-two Damila kings, the greatest of them being Elara, and thus freed the country from the foreign domination. He then became the undisputed ruler of the country. He rewarded those who served him in his enterprise against the Damilas. He then devoted himself to promote the weal and happiness of his subjects and the interests of the Buddhist Samgha. The king built the Maricavatti- vihara over the spear with the relic, with which he marched against the Damilas and routed them. The vihara was dedicated to the Buddhist Samgha. 578 A History of Pali Literature Dutthagamani then made known his desire to build the great thupa, the splendid Sovannamali, a hundred and twenty cubits in height, and an uposatha house, the Lohapasada, making it nine storeys high. The Lohapasada was built after the design of the Palace of the gods. There were one thousand chambers in the pasada. On the pillars were figures of lions, tigers, and shapes of devatas. Some Jataka-tales were also fitly placed here and there. When the vihara w r as finished, the king dedicated the same to the Buddhist Samgha. Dutthagamani then resolved to build the Mahathupa without oppressing the people by levying taxes from them. He was very anxious how to get the materials to build the great thupa. But the gods came to his rescue. He was provided with all the materials by the gods. The building of the Mahathupa was begun on the full-moon day of the month Vesakha. The foundation stone of the Great Cetiya was laid with great care and magni- ficence in presence of the bhikkhus who assembled there from different parts of Jambudipa. In the relic-chamber the king placed a Bodlii tree, made up of jewels. Over it a beautiful canopy was raised. The figures of the sun, moon, and stars and different lotus-flowers, made up of jewels, were fastened to the canopy. In the relic-chamber were depicted the setting in motion of the wheel of the doctrine by the Buddha, the preaching in the heaven of gods, the Mahasamaya Suttanta, the exhortation to Rahula, the Mahamangalasutta, the distribution of the relics by Dona, and many other scenes con- nected with the life of the Buddha. One of the eight donas of the bodily relics of the Buddha, which was adored by the Koliyas of Ramagama and which was taken thence to the Naga kingdom, was brought to Lanka to be deposited in the Mahathupa. The relics were then enshrined with great honour. But before the making of the chatta and the plaster-work on the cetiya was finished, Duttha- Pali Chronicles 579 Hafctfaavanagalla - vihara-vamsa. gamani fell seriously ill. The king sent for his younger brother Tissa from Dighavapi and told him to complete the work of the thupa that was left unfinished. Lying on a palanquin the king passed round the cetiya and paid his homage to it. He bade the scribe read aloud the book of meri- torious deeds. It is stated that the king built 99 viharas of which the Maricavatti-vihara, the Loha- pasada, and the Mahathupa were his greatest works. The great king passed into the Tusita heaven. The HatthavanagaUa-vihara-vamsa or the history of the temple of Attanagalla consists of eleven chapters written in simple Pali. Eight chapters deal with an account of King Siri-Samghabodhi and the last three chapters deal with the erection of various monumental and religious edifices on the spot where the king spent his last days. It reads like an historical novel. J. D’Alwis’ English transla- tion with notes and annotations deserves mention. Dr. G. P. Malalasekera has undertaken to prepare an edition and English translation of this work in the Indian Historical Quarterly. There is an edition of this work published in Colombo, 1909, under the title, “ Attanagalu-vihara-vamsaya The Dathavamsa or the Dantadhatuvamsa _ . means an account of the tooth- Dathavamsa. » ,, ^ ^ . relic oi the Buddha Gautama. Vamsa means chronicle, history, tradition, etc. Literally it means lineage, dynasty, etc. The Dathavamsa is a quasi-religious historical record written with the intention of edifying and at the same time giving an interesting story of the past. This work is noteworthy because it shows us Pali as a medium of epic poetry. The work was written by Mahathera Dham- makitti of the city of Pulatti. He was a disciple ot Sariputta, the author of the Saratthadipani-tika, Saratthamanjusa- tika, Ratanapancika-tika on the Candravyakarana and the Vinayasangraha. He was well versed in 580 A History of Pali Literature Date of Composi- tion. Sanskrit, Magadhibhasa, tarkasastra (logic), vyakarana (grammar), kavya (poetry), agama (reli- gious literature), etc. He was fortunate enough to secure the post of a Rajaguru. Two vamsas of the Pali Buddhist literature, the Sasanavaiiisa and the Gandhavamsa, tell us that it was he who com- posed the Dathavamsa (P.T.S. Ed., p. 34 and J.P.T.S., 1886, p. 62). We know from the Datha- vamsa that originally it was written by the poets in the Sinhalese language and later on rendered into Magadhibhasa by Dhammakitti for the benefit of the people of the other countries at the request of Parakkamo, the Commander-in-chief of Ceylon, who placed Lilavati on the vacant throne of Ceylon. This Lilavati, later on, became the queen of Para- kramabahu, the king of Ceylon. (Verses 4-10.) The Dathavamsa was written in the Buddha era 845 during the reign of King Kittisirimeghavanna of Ceylon. Kern says that it is also known as Daladavamsa composed about 310 A.D. It was translated into Pali in A.D. 1200 under the title of Dathavamsa (Manual of Indian Buddhism, p. 89). The Dathavamsa is an important contribution to the history of Pali Buddhist mpor anee. literature. It is an historical record of the incidents connected with the tooth-relic of the Buddha. It is as important as the Mahavamsa and the Dipavamsa. The history of Ceylon would be incomplete without it. The Dathavamsa is a specimen of fine poetry. St le It contains Pali and some debased ye ‘ Sinhalese words. Its vocabulary is rich. Kern rightly remarks that it belongs to the class of compendiums and contains repetitions of passages from more ancient works with more or less apocryphal additions (Manual of Indian Buddhism, p. 9). In the first chapter, stanzas are written in jagatichanda. Sixty stanzas are written in vamsastha vritta and the last two in sragdhara vritta ; in the second chapter, stanzas are written Pali Chronicles 581 in anustupachanda in pathyavaktra vritta and in mandakranta vritta ; in the third chapter, the stanzas are written in tristhupaehanda in upajata, indra- vajra, upendravajra, and sikharini vrittas ; in the fourth chapter, stanzas are written in atisakvarl- chanda in naalinl, saddulavikridita vrittas ; and in the last chapter, stanzas are written in sakvarxchanda in vasantatilaka and sragdhara vrittas. The Dathavamsa gives an account of the tooth- „ . . . . . relic of the Buddha which is said u jee -ma e . £ 0 bave been brought to Ceylon by Dantakumara, prince of Kalinga, from Dantapura, the capital of Kalinga. It consists of five chapters, a brief summary of which is given below. Chapter I. While the Buddha Dipankara was coming to the city of Rammavatl at the invitation of the people of the city, a hermit named Sumedha showed his devotion by laying himself down on the muddy road which the Buddha was to cross. The Buddha walked over his body with his disciples. Sumedha prayed to the Buddha Dipankara that he might be a Buddha himself in future. Dipankara granted him the boon whereupon he set himself in all earnestness, to fulfil the ten paramitas (perfections). The hermit was in heaven prior to his last birth. At the instance of the gods, he was reborn in Kapilavastu in the family of Suddho- dana and in the womb of Mahamaya. As soon as he was reborn, he stood up and looked round and was worshipped by men and gods. He went seven steps northwards. He was named Siddhattha- kumara. Three palaces, suitable for the three seasons of the year, were built for him. While going to the garden, he saw an old man, a diseased man, a dead man, and a hermit. He then made up his mind to renounce the worldly life. With the help of the gods he left the palace and reached the river Anoma and on the banks of the river, he cut off his hair and threw it upwards to the sky. Indra got the hair and built a caitya over it which is still known as Culamani Caitya. A potter brought a 582 A History of Pali Literature yellow robe, a beggar’s bowl, etc., for him. He put on the yellow robe and left for Rajagaha. Thence he went to Uruvela and made strenuous efforts for six years to acquire bodhi (enlightenment). In the evening of the full-moon day of Vaisakh, he went to the foot of the Bodhi tree and sat on a seat made of straw and defeated Mara’s army. In the last watch of the night he acquired supreme knowledge. After the attainment of bodhi, he spent a week, seated on the same seat at the foot of the Bo-tree, enjoying the bliss of emancipation. He spent another week, looking at the Bodhi tree with stead- fast eyes. Another week was spent by him at a place called Ratanaghara near the Bodhi tree, meditating upon paticcasamuppada (dependent origination). He then went to the foot of the Ajapalanigrodha tree where he spent a week in meditation. He went to Mucalinda nagabhavana where he was saved by the naga from hailstorm. He then visited the Rajayatana. Thence he started for Isipatanamigadava to preach his first sermon known as Dhammacakkapavattana, but on the way two merchants, Tapussa and Bhallika, offered him madhupindika (a kind of food prepared with honey and molasses). The Buddha placed them in two refuges. He then reached Isipatana on the full- moon day of the month of Asadha. He preached the Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta to the first band of five disciples headed by Annakondanna. Chapter II. The Buddha was thinking of doing good to the world. Nine months after his attain- ment of bodhi, the Buddha made an aerial voyage to Lanka to fulfil his mission and descended on the garden named Mahanagavana. Then he went to the meeting of the yakkhas and terrified them by creating storm, darkness, and heavy rains. The yakkhas having been greatly troubled by these, came to the Buddha and asked for protection. In the midst of the meeting he sat down on a seat of leather but by his miraculous power he made the seat very hot and owing to the excessive heat Pali Chronicles 583 radiating from the seat, the yakkhas became very much distressed and the leather expanded so as to cover the whole of the island of Lanka and the yakkhas gathered together on the coast, unable to bear the excessive heat. The Giridipa which was full of shady trees, was brought close to the island of Lanka by the Buddha and the yakkhas, to save themselves from the extreme heat, went into the Giridipa which was again set on its former site and thus the island of Lanka was rid of the yakkhas. As soon as the yakkhas left the island of Lanka, he stopped his miracle and many a god came to the island and surrounded him. The Buddha preached to the devas Dhamma and gave one of his hairs to God Sumana who built a caitya over it on the top of the Sumanakuta Hill and worshipped it. Then the Buddha returned to Jetavana. Again he went to Lanka five years after his enlightenment and pacified the contest between Culodara and Mahodara for a jewelled throne. Again he came to the island of Lanka eight years after his enlighten- ment being invited by a naga named Maniakkhika. The Buddha with five hundred disciples went to the house of Maniakkhika in Kalyanl. A caitya built over the seat offered by Maniakkhika and used and left by the Buddha, was worshipped by the nagas there. This caitya was named Kalyanl Caitya. The Buddha then visited the Sumanakuta Hill and left his footprints there. Thence he went to Dlghavapi where he sat in meditation for some time. Thence he visited the site of the Bodhi tree at Anuradhapura where also he sat in meditation for some time. Thence he visited the Thuparama and finished his work in Ceylon. He preached Dhamma for forty-five years and obtained parinib- bana on the full-moon day of the month of Vaisakha in the garden named Upavattana of the Mafia kings near Kuslnara. In the first watch of the night of his parinibbana, he preached Dhamma to the Mafias, in the middle watch he made Subhadda an arahat, and in the last watch he instructed the bhikkhus to i6 Sitsii mmmm si s;sss 584 A History of Pali Literature, be ardent and strenuous. Early in the morning he rose up from meditation and passed away. Many miracles were seen after his parinibbana, e.g., the earth quaked from end to end, celestial music was played, all trees became adorned with flowers, though it was not the time for flowers to bloom. The body of the Buddha was wrapped up in new clothes and cotton, five hundred times. It was put into a golden pot, full of oil. A funeral pyre was prepared with scented wood such as sandal, twenty cubits in height, and the Malla chiefs put the oil-pot in the pyre. As Mahakassapa did not arrive, fire could not be kindled because it was desired by the gods that the Buddha’s body must not be burnt before Mahakassapa had worshipped it. As soon as Mahakassapa came and worshipped the dead body of the Buddha, fire was kindled. The dead body was so completely burnt as to leave no ashes or charcoal. Only the bones of the Buddha of the colour of pearl and gold remained. On account of the Buddha’s desire the bones became separated excepting the four bones of the head, two collar- bones, and teeth. Sarabhu, a disciple of Sariputta, went to Mahiahgana in Ceylon taking with him one of the collar-bones of the Buddha and built a caitya. An arahat named Khema took a left tooth-relic of the Buddha and over the remaining bone-relics, kings of eight countries began to quarrel. Dona settled the dispute and divided the bones equally among the eight countries. The kings after having received the relics, took them to their respective kingdoms, built caityas over them, and worshipped them. 1 One tooth-relic taken by Khema w r as given to Brahmadatta, king of Kalinga, who built a caitya over it and worshipped it. Brahmadatta’s son, Kasxraja, succeeded his father and worshipped, like his dead father, the caitya built over the tooth- relic of the Buddha. Kaslraja’s son, Sunanda, succeeded him and did the same. Sunanda’s son, Guhaslva, succeeded him to the throne and did the same. GuhasJva’s minister, who was a false believer, Pali Chronicles 585 asked the king whether there was anything super- natural in the tooth-relic of the Buddha which the king worshipped and for which valuable offerings were given by him. The king then narrated the various qualities of the tooth-relic which showed miracles when prayed for. The minister gave up his false belief and became a follower of the Buddha. The heretics seeing this became very much dis- satisfied. Guhaslva ordered all the niganthas to be driven out of the kingdom. The niganthas went to King Pandu of Pataliputta, who was then a very powerful king of Jambudlpa. They complained to Pandu that King Guhaslva being a king sub- ordinate to him (Pandu) worshipped the bone of a dead person (that is, Buddha’s relic) without worshipping Brahma, Siva, and others whom he (Pandu) worshipped and they further complained that Guhaslva ridiculed the deities worshipped by him (Pandu). Hearing this King Pandu grew angry and sent one of Ms subordinate kings called Cittayana with a fourfold army to arrest and bring Guhaslva with the tooth-relic. Cittayana informed Guhaslva of his mission and Guhaslva welcomed him cordially, showed him the tooth-relic of the Buddha, and narrated to him the virtues possessed by it. Citta- yana became very much pleased with him and became a follower of the Buddha. Chapter III. Cittayana then informed Guhaslva of the order of King Pandu. Guhaslva with the tooth-relic on his head, followed by a large number of followers with valuable presents for King Pandu, went to Pataliputta. The niganthas requested Kang Pandu not to offer any seat to Guhaslva, and they also requested him to set fire to the tooth- relic. A big pit of burning charcoal was dug by the king’s command and the heretics after taking away the tooth-relic, threw it into the fire. As soon as it came in contact with fire, fire became as cool as the winter breeze and a lotus blossomed in the fire and in the midst of the lotus, the tooth- relic was placed. Seeing this wonder, many heretics 586 A History of Pali Literature gave up false beliefs, but the king himself being a false believer for a long time, could not give up false belief and ordered the tooth-relic to be destroyed by stone, which found its place in the sky. The niganthas asked the lung not to attach great importance to the miracles as they were not un- precedented. The tooth-relic was put in a casket and the niganthas were asked to take it out and throw it away, but none could do so. The king declared that he who would be able to take out the tooth-relic, would be rewarded. Anatha- pindika’s great grandson recollecting the virtues of the Buddha and the deeds done by his great grand- father for the Buddha, was very much pleased to know of the declaration and went to take the tooth-relic out of the casket. He praised the tooth-relic much and then the tooth-relie rose up to the sky and then came down to rest on the head of the great grandson of Anathapindika. The niganthas told King Pandu that due to the influence of Anathapindika’s great grandson the tooth-relic could rise up to the sky and come down to rest on the head of the great grandson. The niganthas denied the influence of the tooth-relic which displayed various miracles according to the desire of Anatha- pindika’s great grandson. The tooth-relic was thrown into a moat. Cittayana advised the king that he should follow Dhamma of the Buddha because by worshipping the tooth-relic, Bimbisara and other kings attained nirvana. Thus advised he gave up false belief and brought the tooth-relic with great pomp. King Guhaslva was cordially received by King Pandu and both of them did many meritorious deeds. Chapter IV. A king named Khiradhara came to fight with King Pandu who became victorious. Pandu after re-establishing peace in his kingdom, sent back Guhaslva with Buddha’s tooth-relic to Kalinga. Dantakumara, son of the king of Ujjain, came to Kalinga to worship the tooth-relic. Guhaslva cordially welcomed him and became pleased to Pali Chronicles 587 hear the qualities of Dantakumara and afterwards gave his daughter in marriage to Dantakumara. After the defeat of Dantakumara, Iris sons and nephews came to Malayavana, a town near Danta- pura, to take away the tooth-relie by force. Fully realising the danger, Guhasiva asked his son-in-law and daughter to go to Ceylon with the tooth-relic. As the king of Ceylon and his subjects were faithful to the Buddha, he thought Ceylon would be the best and safest place for the relic. At this time Mahasena, a friend of Guhasiva, was the king of Ceylon. The son-in-law and the daughter with the relic sailed by a merchant ship from the port of Tambralipti. The ship reached Ceylon safely with the relic. !’ Chapter V. Dantakumara and his wife with the relic went to a village near the eastern gate of Anuradhapura in the ninth year of the reign of Kittisirimegha, son of Mahadisena. Dantakumara met an arahat and informed him of the tooth-relic which he brought to Ceylon for its safety. The arahat after hearing this, went to the king and informed him of the matter. Mahadisena, the pre- ceding king of Ceylon, was a friend of Guhasiva, king of Kahnga, who did not know that Mahadisena had died and his son, Kittisirimegha, was on the throne of Ceylon. Dantakumara and his wife became very much grieved to know that Mahadisena was no more and his son Kittisirimegha had succeeded him on the throne. The king of Ceylon after learning from the arahat that the tooth-relic was brought to Ceylon for its safety by Dantakumara and his wife, became very much pleased. The king and the queen of Ceylon went barefooted to Meghagiri- vihara, residence of the arahat, to receive the relic. They brought the relic to the palace and placed it on the throne with great devotion. The citizens of Ceylon, the bhikkhus well- versed in the Tripitakas, and the arahats came to worship it. The king knew that the colour of the relic was as white as the morning star. But finding it not to be so 588 A History of Pali Literature when it was taken out of the casket, suspicion arose in the mind of the king, but his suspicion was soon removed when the relic displayed several miracles. The king built a special temple and kept it there. All the Sinhalese monks and house- holders assembled at Anuradhapura to worship the tooth-relic. At this time a question arose as to the section of the monks to whom the tooth-relic would be entrusted for its safety and management. The king decided that the tooth-relic would select its own abode. The tooth-relic placed on a fully decorated elephant was taken round the city and was brought to the place where the Thera Mahinda preached his first sermon after reaching Ceylon. The king of Ceylon ruled that the relic would be taken round the city once in a year in spring. The temple where it was kept, was extended at the cost of nine lacs. After the death of Kittisirimeglia, his successors such as Buddhadasa worshipped it ■with devotion and protected it. 1 The Cha-kesa-dhatu-vamsa has been edited by Minayeff of St. Petersburg in Cha 'v e at s f Stu ' J.P.T.S., 1885. It is a work by a modern Burmese author of unknown date. It is a mixture of prose and poetry. The language is simple and the diction noteworthy. It contains an account of the thupas raised by Sakka, Pajjunna, Manimekhala, Addhikanavika, Varuna- 1 The Datiiavamsa has been edited in Devanagarl character and translated into English by Dr. B. C. Law and published by Messrs. Motilal Banarsidas, proprietors of the Punjab Sanskrit Book Depot, Lahore. Besides, there are two Sinhalese editions (by Terunnanse and Silalahkara), and a P.T.S. (London) edition published in 1884 in J.P.T.S. There is another English translation of this work by Mutu Coomaraswami, published by Messrs. Triibner and Co., London. A French version of this work appeared in Paris in 1884 under the name “ Le Dathavaruja ; ou, Histoire de la dent relique du Buddha Gotama: poeme epique pali de Dhammakitti \ There is a commentary on the Dathavarhsa known as the Datha- dhatuvamsatika mentioned in an inscription of the 15th century A.D. Vide also G. Tumour — Account of the Tooth-Relic of Ceylon (J.A.S.B. vi.). Pali Chronicles 589 nagaraja, and Sattanavika over the hair relies of the Buddha. The Gandhavamsa has been edited by Minayeff. „ „ . His edition is based on Burmese Gandhavamsa. manuscripts< ft is a gmaU and interesting outline of the history of Pali books. It is written mostly in prose. Besides the books of the canon, there is contained in it a sketch of the history of more modern Pali works far more detailed than that in the Sasanavamsa. A list of authors and their works as stated in the Gandhavamsa is given below : — Mahakaccayana : — Kaccayanagandho, Maha- niruttigandho, Cullaniruttigandho, Nettigandho, Petakopadesagandho, Vannanitigandho. Buddhaghosa : — Visuddhimaggo, Sumangala- vilasini, Papancasudani, Saratthapakasini, Mano- rathapuran!, Samantapasadika, Paramatthakatha, Kankhavitarani, Dhammapadatthakatha, Jata- katthakatha, Khuddakapathatthakatha, Apada- natthakatha. '"Buddhadatta : — Vinayavinicchayo, Uttaravi- nicchayo, Abhidhammavataro, Madhuratthavilasini. Ananda : — Mulatikam. ^ Dhammapala : — Nettipakaranatthakatha, Iti- vuttaka-atthakatha, Udanatthakatha, Cariya- pitaka-atthakatha, Theragathatthakatha, Vimana- vatthussa Vimalavilasin! nama atthakatha, Petavatthussa Vimalavilasin! nama atthakatha, Paramatthaman j usa, Dighanikayatthakathadxnam catunnam atthakathanam Linatthapakasin! nama tlka, J atakatthakathaya Linatthapakasin! nama tika, Paramatthadipani, Linatthavannana. Mahava j irabuddhi : — Vinay agandhi. Vimalabuddhi : — Mukhamattadlpani. Cullavajiro : — Atthabyakkhyanam. Dxpamkaro : — Rupasiddhipakaraxiam, Rupa- siddhitikam Summapancasuttam. Culladhammapalo i Saccasamkhepam. Kassapo : — Mohavicchedani, VimaticchedanI, Buddha varixsa, Anagatavamsa. 590 A History of Pali Literature Mahanama : — Saddhammapakasani, Maha- varhsa, Cullavamsam. Upasena : — Saddhammatthitikam. Moggallana : — Moggallanabyakaranam. Samgharakkhita : — Subodh alamkaram. Vuttodayakara : — Vuttodaya, Sambandhacinta, Navatikaiii. Dhammasiri : — Khuddasikkham. Anuruddha : — Kbuddasikkham. Auuruddha : — Paramatthavinicchayam, Nama- rupaparicehedam, Abhidhammatthasamgahapa- karanam. Kbema : — Khemam. Sariputta : — Saratthadipanl, Vinayasamgaha- pakaranam, Saratthamanjusam, Paricakam. Buddhanaga : — Vinayatthamanjusam. Navo Moggallana Abhidhanappadipikam. Vacissaro : — Sambanclhacintatlka, Moggallana- byakaranassatika, N amarupaparicchedatika, Padarupavibhavanam, Khemapakaranassatika, Mulasikkhayatlka, Vuttodaya' vivaranam, Suman- galapasadanf, Balavataro, Yogavinicehayo, Sima- lankara, Ruparupavibhaga, Paccayasamgaho. Sumangala : — Abhidhammatthavikasanf, Abhi- dhammattha-Vibhavani. Dhammakitti : — Dantadhatupakaranam. Medbaibkaro : — Jinacaritam. Saddbammasiri : — Saddatthabhedacinta. Devo : — Sumanakutavannana. Cullabuddhaghoso : — Jatattagfnidanam, Sotat- taglnidanam. Ratthapala : — Madhurasavahinl. Aggavamsa : — Saddanltipakaranam. Vimalabuddhi : — Mahatikam. Uttama : — Balavataratikam, Lingatthaviva- ranatikam. Kyaevaranno : — Saddabindu, Paramatthabindu- pakaranam. Saddbammaguru : — Saddavuttipakasanam. Aggapandita : — Lokuppatti. Saddhammajotip ala : — Slmalamkarassatika, . Pali Chronicles 591 Matikatthadipaiii, Vinayasamutthanadlpanf, Gan- dhasaro, Patthanaganananayo, Samkliepa- vannana, Suttaniddeso, Patimokkhavisodhan!. Nava Vimalabuddhi : — Abhidhammaparmara- satthanam. V epullabuddhi : — Saddasarattha j aliniyatika, Vuttodayatika, Paramatthamanjusa, Dasagandhi- vannana, Magadhabhutavidaggara, Vidadhimukkha- mandanatika. Ariyavamsa : — Manis ar am an j usaiii, Manidipaiii, Gandabiiaranarii, Mahanissaram, Jatakavisodhanam. Clvaro : — Jangliadasassa tfkarii. Nava medhamkaro : — Lokadipakasaram. Sariputto : — Saddavuttipakasakassatlkam. Saddhammaguru : — Saddavuttipakasanam. Dhammasenapati : — Karikam, Etimasamidi- pakam, and Manoharam. N anasagaro : — Liiigattlia vi varanapakasanarii . Abhaya : — Saddatthabbedacintaya mahatikam. Gunasagaro : — Muklxamattasaram tat-tlkam. Subliutaeandana : — Lingattha vi varanap a k a r a - naiii. Udumbaranamacariyo : — Pe ta kopadesassa tlkam. Upatissacariya : — Anagatavamsassa atthakatba. Buddbapiya : — Saratthasamgabanamagandho. Dhammanandacariya : — Kaccayanas aro , Kaccayanabhedam, and Kaccayanasarassatlka. Gandhacaxiyo : — Kurundigandha. Nagxtacariya : — Baddasax'atthaj alini. Works of unknown authors mentioned in the Gandhavamsa are stated below : — Mahapaecariyam, Puranatika, Mulasikkhattka, Lfnatthapakasinl, Nisandeho, Dhammanusaranx, Neyyasandati, Neyyasandatiya tika, Sumahavataro, Lokapannattipakaranam,Tathagatupattipakaranain, Nalatadhatuvarmana, Sihalavatthu, Dhammadi- pako, Patipattisaihgaho, Visuddhimaggagandhi, Abhidhammagandhi, Nettipakaranagandhi, Visud- 592 A History of Pali Literature dhimaggacullanavatika, Sotappamalini, Pasada- janani, Subodhalankarassa Navatika, Gulhatthatl- kam, Balappabodhanam, Saddatthabhedacintaya majjhimatikam, Karikayatikam, Etimasamidipi- kayatikam, Dipavamsa, Thupavamsa, and Bodhivamsa. The author of the Sasanavamsa gives an outline Sasanavamsa. of Buddha’s life and briefly deals with the three Buddhist Councils held during the reigns of the three Indian kings, Ajatasattu, Kalasoka, and Asoka. After the Third Council was over, Moggaliputta Tissathera sent Buddhist missionaries to different countries for the propagation of the Buddhist faith. Pannasami, the author of the Sasanavamsa, speaks of the nine regions visited by the missionaries. But of these nine, five are placed in Indo-China. Dr. Mabel Bode is of opinion that the author’s horizon seems to be limited, first by an orthodox desire to claim most of the early teachers for the countries of the South (and hence to prove the purest possible sources for the Southern doctrines), and secondly by a certain feeling of national pride. According to this account, Maha-Moggaliputta Tissa (as if with a special care for the religious future of Maramma) sent two separate missionaries to neigh- bouring regions in the valley of the Irawaddy — besides three others, who visited Laos and Pegu. The Thera Mahinda went to Ceylon for the propagation of the faith during the reign of the Sinhalese King Devanampiyatissa who was a contemporary of the Indian King Asoka. Sona and Uttara visited Suvannabhumi (Sudhammapura — that is, Thaton at the mouth of the Sittaung River). The author holds that even before the sending out of the missionaries to Suvannabhumi by Moggaliputta Tissathera, the President of the Third Buddhist Council, Buddha came here personally with a number of bhikkhus to preach his doctrines. Maharakkhita Thera spread Buddhism in the Pali Chronicles 593 Yona country (the country of the Shan tribes about Zimme). Yonakarakkhita Thera visited the country of Vanavas! (the region round Prome) and propagated Buddhism there. Majjhantika visited Kasmira and Gandhara (the Gandhara country) lay on the right bank of the Indus, south of Kabul, and the whole country became a strong Buddhist hold. It was through Maha-Revata Thera that Buddhism found its way into Mahimsakamandala (Andhra country). Maha-Dhammarakkhita Thera went to Maha- rattha (Mahanagara-rattha or Siam) and spread Buddhism there. Majjhima Thera spread the Buddhist faith in Cfnarattha (the Himavantapadesa of the Ceylon books). Now we shall deal with the history of the spread of Buddhism in Aparantarattha which (placed by European scholars west of the Punjab) is no other than the Sunaparanta of the Burmese, i.e., the region lying west of the upper Irawaddy. The Sasanavamsa brings before us a picture of the relations of State and Saiiigha in Burma from the time of Anuruddha, with his constant adviser, Arahanta, to the time of Meng-Dun-Meng, with his Council of Mahatheras. Those relations were one of mutual dependence. The Order, though enriched by the gifts of pious laymen, yet depends, in the last resort, upon the king. The peaceful, easy life dear to the Burmese bhikkhu, the necessary calm for study or the writing of books, the land or water to be set apart for ecclesiastical ceremonies, all these are only secured by the king’s favour and protection. This accounts for the general loyalty of the Samgha to the head of the State. The king’s despotism is also held in check. “ At the lowest, the royal gifts of viharas and the building of cetiyas are either the price paid 594 A History of Pali Literature down for desired prosperity and victory, or the atonement for bloodshed and plunder ; and the despot dares not risk the terrors, the degradation, that later births, in coming time, may hold in store for him, if he injures or neglects the Samgha.” As a rule, the king was the recognised authority in ecclesiastical affairs. This is evident from Anuruddha’s vigorous reforms. The Samgharaja is not the elected Head of the Order. He is appointed by the king, whose favourite and tutor he usually is. It appears from the Parupana Ekamsika con- troversy that the king’s power to settle a religious question by royal decree is fully recognised by the Samgha. But we also see the king himself under his aeariya’s influence, so far as to ensure his favouring the orthodox or unorthodox school, according to the views of the Samgharaja. The history of religion in Mramma is nothing more than the history of the Buddhist Order in Sunaparanta and Tambadipa. The history of the Burmese as a nation centres in a group of cities — Pugan, Sagain, Ava, Panya, Amarapura, Mandalay — each, in its turn, the seat of kings. The early Buddhist stronghold in Burma was at Sudhammapura, the capital of Manohari, king of Pegu. Anuruddha, king of Pugan, at the instance of Arahanta, a great thera who came from Sudhammapura to Pugan, made war with Manohari and brought the sacred relics and books to Pugan. All the members of the Samgha in Thaton (Sudham- mapura) were also transferred to Pugan. Anuruddha further sent for copies from Ceylon, which Arahanta compared with those of Pegu, to settle the readings. During the reign of Narapatisisu, the celebrated teacher, Uttarajlva, came from Sudhammapura to Arimaddana and established religion there. His pupil Chapada who spent ten years studying in Ceylon returned with four colleagues to the capital. After the death of Chapada separate schools came into existence, having their origin in certain dif- ferences that arose between the three surviving Pali Chronicles 595 teachers — Sivali, Tamalinda, and Ananda. The schools are together known as Pacchagana to distinguish them from the earlier school in Arimad- dana (Purimagana) founded by Arahanta. The reign of Kyocva is highly important for the history of Buddhism. He was himself the author of two manuals — Paramatthabindu and Saddabindu, for the use of his wives, and one of his daughters wrote the Vibhatyattha. We are told of the science and zeal of the women of Arimaddana, and anecdotes are told of their skill in grammar and the keenness of their wit. In the reign of Bureng Naung religion thrived most. It is recorded of him that he even forced Buddhism on the Shans and Muslims in the north of his kingdom. In the reign of Siri-Malias!hasurasudhammaraja begins a new' chapter in the history of Burmese Buddhism — the Parupana-Ekaiiisika controversy. The rise and many phases of the dispute are set forth at length by the author of the Sasanavamsa. Two sects arose — the Ekamsika sect (it was named so for going about in the village with one shoulder uncovered by the upper garment) and the Parupana sect (this school strictly observed the wearing of the upper garment on both shoulders, during the village rounds). During the reign of Bodoah Pra the question was settled for good. A royal decree established the Parupana practices for the whole of the kingdom. During the reign of Meng-dun-Meng we come to the last controversy, perhaps recorded because it points to the influence of the Burmese Samgha in Ceylon. An ancient Sima in the island (Ceylon) was the subject of dispute. The matter was brought for judgment to the Samgharaja at Mandalay, by deputations from both sides. The Samgharaja gave judgment after consulting various sacred texts. The members of both sides received presents from the king. Thus the history of religion in Aparanta closes. 596 A History of Pali Literature The edition of the Sasanavamsa 1 is based on two palm-leaf MSS. in the British Museum. It is a non-eanonical book and is a text of Burmese author- ship. It is a very interesting historical work. The author Pannaswami, who dates his book 1228 of the Burmese Common Era 1861 A.D., was the tutor of the then reigning king of Burma and himself a pupil of the head of the Order at Mandalay. The table of contents promises a general history of Buddhism drawn from a few well-known Pali works, e.g., Atthakatha, Vinaya Pitaka, Mahavamsa, and Dlpavamsa. Events are brought up to the time of the Third Council in the time of Asoka and the sending forth of missionaries by the Thera Maha- MoggaHputta Tissa. The later history of religion consists of nine chapters, which falls into two parts. The first part consists of a few legends strung together with quotations from Buddhaghosa and Dlpavamsa. The accounts of Ceylon and Burma seem to be more careful and complete than those of other matters of this group. The second part covers three-fifths of the book and treats solely of the history of Buddhism in Burma proper. In part one, the section dealing with the missions strikes the key-note of the Sasanavamsa. A few geographical notes explained the nine regions visited by the first missionaries. A careful study of this work shows the author’s intimate acquaintance with the commentaries. The style imitates that of Buddhaghosa and his successors. There are no points of philological interest. The book gives us an interesting record of the part played by the Buddha’s religion in the social and intellectual life. Pannaswami’s history is a purely ecclesiastical piece of work. This work has been edited by Mabel Bode, Ph.D., for the P.T.S., London. 1 Bead Sasanavamsadlpa edited by Jnanatilaka Nay aka Punnanse and Sasanavamsadipaya by Vimalasara Unnanse. Read also “The author of the Sasanavamsa” by M. Bode, J.R.A.S., 1899, pp. 674-676. CHAPTER VII PALI MANUALS J? Introduction Sangdha is an earlier Pali nomenclature for both | a compilation and a manual. The later term i Atthasdra is precisely an equivalent of the English handbook or manual. The Buddhist teachers had indeed developed the art of manual writing much earlier, the Khuddakapatha, the Patimokkha, and the Abhidhamma treatises, all partaking of the character of manuals. The manuals were written ■ in both prose and verse and in some cases in the form of Karikas. As a matter of fact most of the works of Thera Buddhadatta represent so many manuals in the shape of Karikas. Buddhaghosa’s writings | are conspicuous by the absence of such manuals with the solitary exception of the Visuddhimagga. The same holds true in the case of Dhammapala’s writings. The art continued nevertheless and coming to somewhat later times we have a number of works that deserve to be classed under manuals. Although the subject-matters of these manuals vary, one predominant feature of each of them is this that ! it presents its theme systematically in a somewhat terse and concise form, purporting to be used as a handbook of constant reference. j The Saccasamhhepa is a religious work on truth „ . , , written by Dhammapala Thera. I aecasam epa. Malalasekera points out that there j seems to be some uncertainty as to the authorship I and date of the Saecasariikhepa. The Saddhamma- samgaha assigns it to Ananda . 1 The Saccasamkhepa has been edited by Dhammarama Bhikkhu. There are five chapters in it dealing with rupa (form), 1 The Pali Literature of Ceylon, p. 202, 598 A History of Pali Literature vedana (feeling), cittapavatti (thought), pakinna- kasamgaha, and nibbana. It is known as the summary of the truth, published by the P.T.S. in J.P.T.S., 1917-1919. It consists of 387 stanzas. Rupa or form is one of the five khandhas. The destruction of the four elements means the destruc- tion of rupa. There are three kinds of vedana or feelings, feeling that is pleasant, feeling that is unpleasant, and feeling that is neither pleasant nor unpleasant, i.e., indifferent. All the three vedanas are to be done away with, for they are painful. Citta or thought when attached to raga or passion leads to repeated births which are full of misery. When citta is detached from passion there is no rebirth for a being. The Pakinnakasamgaha- vibliaga treats of miscellaneous subjects, e.g., pride, sloth, niggardliness, and their evil effects. The last chapter deals with nirvana which means destruction of all passions and desires and avoidance of all worldly miseries. The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha 1 has served for probably eight centuries as a primer Abhl S6gaha ttha_ °f psychology and philosophy in Burma and Ceylon, and a whole literature of exegesis has grown up around it, the latest additions to which are but of yesterday. The manual is ascribed to a teacher named Anuruddha ; but nothing is known about him except the fact that he had compiled two other treatises on philo- sophy, and one of them was written while the author was at Kancipura or Conjeeveram. Burmese tradition asserts that he was a thera of Ceylon and wrote the compendium at the Sinhalese vihara founded by Somadevi, queen of King VattagamanI who flourished between 88-76 B.C., a date fictitiously early for the book. In fact, Anuruddha is believed to have lived earlier than 12th but later than the 1 Abhidhammattha-Sangaha-im Compendium Buddhistischer Philosophie und Psychologic, VoL I, by Brahmacari Govinda deserves mention. Pali Manuals 599 8th century A.D. Sariputta compiled a paraphrase to this book. The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha has been edited and published in J.P.T.S., 1883, and translated with notes by Shwe Zan Aung and revised by Mrs. Rliys Davids under the name of the Compendium of Philosophy included in the P.T.S. translation series. The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha is classed in other eontempo- Burmese bibliography under a clas- rary philosophical sified list of Philosophical manuals,, manuals. nine in number. They are : — 1. Abhidhammattha-Sangaha, by Anuruddha, 2. Paramattha Vinicchaya, by Anuruddha, 3. Abhi- dhammavatara, by Buddhadatta, 4. Ruparupa- vibhaga, by Buddhadatta, 5. Saeeasamkhepa, by Dhammapala, 6. MohavicchedanI, by Kassapa, 7. Kliemapakarana, by Khema, 8. Namacara- dipaka, by Saddhamma Jotipala, and 9. Namarupa- pariccheda, by Anuruddha. The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha, because of its exclusively condensed treatment, ture S on ' thVbook. stimulated a large growth of ancillary works, of which the following have uptill now been known. A. Pour tikas or commentaries : 1. Porana- tika, by Navavimala Buddhi of Ceylon, 2. Abhi- dhammattha-vibhavam, by Sumangala of Ceylon, 3. Sankhepa-vannana, by Saddhamma Jotipala of Burma, and 4. Paramattha-dlpani-tika, by Ledi Sadaw of Burma. B. A ‘ Key ’ to the Tika-gyaw, entitled Manisaramanju, by Ariyavamsa of Sagaing, Burma. C. A commentary entitled Madhu-Sarattha- dlpani, by Mahananda of Hanthawaddy, Burma. D. A number of works, not in Pali, but in Burmese : 1. Abhidhammattha-sangaha-madhu, a modern work by Mogaung Sadaw, 2. Abhidhammattha- sangaha-gandhi, a modem work by Payagyi Sadaw, 3. Paramattha-Sarupa-bhedani, by Yisuddharama Sadaw, 4. Abhidhammattha-Sarupa-dipaka, by 11 17 1 ISSlgRiig 600 A History of Pali Literature Sadaw, 4. AbMdhammattha-Sarupa-dipaka, by the late Myobyingyi, and 5. a number of analytical works entitled Akauk. The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha covers very The Abhidham ^ ar g e ty the same range of subjeet- mattha-sangaha matter as that of the Visuddhimagga, and the visuddhi- though the amplitude of treatment mas&a and the order and emphasis of treatment in each are different. But they are to some extent complimentary, and as such still hold the field as modern text-books for students of Buddhism in Buddhist countries. The Abhidhammattha-Sangaha is so highly condensed that it consists, for the most part, of terse, jejune sentences, which are not easily intelli- gible to lay readers. It is, therefore, profitable to have a resume of the main topics and problems of the whole work as a Manual of Buddhist Psycho- logy and Philosophy. Mind is ordinarily defined as that which is conscious of an object ; and the Buddhists have tried to frame their definition with the help of fifty-two mental attributes or properties enumerated in Part II of the Abhi- dhammattha-Sahgaha. But the definition of mind is also a division of mind, and our author’s division into vedana, nana, and sankhara corresponds to Bain’s division of the mind into feeling, thought or intellect, and will or volition. Consciousness (vinnana) has, therefore, been defined as the relation between arammanika (subject) and arammana (object). In this relation the object presented is termed paecaya (the relating thing) and the subject, paccayuppanna (the thing related). The two terms are thus relative. The object of Consciousness is either object of Sense or object of Thought. Object of sense subdivides itself into five classes — sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch, which are collectively termed pancarammana (fivefold object). The object of thought also consists of five sub-clauses : citta Pali Manuals 601 (mind), cetasika (mental properties), pasada, rupa and siikhumarupa (sensitive and subtle qualities of body), pannati (name, idea, notion, concept), and nibbana. These are collectively termed dkamma- rammana. The Pannatti object consists of several sub- tti clauses. Pannatti is either (1) that which makes known (pannapetiti ) ; or (2) that which is made known (pannapiyatiti), corres- ponding to our author’s terminology — Saddapannatti and Atthapahnatti which are undoubtedly relative ter ms . Saddapannatti is a name (of a thing) which, when expressed in words, or represented by a sign is called a ‘ term ’. It is synonymous with nama-pannatti. Atthapahnatti is the idea or notion of the attributes of a tiling made known or represented by a name. In other words, it is equi- valent to 4 concept ’ and is subdivided into various classes. Pannatti has been distinguished from Para- mattha in the sense that the former is nominal and conceptual whereas the latter is real. The object comprehending, as it does, the subject, is wider, more extensive than the latter. This is probably one reason why greater prominence is given to the object patthana. In Buddhism there is no actor apart from the action, no percipient apart from perception. In other words, there is no conscious subject behind consciousness. 4 Like the current of the river 5 (nadi soto viya) is the Buddhist idea of exis- Llfe a ^?ew. ncient tence. For no two consecutive moments is the fabric of the body the same, and this theory of the ceaseless change or flux is called anicca-dhamma which is applied alike to the body and the mind, or the Being and thought respectively. The dividing line between these two is termed mano-dvara, the Threshold of Conscious- ness. Life, then, in the Buddhist view of things, is like an ever-changing river, having its source in birth, its goal in death, receiving from the tributary streams of sense constant accretions to its flood, 602 A History of Pali Literature and ever-dispensing to the world around it the thought-stuff it has gathered by the way. Subliminal consciousness is either kama, rupa or arupa. Supraliminal conscious- atio^ M of da con" ness * s norma *’ supernormal, and scio°sness° ° n ' transcendental. Normal conscious- ness is termed kamacitta, so called because desire or kama prevails on the plane of existence. Supernormal consciousness is termed Mahaggataeitta because it has reached the sublime state, and is further distinguished as rupa, or arupacitta. Consciousness in this fourfold classification is primarily composed of seven mental Universal mental properties (cetasikas) — namely, con- S r a ?ses tie of c“ d tact (phassa), feeling (vedana), per- sciousness. ception (safifia), will or volition (cetana), oneness of object (ekaggata), psychic life (jlvitindriya), and attention (manasikara). These seven mental properties are termed sabba- citta-sadharana or universals, because they are common to every class and state of consciousness, or every separate act of mind or thought. There are forty-five different properties distinguishing one class from another. And those, in varying combina- tions, give rise to the eighty-nine classes of conscious- ness enumerated in Part I of the Abhidhammattha- Sangaha, or according to a broader classification, one hundred and twenty-one. The seven mental properties have been enumerated above ; there are, besides these, six particular specific or accidental properties. These are vitakka, vicara, adhimokkha, viriya, plti, and chanda. The four universal bad cetasikas or properties are moha, ahirika, anottappa, and uddhacca. Besides these, there are also two specific cetasikas or properties, lobha and ditthi. All these properties are discussed and explained in the body of the book. Of these and other classes of consciousness making up a total of eighty-nine, some function as causes or karma, some as resultants or vipaka. Pali Manuals 603 and some are non-causal or kriya. Besides these three classes, there are two ele- classes and or- ments in every consciousness, the ness grouped 010113 ’ Constant and the Variable. The form of consciousness is the cons- tant element, and is opposed to the matter of consciousness which constitutes the variable ele- ment. But in Buddhism, both subject and object are variable at every moment ; and there are several forms of consciousness each of which may be designated a ‘ process of thought ’ whenever it takes place as a fact. To every separate state of consciousness which takes part in a process of thought as a functional state, either in the sub- jective form of the stream of being, or in the objective form of a conscious act of mind or thought, there are three phases — genesis (uppada), development (thiti), and dissolution (bhahga) — each of which is explained and discussed by the author in his Manual in all its processes and stages. The possibility of the ‘ internal 5 presentation of all the six classes of objects men- intemai intui- tioned above is that a sensation can be propel ^Suddha 1 - experienced, the Buddhists believe, manodvaravithi). without the corresponding objective stimulus. The possibility of Reflec- tion proper is attributed to the relation termed ‘ proxi- mate sufficient cause ’ by virtue of which (a) a sense impression once experienced in a sense cognition by way of the five doors, or (6) a previous experience of all internal intuition or cognition by way of the mind-door, or (c) the idea once formed in the sequels of either, can never be lost. There are different processes of reflection in connection with Things Seen (dittha). But when an object that has not been actually sensed is constructed out of, and connected with these seen objects, it is termed ‘ object associated with things seen ’ (ditthi-sam- bandha). And the process of thought connected therewith is classed in the category of objects associated with things seen. The object constructed 604 A History of Pali Literature out of and connected with Things Heard (suta object) is termed ‘ object associated with things heard ’ (suta-sambandha). Any object constructed out of Things Cogitated (vinnata) and connected therewith is termed ‘ associated with things cogitated ’ (vinnata-sambandha). Any object in the category of Things Seen, Heard or Cogitated may either be past, present or future. When it is present, it is intuited as a vivid reality. The same forms hold good for all kinds of thought or reflection. How is memory possible, if the object be not the same for any two consecutive Memory and moments in life ? The answer is Changing ersona - gj ven derail by the author. Each mental state is related to the next in at least four different modes of relation (paccaya) : — Proximity (anantara), Contiguity (samanantara). Absence (natthi), and Abeyance (avigata). This fourfold relation is understood to mean that each expired state renders service to the next. In other words, each, on passing away, gives up the whole of its energy to its successor : and this is how the memory is helped and retained. The stage of apperception pertains to that active side of an existence (kamma- The ethical bhava), which determines the passive tion of Javana. side (upapatti-bhava) of the next existence. The apperceptional act is thus a free, determining, causal act of thought, as distinguished from the mental states, which are fixed, determined and resultant acts (vipaka) of kamma. Volition, under favourable circumstances, is transformed into kamma. But volition (cetana) in apperception on occasion of sense (panca-dvarika- javana) cannot possibly become kamma. Hence we must look to the volition involved in reflective or representative apperception (manodvarika-javana) for kamma, which according to the different characters of volition is classed in different types or varieties with distinct characteristics. Interesting though is the phenomenon of dream. Pali Manuals 605 it is conspicuous in the Abhidhammattha-Sangaha by its absence. Scattered refer- D -r° U3 ' ences and sometimes systematic ex- planations have here and there been made in Buddhist works regarding forms of dream- thought, dreams-classified, theories of dreams, rela- tion of dream to sleep, etc. The first essential qualification of the process of thought transition from the SK rspadtta! normal to the super-normal is ‘ purity of virtue or morals ’. The next is meditation and concentration of thought. There are four moments of apperception during the transitional stage from normal to super-normal consciousness. The first is termed ‘ preparation ’, the second ‘ success ’, which is followed by the third called ‘ adaptation ’. After the last moment of * adoption ’ normal consciousness is cut off by the super-normal, and the transitional stage is superseded by the latter, known as the first Jhana, and for one thought-moment, the person attaining it experiences ecstacy. Attainment in Jhana is thus a very important psychological moment, marking an epoch in his mental experience for the person who succeeds in commanding it. Jhana is usually classified in five stages, and in the fifth stage ecstatic concentration reaches its full development with the help of the continued voluntary exercise of the mind on an after-image to which it has been directed. To attain super-intellectual powers (abhinna) for an adept in the Fifth Jhana, Me fddh$da gand it will be necessary for him to go through a course of mental training in fourteen processes. Super-normal powers of will or Iddhi-vidha may then be developed by means of the so-called four bases of Iddhi which involve respectively the development of Four dominant or predominant principles of purpose, effort, know- ledge, and wisdom. There are ten classes of Iddhi known to Buddhism, the last three of which 606 A History of Pali Literature constitute the Iddhi-vidha, and are used as a basis for the willing process. With a slight difference in procedure in mental attitudes and mood of thought, upa anas. ^] ie same forms of the transitional, inductive, or sustained and retrospective processes of Fifth Rupa-Jhana obtain in the case of the Four Arupa-Jhanas. When an adept in the Fifth Rupa- Jhana, who has repeatedly induced the same through any one of the ten circles, with the exception of space, erroneously believes that all physical pain and misery are due to the existence of the body, and reflects on the relative grossness of this Jhana, he wishes to attain the First Arupa-Jhana, which he considers to be very calm and serene. A person who wishes to transcend the experience of this conditioned world must first Way to^emancipa- a q cultivate ‘ purity of vieWS ’ or ditthi-visuddi. Next, he must cultivate in succession, 8 purity of transcending doubt ’ or Kankha-vitarana-visuddhi, 4 Ten modes of Insight ’ or Vipassana-nanas or in other words the contemplative insight, enumerated and explained in the Text. All these ten kinds of insight are collectively termed ‘ purity of intellectual culture ’. The matured insight of equanimity receives the special designation of * insight of discernment leading to uprising because it invariably leads to the Path, conceived as a ‘ Rising out of ’. It is also styled as the ‘ mouth or gate of Emancipation 5 (Vimokkha-mukha). Emancipation has a triple designation, namely, . .. the 4 Signless 5 or animitta, the 4 Un- Emancipation. i*-.*? , ixi desired or appamhita, and tire ‘ void ’ or sunnata. Emancipation itself, whether of the Path, the Fruit, or Nibbana, also receives the same triad of names, according as it is preceded by the contemplation of things by 4 uprising dis- cernment ’ as either impermanent, or evil, or substantial. The purity of insight which is the gateway of Pali Manuals 607 Emancipation is also called Path-insight. One who „ , _ . has attained perfect purity of insight cuts off the heritage of the average man and evolves the lineage of the Transcendental. It is followed by a single moment of Path-consciousness by which the first of the Four Noble Truths is clearly discerned. Error and doubt are got rid of, Nibbana is intuited, and the eightfold Path-constituents are cultivated. These four simultaneous functions correspond to the Four Noble Truths. Just like the Four Noble Truths, there are four stages of the Path, which are called Four Paths. The attainer of the first is termed Sotapanna who will have as yet to undergo seven more rebirths in the Kamaloka ; the attainer of the second is termed SakadagamI who will have one more such rebirth. But the complete destruc- tion of these two does not permit of another rebirth in the case of the Anagami or Never returner of the Third Path. The wisdom of the Highest or Supreme Path is the same mental order of intelligence deve- loped into the Perfected view of the highest order and is the last stage of ‘ purity of insight ’. Death is assigned to one of four causes : (1) Death the exhaustion of the force of the ea ' reproductive (janaka) kamma that has given rise to the existence in question, (2) the expiry of the maximum life-term possible for this particular generation, (3) the combination of both these causes, (4) the action of a stronger arresting kamma that suddenly cuts off the reproductive kamma before the latter’s force is spent or before the expiry of the life-term. The decease of the Arhant is according to Final Death. Buddhist philosophy, the Final Death. If the Arhant be of the class known as c dry- visioned ’ (sukkha-vipassaka) who does not practise Jhana, his final death, which takes place on the kama plane, occurs after appercep- tion or retention of impressions. If he be proficient in Jhana, final death may occur (a) after sustained 608 A History of Pali Literature Jhana ; or (6) after apperception in subsequent retrospect ; or (c) after the moment of ‘ super- intellectual ’ knowledge (abhinna) ; or finally, (d) after retrospection following the attainment of the Topmost Fruit. The Namarupapariceheda is another Abhi- dhamma manual written by Anu- Nam^upaparic. ru( |d| aa Mahathera. It consists of 1,885 stanzas dealing with name and form. The Namarupasamasa was written by Thera _ . Khemacariya mostly in prose. It deals with citta and cetasikakatha. The Sutta Samgaha is a later manual or com- „ ^ , pendium of select suttas and is primarily intended tor those begin- ners who desire to have a knowledge of the Pali scriptural texts in a nut-shell. The Paritta or Mahaparitta, a small collection Pantta °f ^ ex ^ s gathered from the Sutta '^ a Pitaka, is more widely known by the Burmese laity of all classes than any other Pali book. The Paritta, learned by heart and recited on appropriate occasions, is to conjure various evils, physical and moral. Some of the miscellaneous extracts that make up the collection are of purely religious and ethical character. The use of the Paritta is said to have had the Buddha’s sanction. The victory of the holy men was accom- plished by the Paritta (Mabel Bode, The Pali Literature of Burma, pp. 8-4). The Kammavaca 1 is a convenient title for the collection of certain set forms of speech followed or to be followed in conducting the business of the Samgha either at the time of conferring ordination or at the time of holding a synod or a council. 1 Cf. “ A new Kammavaca ” by T. W. Rhys Davids and Clausoa, F. Speigel’s Kammavakya, Palice et Latine ed. Vgl Ferner Dickson, J.R.A.S., Vol. VII, New Series ; Upasampada-kammavaca, a Pali text with a translation and notes by J. F. Dickson, J.R.A.S., 1875. Pali Manuals 609 These set forms are but excerpts from the Vinaya Mah&vagga and Cullavagga, the utility of the Kammavaca text being no other than this, namely, that we have in it all put together in a handy and systematic form. There are various manuscripts of this text available in Burma, Ceylon, and Siam ; some of the Mandalay manuscripts being very handsome written as they are in Burmese ritual or tamarind seed letters printed with a thick black resinous gum. There is a collection of Kammavacas made by Herbert Baynes ( vide J.R.A.S., 1892, Art. III). In Burmese Pali collections we find no less frequently than the Paritta of the laity, the Kamma- vaca of the mendicant order. It goes without saying that the text of Kammavaca is a text of a purely Buddhist ecclesiastical use. In the Kalyani stone inscriptions of Dhamma Bedi of Pegu, we find mention of Slm karana rapa ' the Slmalankarapakarana amongst the earlier authoritative texts bearing upon the subject of suna or sanctified boundary of the Buddhist ecclesiastical order. It is not quite clear from the reference if the Slmalankarapakarana was not the same work as the Slmalankarasamgaha mentioned in the same lithie record of the 15th century A.D. It is evident from these records as well as from a later work, the Simavivadaviniechaya- katha that the proper erection and the determination of the sanctified boundary came to be considered as an effective means of the purification of the Buddhist holy order. The Khuddakasikkha and the Mulasikkha are the two short Yinaya manuals, written SmuSS 5 mostly in verse, a few passages oc- curring in prose. The Thera Dham- masiri, evidently a Sinhalese priest, is the author of the Khuddakasikkha. But in the Burmese history of the pitakas the Mulasikkha is ascribed to Dham- masiri and the Khuddakasikkha, to another Sinhalese priest, MahasamI by name. The authorship of the Khuddakasikkha cannot be reasonably ascribed 610 A History of Pali Literature to any other person than Dhammasiri in view of the author’s own statement in the following stanza : “ Tena Dhammasirlkena Tambapanniyaketuna therena racita Dhammavinayannupasam- sita.” If we are to give credence to the Burmese tradition, there is no other alternative than regarding the Mnlasikkha as a work not of Dhammasiri but of Mahasamf. It is also difficult to accept the Burmese tradition according to which the two manuals were written about 920 years after the demise of the Buddha. 1 Judged by the language and general style of the two manuals, these would seem to be literary productions of a much later age. We have already given an idea of their contents (ante p. 79). Only one important point which remains to be noticed is the significance of the Mulasikkha used as a title of one of the two manuals. It is suggested in the opening stanza of the Mula- sikkha that the title has no other significance than this, that the manual presents the necessary lessons on the Vinaya rules and discipline in the language of the original texts, that is to say, in Pali which is the language of the pitakas : “ Bhikkhuna navakenado mulabhasaya sikkhi- tum yannimittam pavesanto bhikkhu mag- gattaye cuto.” 1 J.P.T.S., 1882, p. 87. CHAPTER VIII PALI LITERARY PIECES Introduction In the present chapter we have to deal with seven metrical compositions, the Anagatavamsa, the Jinacarita, the Telakatahagatha, the Pajja- madhu, the Rasavahinl, the Saddhammopayana, and the Paneagatidipana, which were evidently the literary productions of Ceylon 1 and which belonged mostly to the closing period of Pali literary activities of Ceylon ranging from the tenth or eleventh to the fourteenth or fifteenth century A.D. Amongst them the Anagatavamsa stands as a supplement to the canonical work, Buddha vamsa ; the Jinacarita occu- pies the same place in Pah as the Buddhacarita in the Sanskrit Buddhist literature, the Telakataha- gatha and the Pajjamadhu represent two interesting examples of the Sataka type of poetry, the Panca- gatidipana and the Saddhamopayana are written for the edification of certain select topics of Buddhism and the Rasavahinl is a most charming book of folk-tales narrated in elegant and simple style, in prose and in verse. Most of these works show a tendency towards the sanskritisation of Pali and display that amount of literary excellence and poetic imagination as may be expected from the people of Ceylon in general and the Buddhist monks in particular. The Anagatavariisa edited by Minayeff for the _ . P.T.S., is based upon four Burmese . nagata-vam&a. manuscripts which do not agree in their contents. One manuscript embodies recension of this work in prose and in verse, and in another 1 It is only in the case of the Anagatavariisa that opinions may differ. 612 A History of Pali Literature we have it entirely in verse while in a third we have quite a different work in prose dealing with ten future Buddhas including Metteyya and devoting a chapter to each of them. The possibility of the last mentioned work is suggested in the closing verses of that mixed recension of the Anagatavamsa which is found in prose and in verse : — “ Metteyyo, Uttamo, Ramo, Pasenadi Kosalo’- bhibhu Dighasonl ca Samkacco Subho Todeyya brahmano Nalagiripalaleyyo Bodhisatta ime dasa Anukkamena sambodhim papunissanti’na- gate’ti (Anagatavamsa, J.P.T.S., 1886, p. 37.) So far as the mixed recension goes, this text is written in prose style of the suttas in the nikayas. The prose passages are intervened or followed by certain verses, the general tenor of which is some- what different from those generally met with in the nikayas. The text is composed of a dialogue between Sariputta and Buddha and deals with the subject of gradual decline and disappearance of Buddhism, its literature, glory, and influence in time to come rather than with the life and career of the future Buddha, Metteyya. Viewed in this light, this text of the Anagatavamsa may justly be regarded as a supplement or sequel to the suttas dealing with Anagatabhayani, “ future dangers of the faith ”, the discourses recommended by King Asoka in his Bhabru Edict for a constant study by the Buddhists, both monks and laity. Whether such a prose dialogue as this was at any time incorporated in the nikayas is a question to which no decisive answer may yet be given. It may suffice here to treat as a sequel to the Anagata- bhayasuttas and the texts dealing with the ten future Buddhas. The text with which we are concerned is a work in verse. It is completed in 142 stanzas Pali Literary Pieces 613 and which deals with the life and career of the future Buddha Metteyya. According to the Gandha- vamsa the original Anagatavamsa was the work of an elder named Kassapa (presumably the Citrakathi Kumara Kassapa). The ascription of authorship to Kassapa is not however justified by the text itself, which is set forth as a dialogue between Sariputta and the Buddha. It is composed apparently in the manner and style of the Buddha variisa to which it was meant to serve, no doubt, as a supplement. A comparison between the following verses quoted from the two works may make their interconnection clear : — 1. Buddha variisa — With regard to Buddha Vipassi : — “ Nagaram Bandhumati nama Bandhumo nama khattiyo mata Bandhumati nama Vipas- sissa mahesino.” (xx. v. 23.) 2. Anagata variisa : — “ Saihgho nama upasako Sariigha nama upasika paccupessanti sariibuddharii caturasltisa- hassato.” (v. 61, J.P.T.S., 1886.) Seeing that the account of future Buddha Metteyya is precluded from the extant Buddha- vamsa scheme of the fives of 26 Buddhas including Metteyya, it will be reasonable to enquire if the Anagatavamsa in its present form was not a later elaboration of a shorter account of Metteyya forming the closing section of the Buddha vamsa in its original form. At the request of Sariputta who desired to know about the future Buddha, the Buddha Gautama spoke in brief about Metteyya Buddha. The future Buddha would be born in India at Ketumatl in a brahmin family. He would be named Ajita and would possess immense wealth. He would enjoy worldly life for eight thousand years and then would forsake the world after having seen the four nimittas (Omens). Thousands of men and women 614 A History of Pali Literature would renounce the world with him. On the day of his retirement he would proceed to the great Bodhi tree. He would attain supreme enlighten- ment and then would set rolling the Wheel of Law. Many would escape worldly miseries by following the Dhamma which would be preached by the Buddha Metteyya. Jinacarita is a Pali Kavya consisting of more Jinacarita than 470 stanzas composed in differ - " ent metres, some stanzas being of the atijagati class, consisting of 13 syllables. It re- presents a poetic development in Pali similar to that represented by the Buddhacarita in the Sanskrit Buddhist literature. Its theme, like that of the Buddhacarita, is the life of the Buddha and the narrative is chiefly based upon the Jataka-nidana- katha. The slavish dependence on the prose narra- tive of the Nidanakatha has proved a handicap to a free expression of the poetic sentiment. Mon. Duroiselle, to whom we owe the English edition and translation of the text, has aptly remarked that the poet has risen to heights placing him in the foremost rank among poets only in those places where he has broken through the slavish imitation and written from the depths of his own inspiration. In the opinion of Mon. Duroiselle, “ the charm of the Jinacarita lies in its lighter style ; in the author’s choice of graceful, and some- times forcible, images ; in the art of his descriptions, the richness and, in some passages, the delicacy of his expressions ; qualities which go to make its reading refreshing and welcome after the laborious reading of heavy didactic poetry ”. (Jinacarita, Introduction, p. ii.) The influence of the Sanskrit Kavya poetry of India, particularly of the works of Kalidasa, cannot be denied. We meet indeed in the Pali Kavya with some images and comparisons “ which are seldom found in Pali, but are of frequent occurrence in Sanskrit works (e,g., the Kumarasambhava and Meghaduta). In a few instances Mon. Duroiselle Pali Literary Pieces 615 has found also an echo of some of verses of the Mahabharata : Jinaearita — “ Ko yam Sakko nu kho Brahma Maro nago ti adina.” Mahabharata — “ Ko ’yan devo ’thava yakso gandharvo va bhavisyati ? ” (III. 6, 52, Vanaparva.) Without denying the intimate acquaintance of the author of the Jinaearita with classical Sanskrit poetry, we may point out that the type of stanzas quoted from the Mahabharata is not such as not to be frequently met with in the Jataka literature. And as far as the indebtedness of our author to Kalidasa or to Asvaghosa who paved the way for the former is concerned, we may equally maintain that the style of poetry developed either in the Buddhacarita of Asvaghosa or in the Kumara- sambhava of Kalidasa, leads us back to the gathas forming the prologue of the Nalakasutta in the Sutta Mpata for its model. In the Gandhavamsa and Saddhamma-sangaha the work has been ascribed to one Medhahkara. He was called Vanaratana Medhahkara, and was also the author of another Pali book ‘ Payogasiddhi ’ and flourished under Bliuvaneka Bahu 1st (1277- 1288 A.D. 1 ). The Jinaearita, however, throws no new light Ti . on the life of the Master ; and we can hardly expect such a thing from a purely devotional work such as this. But what is strikingly surprising is that the Jinaearita is unknown both in Burma and Siam. 1 Jour. P.T.S., 1904-5, p. iv, Note on Medhahkara by T. W. Rhys Davids. But Mon. Charles Duroiselle thinks that “the poem was written in the monastery built by Vijayabahu II, who ascended the throne in A.D. 1186 and was the immediate successor of the famous King Parakramabahu ”. Jinaearita, p. iii (edited and translated by C. Duroiselle, Rangoon, 1906). Read also “ Jinaearita ”, edited and translated by Dr. W. H. D. Rouse in the J.P.T.S., 1904-1905.;;; : /::y;^.:V-'' ;: ' 18 ^ : V. 616 A History of Pali Literature In the beautiful city of Amara, there was a he Poem Brahman youth, wise and com- nfcJr£ “ X!j ‘ passionate, handsome and pleasant, by name Sumedha. Hankering after wealth and treasures he had none, for this bodily frame he had no attachment. He, therefore, left his pleasant house, went to the Himalayas, and there discovered the eight implements necessary for an ascetic. He put on the ascetic garb and within a week obtained the five High Powers and the eight Attainments, enjoying the bliss of mystic meditation. One day he came down from the sky, and lay himself down in a muddy portion of a road through which the Dipahkara Buddha with his disciples was to pass. He, the Dipahkara Buddha, was delighted at it, and foretold that the ascetic Sumedha, in times to come, should become a fully enlightened Buddha, by name Gotama. Sumedha did him homage, and then seated in meditation, he investigated those conditions that go to make a Buddha. Sumedha, searching for Nirvana, endured many hardships while going through the continued suc- cession of existences, fulfilling the virtue of charity. He fulfilled, moreover, the Perfections of Morality, of Self-abnegation, of wisdom, and all others, and came to the existence of Vessantara. Passing away thence, he was reborn in the city of Tusita, and afterwards had another rebirth in the city of Kapila through the noble King Suddhodana, and his Queen Maya. He approached the bosom of Maya, and at the time of his conception, various wonders took place all over the world. In her tenth month, while she was proceeding to the house of her relative, she brought forth the Sage in the Lumbini garden while she kept standing under a Sala tree catching hold of a branch. The god Brahma approached and received the child in a golden net, the child that was born unsullied as a priceless gem. From the hands of Brahma and the angels, he stepped on to the ground, and gods and men approached and made offerings to him. Accompanied by a con- Pali Literary Pieces 617 course of gods and men, he went to Kapilavastu and there a rejoicing of nature and men ensued for days and nights. In the Tavatimsa heaven the hosts of angels rejoiced and sported and pre- dicted that he, the child, would sit upon the Throne of Wisdom and become a Buddha. The ascetic Kaladeva, the spiritual adviser of King Suddhodana, went to the Tavatimsa heaven, heard the cause of their rejoicings, came down to Suddhodana’ s palace, and wanted to see the child. The child was brought and instantly, the lotus-feet of the prince were fixed on the ascetic’s head. Upon this, both Kaladeva and Suddhodana reverenced the soft lotus-feet. A second act of reverence was done by Suddhodana and other men and women of the royal house during the sowing festival when the child, the Wise One, had performed a miracle. The prince then began to grow day by day living as he did in three magnificent mansions provided for him. One day as he came out on chariot on the royal road, he saw in succession the representation of an old man, of a diseased man, and of a dead man. He then became free from attachment to the three forms of existence and on the fourth occasion, delighted in seeing pleasant representation of a monk. He then came back home and laid himself down on a costly couch, and nymph-like women surrounded him and performed various kinds of dances and songs. The Sage, however, did not relish them ; and while the dancers fell asleep he bent upon retirement into solitude and free from attachment to the five worldly pleasures, called his minister and friend Channa to harness his horse. He then went to his wife’s apartment and saw the sleeping son and mother and silently took leave of them. Descending from the palace he mounted his horse and silently came out of the gate which was opened up by the gods inhabiting it. Mara then came to thwart him from going by saying that on the seventh day hence, the divine wheel of a universal monarch should appear unto him. But, 618 A History of Pali Literature, he, the Wise of the World, did not desire any sovereignty, but wanted to become a Buddha. Upon this Mara disappeared, and he proceeded towards the bank of the river Anoma where he dismounted himself and asked Channa to go back home with the horse and his ornaments. He then cut off his knot of hair with a sword ; the hair rose up into the air and Sakra received it with bent head and placed it in a gold casket to worship it. Next he put up the eight requisites of a monk and having spent seven days in the Anupiya mango grove in the joy of having left the world, went to Rajagaha and made his round for alms just enough for his sustenance. Leaving the town he went to the Pandava mountain and took the food. He was repeatedly approached by King Bimbisara and offered the kingdom, but he declined it ; and retiring to a cloister practised unmatched hardships. All this was of no avail ; he, therefore, partook of material food and regaining bodily perfection, went to the foot of the Ajapala banyan tree where he sat facing the east. Sujata, a beautiful woman, mistook him for a sylvan deity and offered him a gold vessel of milk rice. The Sage took it, and having gone to the bank of the Neranjara river he ate the food, took his rest, and then in the evening went to the Bo-tree which he circumambulated keeping the tree to his right. To his astonishment, a throne appeared, on which he took his seat facing the east, and promised that he would give up his efforts to attain Supreme Enlightenment even if his flesh, blood, bones, sinews, and skin dried up. On his head the Maha-Brahma held an umbrella. Suyama, the king of gods, fanned a splendid yak’s tail, and god Pancasikha, the snake-king Kala and thirty-two nymphs all kept standing and serving the Sage. Mara, then, creating unto himself a thousand dreadful arms, and surrounding himself by a manifold faced army, approached the Bo-tree. And at his approach the gods made good their escape. Mara created a terrific wind with a fierce Pali Literary Pieces 619 roar, then the terrible torrent of large rocks, and brought on a most dreadful darkness, but each in succession was of little avail. All these turned to good account and the Blessed One did not even show any sign of consternation. The Evil One then threw his disc, hurled rocky peaks, yet the Unconquerable sat motionless as before. Baffled in his attempts he approached the All-Merciful and asked him to rise from his seat. The Blessed One enquired of the witness about his seat and Mara, showing his army, told that they were his witnesses and asked in his turn who had been the witness of Siddhartha. Siddhartha then stretched his hands towards the earth and called the earth goddess to witness. She gave forth thousands of roars and Mara caught by the fear fled with his army. Having dispersed Mara’s hosts, he remained seated still on the immoveable seat, and in the first watch of the night he obtained the excellent knowledge of the past, and in the middle watch the Eye Divine. In the last watch, he gained thorough knowledge of the concatenation of causes and effects, and at dawn he became perfectly Enlightened Buddha. Yet he did not rise up from his seat, but to remove the doubts of the gods remained seated there for seven days and performed a double miracle. Then after the investigation of the Pure Law, he at the foot of the goat-herd’s banyan tree, caused to wither the face of Mara’s daughter, and, at the foot of the Mucalinda tree, caused to blossom the mind of the snake-king. And, at last, at the foot of the Rajayatana tree, he enjoyed the bliss of meditation. Then the king of the Law, entreated by Brahma Sahampati, wanted to fill the world with the free gift of the nectar of the Good Law. With this object, he travelled to the splendid Deer Park where the sages and mendicants made him a saint, and came to acknowledge him as the Sanctified, the Perfectly Enlightened, the Tathagata. To the Elders of the Park, he delivered a discourse on the establishment of the kingdom of Truth, and dispelled 620 A History of Pali Literature their ignorance. He thus set the Wheel of the Law in motion for the good of the world by delivering the people from the mighty bond of transmigration. On his way next to Uruvela, he gave to some thirty Bhaddavaggiya princes the immortal draught of the Three Paths ; and conferred on them the gift of ordination. He then went to Latthivana Park and there presented King Bimbisara with the immortal draught of true doctrine. Thence he proceeded to the Veluvana Park and dwelt there in a hermitage. Then King Suddhodana, having heard that his own son had attained to Supreme Knowledge, sent his minister Udayi to bring his son back to him. Udayi came with a thousand followers and hearing the Master preach renounced the world and entered upon the path to saint- hood. He then made known to the Master the desire of Suddhodana to see him, and requested to preach the Law to his kith and kin. The Buddha agreed to it and went to Kapilavastu where he was worshipped by Suddhodana and his relatives. But seeing that the young ones did not greet him, he performed a miracle at the sight of which Suddhodana was filled with joy. Then he went to the royal palace and preached the sweet doctrines to the king and hundreds of fair royal women. Next he extinguished the great grief in the heart of Bimba. or Yasodhara, his wife ; and ordained prince Nanda even before the three festivals, marriage, ceremonial sprinkling and entering on the house, had taken place. When his own son Rahula followed next for the sake of an inheritance, the Wise One ordained him too. After this he went to Sltavana at Rajagaha where he preached to a merchant of Savatthl, named Sudatta, who attained the fruit of the First Path. Sudatta then went back to Savatthl, and there selected a park of Prince Jeta for the residence of the Blessed One. He (better known as Anatha- pindika) bought this for a crore of gold pieces for the Teacher’s sake alone, and built there a chamber Pali Literary Pieces 621 and a noble monastery for the abode of the Master and his followers. He also beautified it with tanks and gardens, etc., and then inviting the Teacher to the spot dedicated to him the park and the monastery. The Buddha accepted the gift and thanked Sndatta for it, preaching to him the great benefit which lies in the giving of monasteries. Residing there, he spent his days going here and there and beating the great drum of the Law. In the first season, he dwelt in the Deer Park in the Benares city. In the second, third, and fourth seasons he dwelt in the lovely Veluvana at Rajagaha. In the fifth season, he made his abode in the great wood near Vesali. In the sixth, he dwelt on the great mountain Makula, and in the seventh in the cool and spacious rocky seat of Indra. In the eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth seasons, he dwelt respectively in the delightful wood of Bhesakala, in the Kosambi silk cotton wood, in goodly Paraleyya, and in the Brahman villages of Nala and Veranja. In the thirteenth season, he lived on the beautiful Galiya mountain, and in the fourteenth, in fair and lovely Jetavana. In the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth seasons, the Wise One made his abode respectively in the great Nigrodha monastery on a large hill at Kapilavatthu in the city of Alavaka, in Rajagaha, and twice on the great mount Caliya. In the twentieth season, he took up his abode in Rajagaha; and for the rest twenty-five years of his life, he made his abode in SavatthI and Jetavana. Thus for forty-five years, the Blessed One preached his sweet doctrine, bringing happiness to men, and freeing all the world and the gods from the great bond of transmigration. The book ends with a prayer of the author in which he gives out his pious wishes to be bom in the Tusita heaven, to be born contemporaneously with the great being, the future Buddha, to be able to give food, drink, alms, and monasteries 622 A History of Pali Literature to the Wise One and so forth, and to become at least a Buddha himself. The Telakatahagatha is a small poem in 98 _ A . _ stanzas on the vanity of human life. e a a a aga a. contains some of the fundamental doctrines of Buddhism. The verses are written in chaste language. They represent the religious meditations and exhortations of a great thera named Kalyaniya who was condemned to be cast into a cauldron of boiling oil on suspicion of his having been accessory to an intrigue with the Queen- consort of King Kalani Tissa who reigned at Kelaniya in 306-207 B.C. 1 A reference to this story can be traced in the Mahavamsa, the Rasavahin! and the Sinhalese work, the Saddhammalankara, which is a compilation from the Rasavahin!. 2 The inci- dent on which the poem is based is somewhat differently narrated also in the Kakavannatis- sarannavatthu. The author of this work is unknown. A careful study of the poem shows that the author was well acquainted with the texts and commentaries of the Buddhist scriptures. This work mentions the three refuges, death, impermanence, sorrows, soullessness of beings, evils of committing bad deeds, fourfold protection, and exhorts all to practise dhamma strenuously and attain salvation. It then discusses paticcasamuppada (dependent origination) and points out that nothing happens in this world without any cause. Avijja or ignorance is the cause of bad deed which leads to birth and which in turn is the cause of manifold miseries such as old age and death. So every one should practise dhamma by doing good deeds and thus escape from worldly miseries. The charm of the style of composition lies in the balanced rhythm of the lines and alliterations, a literary art that may be seen developing itself through the stanzas of such earlier poems as Ratana 1 Gr. P. Malalasekera, The Pali Literature of Ceylon, p. 162. 2 J.P.T.S., 1884, p. 49. Pali Literary Pieces 623 Sutta in the Khuddakapatha and Sntta Nipata and the Narasihagatha presupposed by the Jataka commentaries. (1) Telakatahagatha, stanza No. 3: Sopanamalam amalam tidasalayassa Samsarasagarasamuttaranaya setum Sabbagatibhayavivajjitakhemamaggam Dhammam namassatha sada muiiina panitam. (2) Ratana Sutta, v. 222 : Yanidha bhutani samagatani bhummani va yani va antalikkhe, sabbe va bhuta sumana bhavantu, atho pi sakkacea sunantu bhasitam. Though in Goonaratne’s edition published in J.P.T.S., 1884, the poem contains 98 stanzas, it may be presumed from its general style and purpose that it was meant to represent a Pali sataka con- sisting of a hundred stanzas. The poem, as we now have it, is divided into nine sections, each section dealing with a particular topic of Buddhism, Ratanattaya, Marananussati, Aniccalakkhana, Duk- khalakkhana, Anattalakkhana, Asubhalakkhana, Duccarita-adinava, Caturarakkha, and Paticca-sam- uppada. The sataka type of poetry came into vogue with the popularity of the three famous satakas, the Sringara, the Vairagya, and Nirvana, composed by so great a poet as Bhartrihari. Among the Buddhist satakas, the one which may rank as a high class of poetry is no doubt the Bodhicaryavatara of Santideva. Although the aim of the satakas, whether found in Sanskrit or in Pali is didactic like that of the Pali Dhammapada or the Santiparva of the Mahabharata, the charac- teristic difference of the Centuries lies in their conscious attempt to give expression to individual moral or religious experiences. This differential feature of the satakas has been well brought out 624 -4 History of Pali Literature in the following apology of Santideva in the opening verses of his Bodhicaryavatara. “ Na me parartha cinta, samano vasayitum kritarh mamedaih Mama tavadanena yati vriddhirh, kusalam bhavayitum prasadavegah Atha matsamadhatureva pasyed aparo’ pyenamato’pi sarthako’yam.” By this one must understand that the object of a sataka is not so much to instruct others as to manifest one’s own self in the hope that those “ who are like-natured, like-minded, and like- visioned will care to look at the (matter as the author has) viewed it and may, perhaps, derive some benefit from it ” (Barua’s Gaya and Buddhagaya, p. xi). We mean to say that in the satakas, the didactic aim has been subservient to the purpose of self- expression, a feature which is noticeable in certain Psalms of early Buddhist Brethren and Sisters. The Pajjamadhu is a poem composed of 104 stanzas in praise of the Buddha, ajjamat u. Buddhappiya, a pupil of Ananda, is the author of this work. He is also the author of the Pali grammar known as the Rupasiddhi. “We may safely premise ”, says Goonaratne, “ that it was composed at the same time as the Rupasiddhi to which scholars give 1100 A.D. as the probable date ” . 1 The author has given his name and pupilage in verse 103 of this poem : “ Ananda ranna ratanadi maha yatinda Niccappa buddha padumappiya sevi nangi Buddhappiyena ghana buddha gunappiyena Theralina racita Pajjamadhum pi bantu.” The language is sanskritised Pali and some of the verses are puzzling. There is a gloss in Sinhalese on the entire poem but it is verbose and rather diffuse in its explanations. This poem may be 1 J.P.T.S., 1887, p. 1. Pali Literary Pieces 625 regarded as another example of sataka in Pali with four stanzas in excess. The first 69 verses describe the beauty of the Buddha and the remaining verses are written in praise of his wisdom concluded with a panegyric on the order and nirvana. It is lacking in the vigour of poetical imagination and its style is laboured and artificial and is far from fu lfilling the promise of sweetness of poetry suggested in its title Pajjamadhu. The RasavahinI is a collection of 103 tales Rasavahinr. written in easy Pah, the first forty relating to the incidents which happened in Jambudipa and the rest in Ceylon. A Sinhalese edition of this work has been brought out by M. S. Unnanse. The text with Sinhalese interpretation by B. Devarakkhita has been pub- lished in Colombo, 1917. The P.T.S., London, has undertaken to bring out an edition of this work in Roman character. Its date is unknown, but at the conclusion the author gives us a clue which helps us in determining it to be in all probability in the first half of the 14th century A.D. It is considered to be a revision of an old Pali translation made from an original compilation by Ratthapala Thera of the Mahavihara in Ceylon. Yedeha, the author of the RasavahinI, gives us an account of the VanavasI School to which he belonged. 1 The late H. Nevill suggests that the Sahassavatthu- ppakarana still extant in Burma, formed the basis for the Pali RasavahinI. 2 This work throws much light on the manners, customs, and social conditions of ancient India and Ceylon. It contains materials of historical importance and as such is widely read in Ceylon. This work has been edited and translated by P. E. Pavolini. 3 There is a glossary on the RasavahinI called the Rasavahinlganthi. The verses of this text with a word-for-word Sinhalese 1 Malalasekera, The Pali Literature of Ceylon, p. 210. ^ Ibid,, p. 129. 8 Societe Asiatica Italiana, 1896. 626 A History of Pali Literature translation by Dharmaratna have been published in 1913. Buddhist legends of Asoka and his time translated from the Pali of the Ll Ra^avahini. the Rasavahinl ' by Laksmana Sastri with a prefatory note by H. C. Norman (J.R.A.S., 1910) and Zwei Erzahlungen aus der Rasavahinl, Yon. Sten Kono (Deutsche morgen- landische Gesellschaft, Zeitschrift, Leipzig) — II settimo eapitolo della Rasavahinl by P. E. Pavolini (Societe Asiatiea Italiana, Giornale, Piranze, 1895), should be consulted. Die Zweite dekade der Rasavahinl (M. and W. Geiger), Munchen, 1918, with translation deserves mention. The Saddhammopayana edited for the P.T.S. saddhammo- by Richard Morris and published payana. j n the J.P.T.S., 1887, is a most notable work on Buddhism. It is written entirely in verse and completed in 629 stanzas. It begins with a prologue and is closed with an epilogue, the author introducing himself in the prologue under the name and designation of Brahmacarx Buddhasomapiya. 1 He was undoubtedly a Buddhist teacher of Ceylon. The work, as its title implies, deals with the Way of the Good Faith. We can broadly divide it into two parts, the first of which contains an edification of the dangers or dis- advantages of things moral and the second, that the rewards or advantages (anisamsa) of things moral. The author dwells on such topics of the saddhamma as akkhana, dasa akusala, petadukkha, papadinava, punnaphala, dananisamsa, and the rest. Though the views of the author are not in any way new, the manner of treatment of each topic is masterly, and his style is at once easy, dignified, and res- trained. Such a treatment of the subject cannot be expected from one who had not long pondered over it and thoroughly assimilated the fundamental 1 Namato Buddhasomassa piyasabrahmacaxino — Saddham- mopayana, verse 3. ■ Pali Literary Pieces 627 principles of Buddhism. He has nowhere slavishly followed any earlier authority — a fact which may be clearly brought home to the reader by a com- parison between the Praises of sila (sxlaixisariisa) in Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga and those in the Saddhammopayana : — (1) Visuddhimagga — “ Na Ganga, Yamuna capi, Sarabhu va Sarasvati, ninnaga va’ ciravatl Mahi va pi mahanadi Sakkunanti visodheturii tam malam idha paninam, Visodhayati sattanaih yam ve sxlajalam malam.” (Vol. I, p. 10.) (2) Saddhammopayana — Idaih hi sllaratanam idhaloke parattha ca anisamsavare datva paccha papeti nibbutim Paccakkliam hinajaccam hi aecantolara- vamsaja narinda sxlasampannaih namassantxha bhavato. (Verses 415-416.) The Pahcagatidlpana has been edited by M. Leon Peer (J.P.T.S., 1884, pp. 152-161). aiioagati ipana. ^ . g wr ^ en U4 stanzas. This work tells us of the five destinies which are in store of beings according as they coxximit good or bad deeds in this world by body, mind, etc. This text furnishes us with an interesting piece of information regarding different hells, namely, Sanjiva, Kalasutta, Samghata, Roruva, Maharoruva, Tapa, Mahatapa, and Avici. Those who kill and cause living beings to be killed out of avarice, delusion, fear, and anger must go to the Sanjiva hell. For one thousand years they suffer in this hell being subjected to continual torments without losing life and con- sciousness. Those who cause injury or do harmful deeds to friends and parents, speak falsehood and backbite others must go to the Kalasutta hell. 628 A History of Pali Literature In this hell they are cut to pieces with burning saws. Those who kill goats, sheep, jackals, hares, deer, pigs, etc., are consigned to the Sanghata hell, where they are huddled up in one place and then beaten to death. Those who cause mental and bodily pain to others or cheat others or are misers have to go to the Roruva hell, where they make terrible noise while being burnt in the terrific fire of hell. Those who steal things belonging to gods, brahmans, and preceptors, those who misappropriate the property of others kept in trust with them, and those who destroy things entrusted to their care are cast into the Maharoruva hell, where they make a more terrible noise while being consumed by a fire fiercer than that in the Roruva hell. Those who cause the death of living beings by throwing them into the Davadaha fire, etc., have to go to the Tapa hell, where they have to suffer being burnt in a dreadful fire. Those who cause the death of beings by throwing them into greater Davadaha fire must go to the Mahatapa hell, where they have to suffer still more by being burnt in a greater fire. Those who injure men of great virtue and those who kill parents, arahats, or preceptors must sink into the Avici hell, where they suffer being burnt in such a terrible fire that would consume even the hardest things. In this hell there is not a least wave of happiness, it is therefore called the Avici or waveless. Besides these hells, mention is made of a hell called the Patapana, where people suffer by being burnt in fires that are much more terrific than those of the Tapa and Mahatapa hells. Each hell has four Ussadanirayas, viz., Milhakupa, Kukkula, Asipatta- vana, and Nadi. Those who are in the Mahaniraya have to proceed to Milhakupa when released. In this terrible hell they are bitten by a host of worms. Thence they go to Kukkula where they are fried like mustard seeds on a burning pan. Coming out of Kukkula they find before them a beautiful tree of fruits and flowers where they take shelter for relief 629 Pali Literary Pieces from torments. As soon as they reach the tree they are attacked by birds of prey such as vultures, owls, etc. They are killed by these animals which they make a repast on their flesh. Those who are traitors must go to the Asipattavana where they are torn and eaten up by bitches, vultures, owls, etc. Those who steal money will also suffer in this hell by being compelled to swallow iron balls and molten brass. Those who kill cows and oxen, suffer in this hell by being eaten up by dogs having large teeth. Those who kill aquatic animals will have to go to the fearful VaitaranI river where the water is as hot as a molten brass. Those who prostitute justice by accepting bribes will be cut to pieces in an iron wheel. Those who destroy paddy have to suffer in the Kukkula hell. Those who cherish anger in their heart are reborn as swans and pigeons. Those who are haughty and angry are reborn as snakes. Those who are jealous and miserly are reborn as monkeys. Those who are miserly, irritable, and fond of backbiting are reborn as tigers, bears, cats, etc. Those who are charitable but angry at the same time are reborn as big Garudas. Those who are deceitful and charitable are reborn as great Asuras. Those who neglect their friends on account of their pride are reborn as dogs and asses. Those who are envious, cherish anger, or become happy at sight of sufferings of others are reborn in Yamaloka and the demon world. (Cf. the description of hell in the Markandeya Pur ana.) There is nothing new to be learnt from this poem, new in the sense of that which is different from what we read in some of the Jatakas and suttas and particularly in the canonical text, Petavatthu. The real literary value of this poem consists in the simplicity of its diction and the handy form which is peculiar to a later digest of doctrines that are old. CHAPTER IX PALI GRAMMARS, LEXICOGRAPHIES, AND WORKS ON PROSODY, ETC. Vyakarana is the accepted Indian term to denote a book of grammar. This very term was used to denote one of the six Vedangas, or sciences or treatises auxiliary to the four Vedas. We have in the ancient vocabulary another term to denote another amongst the six Vedangas, namely, the Chandas or treatise or treatises on metre or prosody. The treatises on Alahkara or Poetics were later offshoots of the treatises on grammar. The begin- nings of lexicography (abhidhana) can similarly be traced in the Nigrantha sections of the treatises on exegetical etymology — the Nirukta denoting another amongst the six Vedangas. Corresponding to the Sanskrit Vyakarana we have the Pah Veyya- karana, counted among the nine types of literary texts or compositions (navangam satthu-sasanam). But the Pali term, as explained by Buddhaghosa and other Buddhist commentators, was far from signifying any treatise on grammar. They have taken it to represent that distinct literary type which is characterised by prose exegeses, the Abhidhamma books being mentioned as chief examples of such a type . 1 * There is indeed another Pah word, Vyakarana, which is phonetically the exact equivalent of the Sanskrit Vyakarana, but in Buddhist terminology it means 4 announcement or prediction ’. The term 4 Veyyakarana 5 means 4 exposition or explanation, the function of which is to make things exphcit or clear ’. If this term be apphed to a treatise on grammar, we can under- stand that the main function of grammar is to 1 Sumangalavilasim, part I, p. 24. <4 Sakalam Abliidhamma Pitakam niggathaka -suttam tam veyyakaranan ti veditabbam.” Pali Grammars 631 help expositions of texts by clearing up the connec- tions of letters, words, sentences, their sequence, and the rest. The importance of grammar has been sufficiently emphasized in early Buddhism in a verse of the Dhammapada which reads : — “ Vltatanho anadano niruttipadakovido akkharanam sannipatam janna pubbaparanica sa ve antimasariro mahapanno (mahapuriso) ti 1 vuccati.” In this important dictum a great man or a man of knowledge is expected to be conversant with the rules of construction of sentences, com- bination of letters or syllables in words, and deter- mination of sequence or syntax. Here the most important term is nirutti which may be taken to mean ‘ verbal analysis ‘ glossology ‘ use or ex- pression of a language or ‘ grammatical and logical explanation of the words or text of the Buddhist scriptures’ (Childers, Pali Dictionary, Subvoce Nirutti). Thus we may understand that the need of grammatical analysis and grammatical treatises came to be felt by the exigency of exposi- tion, and this point has been well brought out in the Nettipakarana (pp. 8-9). Pada, akkara, vyanjana, akara, nirutti are the terms that are of use in a treatise on grammar. Sankasana, pakasana, vivarana, and the rest are the terms that are of use in an exegetical treatise. The Netti says “ Bhagava akkharehi sahkaseti, padehi pakaseti, byahjanelii vivarati, akarehi vibhajati, niruttlhi uttanikaroti, niddesehi pannapeti : akkharehi ca padehica uggha- teti, byanjanehi ca akarehi ca vipancayati, niruttlhi niddesehi ca vitthareti.” So far as Buddhism is concerned, the develop- ment of grammar, lexicography, and works on prosody took place long after the development of literature itself and it appears that no need of a separate book of grammar for the teaching or learn- 19 1 Dhammapada, v. 352. 632 A History of Pali Literature ing of Pali was felt so long as India remained tlie home of the language. There were certainly some codified rules of grammar to which the language of the Pali pitakas conformed. It cannot surely be doubted that a wonderful linguistic genius has been displayed in the coinage and manipulation of many new technical terms and expressions which could not have been possible but for a close and intimate acquaintance with the fundamental prin- ciples of grammar and phonology. We may venture to suggest that there was no book of Pali grammar in existence till the time of the three great Pali commentators, Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosa, and Dhammapala. All of them appear to have ex- plained the grammatical construction of Pali words by the rules of Panini quoted verbatim in Pali, e.g., Sutta Nipata commentary, Vol. I, p. 23, vattamana- samlpe vattamana vacanalakkhana, Panini, III. 3. 131. It appears that Buddhaghosa studied the great grammar of Panini. In the Visuddhimagga (P.T.S. Edition, pp. 49JL-492, ‘ Indriyasaccaniddeso ’) we read : — “ Ko pana nesam indriyattho namati ? Inda- lingattho indriyattho; indadesitattho indriyattho; indaditthattho indriyattho ; indasitthattho indriyat- tho ; indajutthattho indriyattho : so sabbo pi idha yathayogam yujjati. Bhagava hi gamma- sambuddho paramissariyabhavato indo, kusala- kusalam ca kammam, kammesu kassaci issariya- bhavato. Ten’ ev’ettha kammasanjanitani tava indriyani kusalakusalakammam ulhngenti. Tena ca sitthaniti indalingatthena indasitthatthena ca indri- yani. Sabban eva pan’ etani Bhagavata yatha- bhutato pakasitani abhisambuddhani ca ti inda- desitatthena indaditthatthena ca indriyani. Ten’eva Bhagavata munindena kanici gocarasevanaya, kanici bhavanasevanaya sevitanzti indajutthat- thenapi etani indriyani.” Buddhaghosa goes on to add : — “ Api ca adhipaccasahkhatena issariyatthena pi etani indriyani. Cakkhuvinnanadippavattiyam Pali Grammars 633 hi eakkhadlnarii siddham adhipaceam, tasmim tikkhe tikkhatta, mande mandattati. Ayam tav’ ettha atthato vinicehayo.” These explanations of ‘ Indriya 5 are evidently a reminiscence of Panini, V. 2, 93. “ Indriyam indralingam indradrstam indrajustam indradattam iti va.” In the grammar of Panini, there is a mention of apatti in the sense of prdpti and in this sense too, apatti occurs several times in the Samantapasadika. This seems also to show that Buddhaghosa knew of and utilised the work of Panini. If Panini had remained the standard gram- matical authority with the Buddhist scholiasts who flourished in the 5th or 6th century A.D., the ascrip- tion of the first Pah grammar to the authorship of Kaccayana or Mahakaccayana, an immediate disciple of the Buddha, becomes unjustifiable on account of the anachronism that it involves. If any authoritative book of Pah grammar were in existence when Buddhaghosa and Dhammapala wrote their commentaries, there is no reason why they should seek guidance from the rules of Panini rather than from those of Kaccayana. We may indeed maintain that the first Pah grammar, attributed to Kaccayana, was a compilation made by some Buddhist teachers of Ceylon and that the ascription of its authorship to Kaccayana cannot be justified except on the ground that the necessity for grammatical study of the Pah texts was particularly felt in the tradition of Kaccayana who even according to Buddha’s own estimate was a past master in the art and method of exegesis or analytical exposition. Even as regards Kaccayana’ s grammar, the unknown Pah compiler of Ceylon can hardly claim any originality in view of the fact that barring certain special rules introduced to meet certain exceptional cases, the bulk of the treatise is based verbatim on the Sanskrit grammar of Katantra. The indebtedness of the Pah grammar to some such Sanskrit authority is frankly admitted in the aphorism, 1. 1. 8. (Para- 634 A History of Pali Literature samannapayoge), and clearly brought out in the vutti or gloss of the same : “ Ya ca pana sakkatagandhesu samanna . . . . pa j unhate.” The next standard book of Pali grammar to be noted is the Rupasiddhi or Maharupasiddhi based on Kaecayana’s work. The Balavatara is the second important work that was produced in Ceylon on the lines of Kaecayana’s work and its only importance lies in the re-arrangement of the aphorisms of Kaccayana. Passing over the txkas and glosses on Kaccayana’s grammar, the Rupasiddhi and Balavatara, we have to mention the Saddanlti and the Mukhamatthadlpanl as the two later grammatical works of outstanding merit. The earliest known Pali lexicography is the Abhidh&nappadipika which too must stand to the credit of the Pali scholars of Ceylon. The plan of this lexicography seems to have been conceived on the model of the Sanskrit kosa of Amarasingha who is taken, for some good reasons, to be a Buddhist by faith. The Abhidhanappadfpika just like its Sanskrit prototype is a dictionary of synonyms. It is far from having any alphabetical arrangement of words, which was adopted in some later works, such as Ekakkharakosa and the Abhidhanappadfpika suci. The beginnings of Pali lexicography may, however, be clearly traced in the Vevacanahara chapter of the Nettipakarana and the Petakopadesa. The dictionary method of making the meaning of a term or word clear is indeed extensively used in the Pali Abhidhamma books and in some portions of the nikayas. Pah literature is conspicuous by the absence of any noteworthy work on Poetics. If there be any such work, we may safely take it to be based on some Sanskrit authority. There are a few Pah works on metre notably the Vuttodaya and the Subodhalankara. With regard to all these works on prosody, it may suffice to say that they are far from being original productions. Pali Grammars 635 The three principal grammarians are Kaccayana, Books of grammar. alld the auth ° r ° f tlle Kaccayana’s Pali grammar 1 — Kaccayana is reported to be the author of the first Pah grammar called Susandhikappa. There are many suttas in Kaccayana’s grammar which are identical with those of the Katantravyakarana. This grammar is said to have been carried into Burma early in the fifth century A.D. As helps to the grammar of Kaccayana, there are Rupasiddhi 2 , Balavatara 3 , which consists of 7 chapters, Mahanirutti, Culanirutti, Niruttipitaka, and Manjusatxkavyakhya. As helps to the grammar of Moggallana, there are Payogasiddhi, Moggallayanavutti, Susaddasiddhi and Padasadhana 4 or Moggallana Saddattharatna- 1 The oldest and best commentary on Kacc&yana’s Pali grammar is Mukliattadipanl written by Aearya Vimalabuddhi. This work is commonly known as Nyasa. There is a paper entitled “Note on the Pali Grammarian, Kaccayana ” (Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1882). The late Dr. Satish Chandra Vidyabhusana edited Kaccayana’s grammar. Mason’s edition of this grammar is noteworthy. 2 Rupasiddhi - t-i ka ascribed to Dlpamkara should be read along with the text to get a clear idea of the Pali grammar. GrunwedePs Rupasiddhi, Berlin, 1883, is noteworthy. There are editions con- taining Burmese interpretations of the Rupasiddhi (vide supple- mentary catalogue of Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit Books in the British Museum, p. 442, compiled by L. D, Barnett, 1928). 3 Balavatara by Dharmakitti ; Balavatara, ed. Sri Dharmarama ; Balavatara with tika, ed. Sumahgala, Colombo, 1893. It is a work on Pali grammar and is the most exhaustively used handbook in Ceylon on the subject. It is the smallest grammar extant and based on Kaccayana’s work. There is an abridgement of the Balavatara with Pali sutras and Sinhalese commentary composed by Revd. Sitinamaluwa Dhammajoti and edited by Jinaratana Thera and D. A. DaSilva, Batuwantudava, second edition, Colombo, 1913. There is a word- for-word Burmese interpretation of the Balavatara, Rangoon, 1915. The Balavatara has been translated into English by Mr. H. T. DaSilva with the co-operation of the Rev. Katane Oopatissa Thera and revised by Woodward, Pegu, 1915, * There is a commentary on Padasadhana, a Pali grammatical work on the system of Moggallana, written, by Sri Rahula Thera and discovered by Louis De Zoysa. 636 A History of Pali Literature kara which consists of six sections dealing with sadda, sandhi, samasa, verbs, prefixes, and suffixes. As helps to the grammar called Saddaniti 1 , there is only one work called Culasaddanxti. The Saddaniti is still regarded as a classic in Burma. Among other treatises on Pali grammar may he counted the following : — Sambandhacinta, Saddasaratthajalini (a good book on Pali Philology), Kaccayanabheda, Sad- datthabhedaeinta, Karika, Karikavutti, Vibhat- tyattha, Gandhatthi, Vacakopadesa, Nayalakkhana- vibhAvani, Niruttisangha, Kaccayanasara, Vibhat- tyatthadipani, Sanvannanayadipani, Vaccavacaka, Saddavutti, Balappabodhana 2 , Karakapupphaman- jari, Kaccayanadipani, Gulhatthadlpani, Mukha- mattasAra, Saddavindu 3 , Saddakalika, Saddavinic- caya, Bijanga, Dhatupatha, Sudhiramukhamandan- dana 4 , etc., with their commentaries and supple- mentary commentaries. Kaccayana, as we have already pointed out, is the oldest of all Pali grammarians. Readers are referred to Kaccayana’s Sandhikappa 5 (J.P.T.S., 1882). Nepatikavannana is a work on Pali indeclinable participles. Saddamala is a comprehensive Pali grammar based on the grammar of Kaee&yana. 1 There is a book named Dhatuatthadipam, by Hihgulwala Jinaratana, which contains a re-arrangement in material form of the roots mentioned in Aggavamsa’s Saddaniti. Saddaniti, La Grammaire Pali de’ Aggavamsa by Helmer Smith in 3 vols. is worth perusal. The date of this grammar is traditionally given as the 12th century A.D. This grammar consists of three parts, Padamala, Dhatumala (root numbers) and Suttamala (sutra number). It gives many quotations from the Pali canon as examples of grammatical rules. It is no doubt a standard work on Pali grammar and philology. It is undoubtedly a scholarly edition prepared by Helmer Smith. 2 It is a grammar for beginners. 3 It was written by Narada Thera. 4 It is a work on samasa of Pali compound nouns written by Att aragamavandararaj aguru, 5 On sandhi in Pali by R. C, Childers, J.R.A.S,, new series, VoL II, 1879. Pali Grammars 637 The development of grammar is a comparatively late phase of Pah literature, as late as the sixth or seventh century A.D., if not later still. Even in the grammar of Kaccayana, the debt to Sanskrit is freely acknowledged in one of the introductory aphorisms. Uptill the time of Buddhaghosa and Dhammapala, the Buddhist teachers as already pointed out, followed the authority of the grammar of Panini. It has only recently been detected that the Pah commentators have freely quoted the rules of Panini in accounting for grammatical formations of Pali words. Abhidhanappadlpika (by Moggailana Thera, ed. by W. Subhuti, 2nd edition. Lexicons. Colombo, 1883) 1 and Ekakkhara- kosa 2 are the two well-known Pah lexicons. The Abhidhanappadlpika was written by Moggailana in the reign of Parakramabahu the Great. It is the only ancient Pali dictionary in Ceylon and it follows the style and method of the Sanskrit Amarakosa (vide, Malalasekera, The Pali Literature of Ceylon, pp. 188-189). This work consists of three parts deahng with celestial, terrestrial, and miscellaneous objects and each part is subdivided into several sections. The whole book is a dictionary of synonyms. The last two sections of the last part are devoted to homonyms and indeclinable particles. This work is held in the highest esteem both in Burma and Ceylon (Ibid., p. 189). Subhuti’s edition of this dictionary with English and Sinhalese interpretations together with a complete Index of all the Pali words giving their meanings in Sinhalese deserves mention. R. C. Childers has published a very useful dictionary of the Pali language. In 1921, T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede brought out a Pali dictionary compiled mainly from col- lection by the former for 40 years which is a 1 Ferner, A complete Index to the Abhidhanappadlpika is a useful publication. 2 It is a small work on Pali lexicography, a vocabulary of words of one letter by Saddhammakitti Thera of Burma, 638 A History of Pali Literature publication of the P.T.S., London. Quite recently a critical dictionary begun by V. Trenckner and revised, continued, and edited by Dines Anderson and Helmer Smith has appeared in two parts (1924 and 1929). The beginnings of Indian lexicons are to be traced mainly in the Nighantu section of Yaska’s Nirukta. The Nettipakarana stands to the Pali canon in the same relation in which Yaska’s Nirukta stands to the Vedas. And it is in the Vevacanahara of the Netti, the chapter on homonyms, that the historians can clearly trace the early model of later lexicons. Vuttodaya 1 written by Sangharakkhita Thera, , , Kamandaki, and Chandoviciti are Works on prosody. paJ . ^ Subod ha- lankara 2 is a work on rhetoric by Sangharakkhita Thera. Kavisarapakaranam and Kavisaratika- nissaya are the two good books on prosody. A number of scholars, both European and „ . Indian, have made a study of Pali grammars and have embodied their researches in their treatises on Pah grammars. These treatises are named below : — (1) E. Bumouf — observations grammaticales sur quelques passages de 1’ Essai sur le Pah de Bumouf et Lassen — Paris, 1827. (2) B. Clough — compendious Pah grammar with a copious vocabulary in the same language — Colombo, 1824. (3) J. Minayeff — Grammaire Palie, traduite par St. Guyard, Paris, 1874. (4) J. Minayeff — Pah Grammar, a phonetic and morphological sketch of the Pah language, with an introductory essay 1 Vuttodaya (exposition of metre) by Sangharakkhita Thera, VoL XLVI, pt. I, (Col. G. E. Fryer). 2 Analysis and Text of Subodhalahkara or Easy Rhetoric by Sangharakkhita Thera, Vol. XLIV, pt. I, (Col. G. E. Fryer). Pali Grammars 639 on its form and character by J. M., 1872 ; translation from Russian into French by M. St. Guyard, 1874, rendered into English by Ch. G. Adams, 18 82. (5) E. Kuhn — Beitrage Zur Pali Grammatik, Berlin, 1875. (6) 0. Frankfurter — Handbook of Pali being an elementary grammar, 1883. (7) E. Muller — A simplified grammar of the Pali language, London, 1884. (8) V. Henry — Precis de Grammaire Palie accompague d’ um choix de textes Graduis, Paris, 1894. (9) Geiger — Pali Literatur und sprache (Grundriss der Indo Arischen Philo- logie and Altertumskunde). (10) E. Windisch, uber den sprachlichen charakter des Pah, Paris, 1906. (11) H. H. Tilbe— Pali Grammar, Rangoon, 1899. (12) J. Grey — Elementary Pali Grammar, Calcutta, 1905. (13) Charles Duroiselle — A Practical Grammar of the Pali Language, Rangoon, 1906. (14) Senart — Kaccayanappakaranani (1868- 70). (15) E. Kuhn — Kaec&yanappakaranae Speci- men, Halle, 1869. (16) Nyanatilaka — Kleine systematische Pali Grammatik, Breslau, 1911. (17) Grunwedel — Rupasiddhi, Berlin, 1883. (18) Tha Do Oung — A Grammar of the Pali language (after Kaccayana), Vols. I, II, III, and IV. (19) Subhuti — Nam am ala. (20) Sri Dharmarama — Balavatara by Dharmakirti. (21) H. Sumangala — Balavatara with tika, Colombo, 1893. (22) Chakra varty and Ghosh — Pah Grammar. 640 A History of Pali Literature (23) Pe Maung Tin — Pali Grammar. (24) Yidhusekhar Sastri — Pali Prakasa. (25) J. Takakusu — A Pali Chrestomathy, Tokyo, 1900. Of all these works on Pali grammar, Mr. Tha Do Oung has treated this subject exhaustively. The first volume deals with sandhi, nama, karaka, and samasa ; the second volume contains taddhita, kita, unadi, akhyata, upasagga, and nipata parti- ciples ; the third and fourth volumes deal with word roots, ten figures of speech and 40 modes of expression, and prosody. Pah grammar by Muller and Duroiselle are also very useful. Prof. Chakra vartty’s grammar is worth perusal. Pandit Vidhusekhar Sastrx’s work is a compilation and as such it is useful. The following are the noteworthy publications : Morris — Notes and Queries, J.P.T.S., 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1889, and 1891-93. E. Muller — A glossary of Pali proper names, J.P.T.S., 1888. Morris — Contributions to Pali Lexicography, Academy, 1890-91. Mabel Bode — Index to Pali words discussed in translations, J.P.T.S., 1897-1901. J. Takakusu — A Pah Chrestomathy with notes and glossary giving Sanskrit and Chinese equivalents, Tokyo, 1900. E. Windiseh — Uber den Sprachlichen charak- ter des Pah Actes du XlVe. Congress Internat des Orientalistes, Paris, 1906. Mrs. Rhys Davids, Similes in the Nikayas, J.P.T.S., 1907-8 and Mrs. Rhys Davids, Sakya or Buddhist origins, chapter XVII, pp. 314 foil. The Dative Plural in Pah (pubhshed in Sir Asutosh Mookerjee Silver Jubilee MalumdarTshastri. volumes, Vol. Ill, Orientalia— Pt. 2, pp. 31-34). It is a valuable paper and should attract the attention of scholars interested in Pali grammar and philology. Prof. Majumdar Pali Grammars 641 has shown in it that in the inscriptions of Asoka and of his grandson there are ten instances of the use of dative plural in 4 Epigraphic Pali \ These occur not only in one version or at one place but at such distant places as Dhauli, Jaugada, Barabar hills, Nagarjuni hills, Kalsi, Mansera, and Girnar. In Barabar and Nagarjuni cave inscriptions the dative is the only form in use showing that the old form was better preserved in the Magadhi. As for the Rock Edicts some versions use the dative and some the genitive. The Shahbazgarhi text is the only version which has not used even once the dative form. Majumdar sums up his argument by saying that we find promiscuous use of the dative and genitive plurals in ‘Epigraphic Pah’. If the old Buddhist and Jaina texts he carefully examined in this light, some instances of the dative plural will be found in literary Pah and Prakrit also. When the genitive plural began to be used for the dative plural, their singular forms also came to be confused in use. This confusion in the singular was also helped by the fact that in the language of the later Vedic texts the dative singular of feminine nouns was used for the genitive. But as the dative singular Prakritie form had not been confused in shape with any other form, it fingered longer than the dative plural. Dative singular is almost as common in Asokan dialects as in Sanskrit. It lingered in literary Pali but died out in the Prakrits of the dramas. CONCLUSION In the foregoing pages an attempt has been made to give a general survey of canonical and non- canonieal Pali literature. Some distinct types of literature came to be developed within a growing collection of texts of traditional authority. This collection came indeed to be closed at a certain date which is undoubtedly pre-Christian. The origin and development of even just one recension of the early corpus of Buddhist literature covered a pretty long period of about five centuries, which is very imperfect- ly known or understood by the meagre evidence of Sanskrit literature. The Pali pitakas coupled with the Jain agama texts and some of the Sanskrit treatises like Panini’s grammar, Katyayana’s Vartika, Patanjali’s Mahabhasya, and the contem- porary inscriptions and coin-legends fill up a very important gap in the history of ancient Indian humanity. The particular literature with which we are. concerned developed under aegis of religion which was destined to be a great civilising influence in the East, highly ethical in tone, dignified in the forms of expression, dramatic in setting, direct in narration, methodical in argument, and mechanical in arrangement. This wealth of literary output was shown forth in its perspicuity and grandeur in the garb of a new literary idiom having a place midway between the Vedic Sanskrit on one hand and classical Sanskrit and ArdhamagadhI on the other. In between the closing of the Pali canon and the beginning of the great commentaries and chronicles we had to take note of an imperfectly known period of transition which became remarkable by the production of so great a work of literary merit and doctrinal importance as the Milinda Panha occupy- ing, as it does, the foremost place for its lucid, elegant, and rhythmical prose style in the whole range of Sanskrit and Sanskritic literature. The Pali com- Conclusion 643 mentaries, as we have them, were produced at a period far beyond the Maury an and Sunga, the Kanva and the Kushana. The Augustan period of Pali literature began with these commentaries and closed with the earlier epic chronicles of Ceylon. The period which followed was a decadent one, and it became noted only for the compilation of some useful manuals, some books of grammar and lexico- graphy chiefly in imitation of some Sanskrit works of India, and a few metrical compositions exhibiting the wealth of Ceylonese poetical imagination and plagiarism. Pali literature would have been as dead but for its rejuvination in Burma, the Buddhist country, which has produced enormous literature of considerable importance during the last three or four centuries. From the geographical allusions it may be deduced that the main bulk of the Pali canon developed within the territorial limits of the Middle Country and some parts of Western India, notably Mathura and Ujjain. The Milinda Pahha is full of associations reminiscent of the life, manners, and customs of the north-western region of India, which became the meeting place of Indo- Aryan and Graeco-Bactrian civilisation. The com- mentaries clearly point to Kancipura, Kaveripattana, Madura, and Anuradhapura as notable centres of Pali Buddhism. Along with South India one has got to take Sirikhetta (modem Prome) in Burma as the centre of Pali Abhidhamma culture. There is reason to believe that Pali literature developed in one shape or another in Lower Burma giving rise to Pah law codes, compiled more or less on the model of Manu’s code. The inscriptions and sculp- tures are not without their important bearings on the history of Pali literature. We can say that the lower limit of the evolution of Pah literature is represented by the KalyanI stone inscriptions of King Dhammaeeti of Pegu. In - dealing effectively with Pali literature, one has got to consider the history of literary development in India, Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. It still remains a problem for 644 A History of Pali Literature modern historian and philologist to find out how far Pali literature has influenced the vernaculars of these four countries. There is sufficient evidence to prove that Sinhalese developed as a vernacular with its wealth of literature as early as the 2nd century B.C. Pali literature is incomplete by itself. It is wanting in many works of secular interest, such as those on mathematics, astronomy, astrology, medi- cine, logic, and royal polity. The few such works that we have are of recent origin and as such, they do not fall within the scope of our present investiga- tion. Even as a pure literature, it has just one work, the Jinacarita, which deserves the name of a Kavya. The Jinacarita itself is chiefly based upon the Jataka Nidana-katha which latter may be regarded as a Kavya in prose, or in prose and verse. There is hardly a drama or a novel, strictly so called. But there are a great many suttas, parti- cularly those contained in the Digha Mkaya, the Brahmajala, the Samannaphala, the Sakkapanha, the Mahaparinibbana, which have a dramatic setting. The literary art employed in the Samannaphala Sutta has been extensively developed in the Milinda Panha. In reading the suttas of the Sagatha-vagga of the Samyutta Nikaya one is apt to feel as though there is a stage-action in which one devaputta appears to test the knowledge of the Buddha and retires to make room for the next man waiting. In short, Pali literature abounds in dramatic elements without having a single book of drama. The literary art employed in the historical narrative of the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta and in those of the Milinda Panha, the Udenavatthu and the Visakha- vatthu is a novelty. There are several legendary and historical accounts of the life and career of the Buddha and his disciples and followers — Theras, Therls, Upasakas, and Upasikas which are interesting biographical sketches without a rigorous biographical treatment. Conclusion 645 Even if it be assumed that there are no biographies in the modern sense, there is no getting away from the fact that the Buddhist teachers successfully tried to conceive and develop a universal science of biography in the Jataka Nidana-katha. There is just one story of creation in the Pali Agganna Suttanta. The way in which it has been introduced goes to show that it was rather a citation for some purpose than an original production. The early Buddhist attitude towards ornate poetry or imaginative literature was far from appreciative. Such poetry was viewed with dis- favour, the superabundance of it being dreaded as a great future danger of the good faith (anagata- bhaya) uptill the time of Asoka. The development of ornate poetry was sought to be accounted for in early Buddhism by an extraneous influence. A highly imaginative literature developed nevertheless within the four corners of Pali Buddhism with its wealth of gathas and alcJchdnas, highly ethical or spiritual in tone. We come across an example of song in the Sakkapanha Suttanta, which is said to have been sung by Pancasikha, the heavenly minstrel. Other pieces described as songs in some of the Birth-stories and Buddhist legends are hardly distinguishable from the main body of gathas. Some of the Psalms of the Early Brethren and Sisters, which are musings of emancipated hearts, e.g., the Talaputa-thera-gatha and the Ambapali-gatha, are truly musical in tone. One can say that Pali literature is sufficiently rich in the wealth of lyrics and reflective poetry. The Dhammapada stands out as a remarkable literature in the field of didactic poetry. Its richness consists also in the wealth of similes and parables deserving a separate and careful study as elements that apparently influenced the later Kavya poetry of India and have their parallels in the early Gospels of Christianity. To counteract the influence of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, particularly that of the former. 646 A History of Pali Literature the Buddhists began to develop the Jatakas, supply- ing thereby so many interesting themes for artistic delineation and materials for Indian dramas and kavyas. So far as the epic and historical chronicles go, the position of Pali literature is almost unique, the mediaeval Kaskmere chronicle, Rajatarangiru, being the only notable Sanskrit work of their kind. Pah literature has no book on logic, but in the Kathavatthu we have a great book of controversy, which lies at the immediate background of the entire Nyaya literature. Strictly speaking, there is no medical treatise in Pah, but in the Buddhist study of the 32 parts of the human organism we have something which is of paramount interest to a student of medical science. Prior to the compila- tion of the Law codes, we meet with in Pah the definitions of karma, murder, theft, and the rest which anticipate many points in modem jurispru- dence. There may not be a Buddhacarita or a Kum§rasambhava in Pali, but there is certainly the Vatthugatha of the Nalaka Sutta in the Sutta Nipata to serve as a clear model of them. The manuals of psychological ethics must always be considered as notable contributions to Indian culture. These and other points of interest and im- portance are left for future study and investigation. In spite of the fruitful labours of great many scholars, we are still on the threshold of the study of Pah literature, to evaluate and appreciate which one has to look at it in different aspects, just as one looks at a gem by its facet. It has stih its immense possibilities as a means of developing modern hterature, both in the East and the West. The Amitabha, the Jagajjyoti, the Buddhadevacarita, the Asoka, the Ajatasatru, and the Kinnar! are but the few works produced yet in modem Bengah utilising the materials of Pah and Sanskrit Buddhist hterature. As regards old Bengah Conclusion 647 literature, Pali literature has its legacy in the plot of Vidyasundara set forth in the story of the Maha-ummagga-Jataka and the song composed in praise of the princess Pancalacandi. The creation of literary types is indeed the most distinctive feature of the literature, a bird’s eye view of which is given in the present work. APPENDIX A HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES IN THE PALI PITAKAS I.— In the Vinaya Pitaka The Vinaya Pitaka is an important store-house of interesting geographical and historical information of the time of which it speaks. There is a very important reference to the four boundaries of the Middle Country or the Majjhimadesa as under- stood by the Buddhists, and to the various sites, towns, and villages included therein, and associated very intimately with the Buddha and Buddhism. Interesting sidelights are also thrown on the political history, and social and economic conditions of the time. Bimbisara is said to have ruled over 80,000 townships ... (Vinaya Texts, S.R.E., II, p. 1) and there is onca , e c. were go,000 overseers over the townships {Ibid., II, p. 4). That the Magadha kings were in fear of the Vajjians is testified to by the fact that Sunldha and Vassakara are referred to as building a fort at Pataliputta to crush the Vajjians {Ibid., II, p. 101). The Magadha king had a royal physician, Jlvaka by name, who was asked by the king to cure a setthi who did good service to the king and to the merchants’ guild {Ibid., II, 181). Jlvaka also cured King Pradyota of Avanti of jaundice {Ibid., II, pp. 187 fh). His success in operating on the fistula of King Bimbisara won for him the post of royal physician, and he was afterwards appointed by the king physician to the Buddha and the congregation of bhikkhus that lived with him. Once we are told Magadha was visited by five kinds of diseases (eg., leprosy, goitre, asthma, dry leprosy, and apamara), and Jivaka had to treat the bhikkhu patients only suffering from those diseases (Vinaya Pitaka, I, p. 71). Once we are told that King Bimbisara went to have his bath in the river Tapoda that flew by this ancient city ; when he reached the river, he saw the bhikkhus taking their bath. The city gate was closed and so he could not enter the city of Rajagaha. Next morning he came after taking his bath without proper dress to the Buddha who gave him instruction and advised the bhikkhus not to spend so much time in their bath {Ibid., IV, 1 16-117). Bimbisara’s son was Ajatasattu, whose chief minister was Vassakara who began the work of repairing the fort of Rajagaha in the kingdom of Magadha. He needed timber for the purpose and went to the reserved forest, but was informed that the wood was taken by a bhikkhu named Appendix A 649 Dhaniya. Vassakara complained to King Bimbisara about it. It was brought to the notice of the Buddha who ordered the bhikkhus not to take anything not offered or presented to them (Ibid., Ill, 41-45). There is a reference which suggests that the palace of Bimbisara should be of gold (Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., II, p. 65). There was a sugar factory at Rajagaha (Ibid., II, p. 67) ; and the country was rich in molasses (Vinaya Pitaka, I, 226). The town of VaiSali too was well provided with food, and was generally prosperous (Vinaya Texts, II, 117). There is a reference to the dancing girls asked to dance and greeted with applause (Vinaya Texts, II, 349). Of the notable bhikkhu disciples of the Master, mention is made of Sariputta and Moggallana (Ibid., II, 318, 353), Upali (Ibid., II, 395) who discussed the manatta discipline of a bhikkhu with the Master, and Ananda through whose intercession Mahapajapati Gotam! with other Sakya ladies obtained permission for ordination (III, p. 322). Kakudlia, a Koliyan, was an attendant on Moggallana (Ibid., Ill, 234). Of the heretical teachers mention is made of Makkhali Gosala, Ajita Kesakamball, Pakudha Kaceayana, Sanjaya Belattliiputta, and Nigantha Nathaputta (Ibid., Ill, p. 79). References are made to Devadatta’s attempt to create a disunion among the bhikkhus in the Bhikkhu Samgha (Ibid., Ill, p. 251), and also to the two councils of Rajagaha and Vaisali (Ibid., Ill, 11th and 12th Khandhakas). When the First Great Council of the disciples of the Buddha was held after his parinirvana to compile the teachings of the Master, Yasa sent messengers to the bhikkhus of Avanti inviting them to come, and settle what is Dhamma, what is Vinaya, and what is not, and to help the spread of Dhamma and Vinaya (III, p. 394). To the east of the Middle Country or Majjhimadesa lay the town Kajangala, and beyond it Mahasala, Geographical. the south-east the river Salalavati, to the south, the town Setakannika, to the west the brahmana district of Thiina, and to the north, the mountain range called Usiradhvaja. Beyond these were the border countries and this side of these was the Middle Country (Vinaya Texts, II, pp. 38-39) . One of the most important towns of the MadhyadeSa was Rajagaha (Rajagriha-Giribraja) where the Gijjhakuta was and the Buddha stayed there for some time (Ibid., II, p. 1). From Rajagaha, a road lay to Andhakavinda which was once visited by 500 carts, all full of pots of sugar (Ibid., II, p. 93). Rajagaha was the capital city of King Bimbisara, while the court-physician Jlvaka is referred to as an inhabitant of this place (Ibid., II, pp. 184-5). But his birth-place was Magadha (Ibid., II, 173)- Jivaka was, however, educated at Taxila (Ibid ’, II,’ p. 174). Rajagaha had a gate which was closed in the evening, and nobody, not even the king, was allowed to 650 A History of Pali Literature enter the city after the gate was closed (Ibid., IV, 116-17). It was here at Rajagaha that Sariputta learned Buddha’s Dhamma from Assaji, one of the Pancavaggiya bhikkhus. Sariputta went to Rajagaha with his friend Moggallana where the Buddha was, and both of them were converted by the Master (Vinaya Pitaka, I, pp, 40 ff.). Rajagaha could boast of another physician (vejja) named Akasagotta (Ibid., I, p. 215). Veluvana, the bamboo park of Rajagaha, has often been referred to as a residence of the Master, When once the Buddha was here, Devadatta’s gain and fame were completely lost (Vinaya Pitaka, IV, p. 71). The Kalandakanivapa of Rajagaha has also been referred to as another residence of the Master, While he was once there, a party of six bhikkhus (chabbaggiya bhikkhu) went to attend the Giraggasamajja, a highly popular music of the day (Ibid., II, 107). A setthi of Rajagaha built a vihara for the bhikkhus. He had to take consent of the Buddha as to the bhikkhus’ dwelling in a vihara (Vinaya Pitaka, II, p. 146), References are made to a trader of Rajagaha who wanted to go to Patiyaloka (Ibid., IV, pp. 79-80), to a Sakyaputta named Upananda who, while at Rajagaha, was invited by his supporters (Ibid., IV, p. 98), to Upali, the son of a rich trader of Rajagaha, who was ordained as bhikkhu at the initiative of his parents (Ibid., IV, pp. 128-29). The Mahavagga tells us of an occasion when the Blessed One on his way to Vesali noticed bhikkhus with a superfluity of dress, and advised them as to the least quantity of robes a bhikkhu should require (Ibid., II, pp. 210 foil). The Cullavagga speaks of a setthi of Rajagaha who acquired a block of sandal wood, and made a bowl out of it for the bhikkhus (Vinaya Texts, III, p. 78). Pataligama was another important locality which was once visited by the Buddha accompanied by a great number of bhikkhus (Ibid., II, p. 97). Sunidha and Vassakara are referred to as building a fort at Pataligama to crush the Vajjians (Ibid., II, p. 101). No less important were Vesali and Savatthi. The former was well provided with food, the harvest was good, alms were easy to obtain, one could very well get a living by gleaning or through favour (Ibid., II, p, 117). 'There at Vesali was the Gotamaka shrine (Ibid., II, p. 210) where the Buddha stayed for some time. There lay a high road between Vesali and Rajagaha (Ibid., II, p. 210). The Buddha came to Vesali from Kapila- vastu whence a number of Sakya ladies came to receive, through the intercession of Ananda, ordination from the Master who at that time resided at the Kufagara hall in the Mahavana (Ibid., III, pp. 320foll.). The Cullavagga of the Vinaya Pitaka tells us an occasion when the Enlightened One was staying at the peak- roofed hall in the Mahavana (Cullavagga, VI, S.B.E., XX, p. 189). We are further told of a poor tailor of Vaisali who was very much bent on building a house for the Samgha (Ibid., Appendix A 651 pp. 190-91), In the 12th Khandhaka, there is the important reference to the Buddhist Council of Vesali {Ibid., III). References are often made to the Jetavana of Anathapindika at Savatthi (Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., I, p. 325) where the Buddha stayed. Another staying place of the Master there was the arama of Migaramata {Ibid., pt. Ill, p. 299). Kasi or Baranasi (i.e., Benares) and Kosala (Vinaya Texts, I, pp. 226, 312) often find mention in the Vinaya Pitaka. In course of his religious propaganda tour, the Master first went to Benares, then to Uruvela and then he visited Gayaslsa, Rajagaha, Kapilavatthu, and Savatthi {Ibid., I, pp. 116, 136, 210). There lay a road from Saketa to Savatthi {Ibid., p. 220). A few bhikkhus travelling on the road in the Kosala country went off the road to a cemetery to get themselves pamsukula robes (Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., II, p. 197). Brahmadatta, the legendary king of Benares, is invariably alluded to while intro- ducing a Jataka. In his time there was a king of Kosala named Dighiti who was not so wealthy as the king of Kasi. Brahmadatta went to wage war against the king of Kosala, and thus ensued a series of vicissitudes in which the king of Kosala suffered most, though his son Dlghavu ultimately brought the king of Kasi to his knees, and friendship was restored {Ibid., II, pp. 301 £f.). Yasa, a young nobleman of Benares, son of a setthi, had three places fixed for three seasons of the year (Vinaya Texts, I, pp. 102-108). Kosambi was another important place where at Ghosita- rama Buddha stayed from time to time (Vinaya Texts, II, p. 285 ; Ibid . , II, p. 376). There is a reference to the quarrelsome bhikkhus of Kosambi who came to Savatthi (Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., II, p. 318). The republican states of Pava and Kusinara are also men- tioned (Vinaya Texts, III, 370 and Ibid., pt. II, 135) and Roja, a member of the Mallas of Kusinara, is said to have gone to welcome the Buddha (Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., pt. XI, p. 135). Of less important places and localities, mention is made of Campa inhabited by a setfhi’s son name.d Sona Kolivisa^ (Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., II, p. 1), Avanti visited by Mahakaccana, and where there was a hill called Kuraraghara {Ibid . , II, 32) , Kotigama where Buddha resided for sometime {Ibid., II, p. 105), andBhad- diyanagara where lived a householder named Mendaka who was possessed of a miraculous power (Ibid., II, p. 121). ^ Reference is also made to Kitagiri where dwelt the wicked bhikkhus who were the followers of Assaji and Punabbasu {Ibid., II, p. ^347), to Anupiya, a town of the Mallas (Ibid., Ill, p. 224), to Saketa where dwelt a banker whose wife was suffering from head disease and who was treated by Jivaka (Ibid., II, ^pp.176 foil.), to the Gijjhakuta hill in Rajagaha which was visited by the Buddha (Ibid. , I, p. 239), and to Uttarakuru where Buddha is said to have gone to beg alms (Ibid., I, p. 124). 652 A History of Pali Literature Of important rivers, mention is made of Gahga, Yamuna, Aciravati, Mali!, and Sarabhu (Vinaya Texts, III, pp. 301-302). II. — In the Sutta Pitaka Historical The Samannaphala Suttanta (Digha, I.) is important from a historical point of view ; for it fur- In the Digha n j s i ies 11S w ith valuable information about the ^uttTpitaka 10 v ^ws of six leading thinkers (titthiyas) of the # time: Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala, Aj itakesakambali , Pukudha Kaccayana, Sanjaya Belatthiputta, and Nigantha Nathaputta. This sutta also gives us a list of crafts and occupations of the time, e.g., Dasakaputta (slaves), Kumbhakara (potters), Malakara (garland-makers), Hattha-roha (elephant-riders), Assaroha (cavalry), Rathika (charioteers), Danuggaha (archers), Alarika (cooks), Kappaka (barbers), Naha- paka (bath-attendants), Suda (confectioners), Rajaka (washer- men), Pesakara (weavers), and Nalakara (basket-makers). Another important historical allusion in this sutta is the fact which refers to Jivaka, the famous physician of the Buddha, and gives us an account of the visit paid to the Buddha by the patricide monarch of Magadha, the terrible Ajatasattu. In the concluding portion of the suttanta there Is an allusion to the actual murder of Bimbisara which his son Ajatasattu committed. The Ambattha Suttanta (Digha, I.) refers to King Pasenadi of Kosala, as well as to some famous sages of the time, e.g., Yamataggi, Ahgirasa, Bharadvaja, Vasettiia, Bhagu, and Ves- samitta. A famous brahmin teacher of Kosala and the teacher of Ambattha, Pokkharasadi, is said to have enjoyed the property given by King Pasenadi, the contemporary of the Buddha. The Sonadanda Suttanta (Digha, I.) refers to Campa visited by the Buddha with 500 monks, to Gaggara, a famous tank in Campa, and to King Bimbisara of Magadha and King Pasenadi of Kosala. This suttanta also tells us how the Ahga kingdom with its capital Campa was included in the Magadhan empire. While the Buddha was sojourning at Campa in the kingdom of Ahga, a brahmin named Sonadanda was in the enjoyment of the revenues of the town as it was given to him by Bimbisara of Magadha. Brahmin householders of Campa went to the Buddha. Sonadanda also accompanied them, and eventually all of them became lay supporters of the Buddha. The Mahali Suttanta (Digha, I.) refers to Buddha's dwelling at Vesali in a Kutagarasala in Mahavana. The Lohicca Suttanta (Digha, I.) refers to king of Kosala, to Salavatika inhabited by a brahmin named Lohicca, and to Pasenadi, king of Kasi-Kosala, who used to collect taxes from the inhabitants of Kasi-Kosala and to enjoy the income not alone but with his subordinates. Agopendix A 653 The Mahapadana Suttanta (Dlgha, II.) refers to the two famous disciples of the Buddha, Sariputta and Moggallana. The Mahaparinibbana Suttanta (Dlgha, II.) has a dramatic setting inasmuch as it represents King Ajatasattu of Magadha as appearing on a stage and indulging in a soliloquy giving an expression of his grim determination to annihilate his Vajjian rivals. It further relates that when the Buddha heard of this determination of the king, he remarked that so long as the Vajjians fulfilled the seven conditions of welfare, there would not be any danger for them. But, afterwards Ajatasattu is stated to have succeeded in annihilating the Vajjians with the help of his two ministers, Sunldha and Vassakara, when dis- sensions arose among the Vajjians. The suttanta also refers to some incidents of Buddha’s life, e.g., the visit of Subhadda to Buddha, and his conversation with the Lord, the passing away of the Lord, the homage of the Mallas, cremation of Buddha’s dead body, quarrel over the relics, the amicable distribution of relics by Dona, and erection of stupas over them. The Janavasabha Suttanta (Dlgha, II.) refers to King Bimbisara of Magadha as a righteous king. The Pasadika Suttanta JDigha, III.) refers to the news of the demise of Mahavira to Ananda at Samagama in the Malla country. The Atanatiya Suttanta (Dlgha, III.) states that the Blessed One dwelt in the Gijjhakuta mountain at Rajagaha. The Sanglti Suttanta (Dlgha, III.) informs us that Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, died at Pava. It further tells us that the Mallas of Pava are addressed as the Vasetfhas by the Buddha. This shows that the Mallas belonged to the Vasisfha gotra. Geographical The Ambattha Suttanta (Dlgha, I.) refers to a brahmin village of Kosala named Icchanahgala or Icchanahkala which was visited by the Buddha with a large retinue of 500 monks. It also refers to the Himalayan region. The Kutadanta Suttanta (Dlgha, I.) refers to a brahmin village named Khanumata visited by the Buddha with 500 monks. The Mahali Suttanta (Dlgha, I.) refers to Vesali inhabited by the brahmin messengers of Kosala and Magadha, and to a hermitage called Ghositarama at Kosambi. The Kevaddha Suttanta (Dlgha, I.) refers to Pavarika mango grove at Nalanda where the Buddha dwelt. It speaks of the prosperity of Nalanda which was inhabited by many people. The Tevijja Suttanta (Dlgha, I.) refers to a brahmin village in Kosala named Manasakata which was visited by the Buddha with 500 monks, and to the north of which flowed the river AciravatL On the banks of this river there was a mango grove. 654 A History of Pali Literature The Mahanidana Suttanta (Digha, II.) refers to a Kuru country named Kammassadhamma where the Buddha dwelt for some time. The Mahaparinibbana Suttanta (Digha, II.) states that the Exalted One went from Nalanda to Pataligama where Sunidha and Vassakara built a fort to crush the Vajjians. From Pataligama he went to Magadha where he had accepted the invitation of the two ministers, Sunidha and Vassakara. Thence he went to Kotigama ; and further he proceeded to Nadika where he dwelt at the Ginjaka abode. He then went to Vesali where he had accepted the invitation of the famous courtesan, Ambapall. The same suttanta refers to the Gijjhakuta-pabbata at Rajagaha where the Blessed One dwelt, to the river Gahga where the Buddha approached at the time when it was over- flowing, to Ajapala banyan tree on the banks of the river Neranjara where the Buddha obtained Enlightenment, to Isigili, Sltavana, and Veluvana at Rajagaha. This sutta also speaks of Gotamakanigrodha, Corapapata, Vebharapassa, Sattapanniguha, Kalandakanivapa, and of Jivaka’s mango grove as beautiful. It further refers to the river Kakuttha, Upavattana, the Salavana of the Mallas at Kusinara, and to the river named Hirannavati. This suttanta mentions Savatthi as a great city which was the resort of many wealthy nobles, brahmins, heads of houses, and believers in the Tathagata. Great cities such as Campa, Rajagaha, Savatthi, Saketa, Kosambi, and Baranasi are suggested as the places where the Blessed One should obtain pari- nibhana. The Mahasudassana Suttanta (Digha, II.) refers to the Salavana of the Mallas called Upavattana at Kusinara and to Campa, Rajagaha, Saketa, Savatthi, Kosambi, and Baranasi. Kusinara was also named as Kusavatl, the capital of the King Mahasudassana. Kusavatl was rich, prosperous, and full of many men. Alms could profusely be obtained there. The Janavasabha Suttanta (Digha, II.) refers to KasI- Kosala, Vajji-Malla, Cedi-Vamsa ; Kuru-Pancala, and Maccha- Surasena kingdoms. The Mahagovinda Suttanta (Digha, II.) refers to a number of great cities built by Govinda. They are : Dantapura of the Kalihgas, Potana of the Assakas, Ma'hissati of the Avantis, Roruka of the Sovlras, Mithila of the Videhas, Campa of the Ahgas, and Baranasi of the Kasis. The Sakkapahha Suttanta (Digha, II.) points out that to the east of Rajagaha there was a brahmin village called Ambasanda, and to the north there was a cave called Indasala in the Vediyaka mountain. The Mahasatipatthana Suttanta (Digha, II.) refers to the Buddha’s dwelling among the Kurus. It mentions the Kam- massadhamma, a village of the Kurus. The Payasi Suttanta (Digha, II.) refers to King Pasenadi Appendix A 655 of Kosala, and to a forest called Simsapavana which lay to the north of the city, Setavya. The Patika Suttanta (Digha, III.) refers to Annpiya as the country of the Mallas where the Buddha went for alms. It also refers to Buddha’s stay at Kutagarasala or the pinnacled house in the Mahavana at Vesali. The Udumbarika Sihanada Suttanta (Digha, III.) refers to the Gij j hakuta-pabbata at Rajagaha visited by the Buddha. The Cakkavatti Sihanada Suttanta (Digha, III.) men- tions that the Blessed One dwelt at Matula in the kingdom of Magadha. It refers to the capital called Ketumati of King Samkha, and to Jambudipa. The Dasuttara Suttanta (Digha, III.) states that the Blessed One dwelt at Campa on the side of the tank called Gaggara with 500 bhikkhus. Historical Important historical references in the Majjhinia Nikaya are mainly concerned with the life and itinerary AT .} r l the Majjhima 0 £ ^ Buddha and some of his disciples. Pitaka. Ihus we are told that the Blessed One once stayed at the foot of a big Sala tree in the Subhaga forest at Ukkattha (Yol. I, 1), at another time in the Jetavana hermitage of Anathapindika at SavatthI (I, 12; II, 22), at Ukkacela on the banks of the Ganges (I, 225), at Vesali in the Kiltagarasala at Mahavana (I, 227), at Savattlxi in the palace of Migaramata at Pubbarama (I, 251), at Velnvana at Rajagaha (I, 299) at Campa by the side of the tank Gaggara (I, 339), at Nalanda in the mango grove of Pavarika (I, 371), at Rajagaha in the Kalandakanivapa at Veluvana, a hermitage of the paribbajakas called Moranivapa (II, 1), at Mithila in the mango grove of Makhadeva (II, 74), at SavatthI (II, 196 ; III, 1, 15, 20), at Kusinara in the thicket known as Baliharana (II, 238), at Mahavana in a pinnacled house (II, 252), at Kapilavatthu among the Sakkas in the Nigrodharama (III, 109), at Ghositarama at Kosambi (III, 152), at Tapodarama at Rajagaha (III, 192), at Nagaravinda, a brahmin village of the Kosalans where the Blessed One went with a large assembly of bhikkhus (III, 290) as well as at Mukheluvana at Kajangala (III, 298), Of the places visited by the Buddha, mention is made of Mahavana (I, 108). The Master also went to the Kosalans for alms with a large retinue of monks (II, 45), to the Kurus for the same purpose with a retinue of monks and to the Kuru country called Tlmllakotthita (II, 54), to Devadaha, a country of the Sakkas (II, 214), and to Kammassadhamma or Kammassadhamma, a country of the Kurus (II, 261, 1, 55). Of his disciples and other prominent individuals, reference is made to Sariputta and Moggallana (I, 24-25), Kumarakassapa dwelling at Andhavana (I, 142), Ananda living at Vesali in the Veluva 656 A History of Pali Literature village (I, 340), Kassapa Buddha dwelling at Benares in the Deer Park at Isipatana where King Kiki of Benares came to see him (II, 49), Mahakaccana dwelling at Gundavana at Madhura (II, 83), Angulimala, a bandit, dwelling in the kingdom of King Pasenadi of Kosala (II, 97) and entering SavatthI for aims (II, 103), Brahmayu, an old brahmin of Mithila (II, 133), Ananda residing in the Kalandakanivapa at Yeluvana in Rajagaha shortly after the parinibbana of the Buddha (III, 7), Ajatasattu, king of Magadha (III, 7), Mahapajapati Gotami who approached the place where the Buddha was, saluted him, and entreated him to instruct and give a religious discourse to the bhikkkunxs (III, 270), Suaakkhatta, a Licchavi (I, 68), and Mahanama, a Sakka (I, 91). Of other historical references, mention may be made of the allusions to the Vajjis and Mallas (I, 231), the Sakyas of Kapilavatthu (I, 353), the Kasls of BaranasI (I, 473), the Angas and the Magadhas (II, 2), to the heretical teachers, Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala, Ajitakesakamball, Pakudha Kacca- yana, Sahjaya Belatthiputta, and Nigantha Nathaputta (II, 2), and to Nigantha Nathaputta’s death at Pava (II, 243). Geographical Important geographical references in the Majjhima Nikaya are few, and are already well known from other sources. Thus we have references to Bahuka, Aclhikakka, Gaya, Sundarika, Sarassati, Payaga, and Bahumati (I, 39), to Gosingasalavana which was beautiful (I, 213), Vejayanta palace (I, 253), Assapura, a country of the Angas (I, 271), Sala, a brahmin village of the Kosalans (I, 285), Nalakapana, a palasa forest (I, 462), Haliddavasana, a country of the Koliyas (I, 387), Sumsumara mountain in the Deer Park of Bhesakalavana of the Bhaggas (II, 91), Medalumpa, a country of the Sakyas (II, 118), Opasada, a brahmin village of the Kosalans visited by the Buddha along with the bhikkhus (II, 164), and to Samagama of the Sakkas (II, 243). In the Samyutta Nikaya of the Suita Pitaka The Samyutta Nikaya refers to King Pasenadi of Kosala, rT . A . . , the capital of which was SavatthI. The His re er- w ^ 0 } e 0 f the Kosala-Samyutta is devoted to him. We are told that a war broke out between Ajatasattu, king of Magadha, and Pasenadi, Each claimed the possession of the township of KasL At first Ajatasattu was victorious, but later on he was defeated and taken prisoner by Pasenadi. Pasenadi, however, married his daughter, Vajira, to him and granted to him the township of Kasi (I, 82-85). We are also told of the death of Pasenadi’s Appendix A 657 grandmother (I, 97). The venerable Pindolabhar ad va j a who dwelt at KosambI in the Ghositarama gave answer to King Udena’s questions. Udena was highly pleased with his answers and declared his faith in the Buddhist Triad (IV, 110). When the Master attained Supreme Enlightenment at r Uruvela under the Banyan tree on the references^ bank of the river Neranjara, he was unwilling to preach the doctrine. Brahma requested him to set rolling the Wheel of Law for the good of all. The Blessed One after much deliberation consented to the proposal (I, 136-137). The Lord, 'while dwelling at Rajagaha in Veluvana in the Kalandakanivapa, converted the brahmana Bliaradvaja and many other brahmanas of the Bharadva j agott a (I, 160- 163). The Blessed One once dwelt in the country of the Bhaggas at the Sumsumaragiri in the Deer Park of Bhesakalavana where he gave to the householder Nakulapita religious discourses (III, 1). The Blessed One dwelt at the city of Devadaha of the Sakyas (III, 5). Mahakaccana dwelt at Avanti on the mountain called Ivuraraghara (III, 12). When the Lord was residing in Vesall at Mahavana in the Kutagarasala, he refuted the heretical views of Parana Kassapa which had been put to him by Mahali, a Licchavi (III, 68-69). The Lord once dwelt at Kapilavatthu in the Nigrodharama (HI, 01). At Savattlii Vacchagotta, a wanderer, put to the Buddha some heretical questions (whether the world is eternal or non- eternal, etc). The Buddha explained the origin of wrong views (III, 258). Sariputta while dwelling at the village of Nalaka in Magadha explained to the wanderer J ambukhadaka the Eightfold Path leading to the attainment of nihbana (IV, 251). Sariputta while dwelling in the country of the Vajjis in Ukkavela on the bank of the river Gahga addressed a religious discourse to the wanderer Samandaka (IV, 261). The Blessed One once went to Nalanda from Kosala and converted Gamani, Asibandhakaputto (IV, 323). Once the Lord dwelt at the Deer Park of Ancanavana at Saketa (V, 73). The Lord resided at the city of Setaka in Sumbha (V, 89). The Lord dwelt at the city of Haliddavasana in the country of the Koliyas (V, 115). . _ The Blessed One visited the brahmana village of Saia in Kosala (V, 144). The Lord visited with a company of the bhikkhus the brahmana village of Veludvara in Kosala (V, 352). 658 A History of Pali Literature The Blessed One visited Kotigama in the Vajji country (V, 431). Ananda and Bhadda lived at the Kukkutarama in Pataliputta (V, 171). In the Ahguitara Nikdya of the Suita Pitaka There were sixteen Mahajanapadas, viz., Anga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Ceti, Vamsa, HlSt °eac©s. refer " Kura, Pancala, Maeclia, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja. It is worthy of notice that the names are names of people and not of countries (I, 213 ; IV, 252). We are also told of King Pasenadi of Kosala and his Queen MallikadevI (III, 57). While the Lord was staying at Rajagaha on the Gijjliakfita- pabbata, Vassakara the brahmin minister of King Ajatasattu of Magadha, as directed by his royal master, came to the Buddha for advice concerning the king's desire for leading an expedition to the Vajji country. After a talk with the Buddha, Vassakara realised that the only means of subjugating the Vajjis lay in sowing the seeds of mutual jealousy among them (IV, 17-21). Mahakaccana while dwelling at Madhura in the Gundavana explained the evils of sensual pleasures to re.fl ppneaq* 1 the Brahmana Kandarayana who professed his faith in the Buddhist Triad (I, 67). Once the Blessed One went to the brahmana village of Venagapura in Kosala where he addressed a religious discourse to the brahmanas who took their refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Samgha (I, 180). The Master once visited the township of Kesaputta of the Kalamas who were converted by him (I, 188). The Buddha visited the township of Pankaclha in Kosala and from Pahkadha went to Rajagaha and dwelt at the Gijjha- kuta (I, 236, 237). There are references in the Ahguttara Nikaya to Rhanda- gama in the kingdom of the Vajjis visited by the Buddha (II, I), Aj apalanigrodha (Ibid., 22), Madhura and Verahji (Ibid., 57), the Master dwelling among the Bhaggas in the Deer Park of Bhesakalavana (Ibid., 61), Kusinara where the Buddha dwelt between the twin sala trees of the Mallas at Upavattana (Ibid., 79), the hermitage of Anathapindika at Jetavana in SavatthI (III, 1), a brahmin village of the Kosalans called the Iccha- nahgala visited by the Buddha (Ibid., 30), the Blessed One dwelling among the Bhaddiyas (Ibid., 36), the Master dwelling at the pinnacled house in the Mahavana in Vesall (Ibid., 38), Narada dwelling at the Kukkutarama in Pataliputta (Ibid., 57), the young Licchavi roaming about in the Mahavana armed with bows and arrows accompanied by dogs (Ibid., 75), Saranda- dacetiya (Ibid., 168), the bhikkhus dwelling in the Deer Park at Appendix A 659 Benares (Ibid., 320), the Buddha dwelling at Rajagaha on the Gijjhakuta mountain (Ibid., 366). While dwelling at Vesall in the Sarandada Cetiya the Blessed One spoke to the Licehavis on the seven conditions, by following which, they were sure to thrive (IV, 16). The Venerable Uttara is said to have dwelt at Mahisavatthu on the mount Samkheyyaka (IV, 162). The Blessed One while dwelling at Verahja under Naleru- pucimandamula converted the Brahmana Verahja (IV, 172),* There were five great rivers, Gahga, Yamuna, Aciravatl, Sarabhu, and Mahi (IV, 202). The Lord dwelt at the Aggalava Cetiya in Alaviya (IV, 218). The Buddha once visited the township of Kakkarapatta of the Koliyas (IV, 281). The Lord also went to the brahmin village of Icchanahgala in Kosala and there he converted the brahmin householders (IV, 340), to the township of Uruvelakappa of the Mallas (IV, 438), to Kammasaclhamma in the Kuru country (V, 29-30), to Sahajati in the Ceti country (V, 41), to Kajangala and dwelt there at the Veluvana (V, 54). The township of KasI was in the possession of Pasenadi, king of Kosala (V, 59). The Lord once went to the township of Nalakapana in Kosala and dwelt at the Palasavana (V, 122). A certain householder, Dasama by name, came to Pataliputta from Atthakanagara on some business. He went to Kukkuta- rama, which was in Pataliputta, in order to see the Thera Ananda. But he was informed that Ananda was then dwelling at Vesall in Veluvagama. He then after finishing his business went to Veluvagama (V, 342). Historical and geographical references in the KhuddaJca NiJcaya Devadatta was destined to go to Hell (Itivuttaka, p. 85). . King Bimbisara of Magadha and King His orica . Pasenadi of Kosala have been referred to in the Udana (p. 11) and there is a mention in it of Suppavasa, a daughter of the Koliyas (p. 15). There are references in the Udana to Pasenadi and his wife Mallika (p. 47), Cunda (p. 81), and King Udena who went to a garden. When he went there, a harem was built and 500 women headed by Sanaa vatl died (p. 79). The Udana further refers to Visakha, mother of Migara (p. 91), and Dabba, a Mallian (p. 93). The Sutta Nipata refers to the Buddha dwelling among the Magadhas in a brahmin village named Ekanala at Dakkhinagiri (p. 13) and to the Master dwelling at Alavl in the abode of the Yakkha A}avaka (p. 31). There are references in the Petavatthu 660 A History of Pali Literature to Kang Brahmadatta of Pancala (p. 32) and King Pingalaka of the kingdom of Surattha and the Moriyas (p. 57). We shall briefly state some facts from the Jatakas regarding the political history of ancient India. From the Jatakas we know that Anga was once a powerful kingdom. Magadha was once under the sway of Angara j a (Jataka, Fausboll, VI, p. 272). It is said (Jataka, V, pp. 312-316) that King Manoja of Brahma- vardhana (another name of Benares) conquered Anga and Magadha. It appears from the Jatakas (Jataka, III, pp. 115 foil. ; Jataka, I, pp. 262 foil.) that before the Buddha’s time KasI was the most powerful kingdom in the whole of Northern India. In the Jatakas (Vol. II, p. 237 ; IV, pp. 342 foil.) we find that Mahakosala, father of King Pasenadi of Kosala, gave his daughter in marriage to King Bimbisara of Magadha. The pin-money was the village of KasI yielding a revenue of a hundred thousand for bath and perfume. We are also told that there took place many a fierce fight between the sons of Mahakosala and Bimbisara, Pasenadi, and Ajatasattu respectively. In one of the Jatakas (Jat., IV, pp. 144 ff.) we are told that Vidudabha, in order to crush the Sakiyas who deceived his father Pasenadi by giving him a daughter of a slave girl to marry, deposed his father and became king. He marched out with a large army and succeeded in annihilating the Sakiyas. But he with his army met also with destruction. The river Rohinl was the boundary between the Sakya and Koliya countries. A quarrel broke out among the Sakiyas and Koliyas regarding the possession of the river. But the Buddha succeeded in restoring peace among his kinsfolk (Jat., I, pp. 327 foil. — Rukkhadhamma Jataka; Jat., IV, pp. 207 foil. — Phandana Jataka). A king of Benares attacked the kingdom of Kosala and took the king prisoner. The king of Kosala had a son named Chatta who fled while his father was taken prisoner. Afterwards Chatta recovered his kingdom (Jataka, III, pp. 115 folk). The kingdom of Benares was seized by a king of SavatthI named Vanka. But it was soon restored to the king of Benares (Jataka, III, pp. 168-69). Besides there are other historical references. A king of Benares had a gardener who could make sweet mangoes bitter and bitter mangoes sweet (Jataka, V, p. 3). Fine cloths widely known as KasI cloths were manufactured (Jataka, V, p. 377). There was a great town of carpenters in Benares containing a thousand families (Jataka, IV, p. 159), There were in Benares snake-charmers (Jataka, III, p. 198). Slaughter of deer, swine, and other animals for making offerings to goblins was in vogue in Benares (Jataka, IV, p. 115). There was a king named Assaka in Potali. He was instructed by a Bodhisatta ( Jataka, II, pp, 155 foil). There was a festival at Rajagaha where people drank wine, ate flesh, danced, and sang (Jataka I, p. 489). Pilindiyavaccha turned the palace of Rajagaha into gold with the result that he was given an abundant supply of the five eatables, e.g., sugar, butter, Appendix A 661 ghee, honey, and oil (Jataka, III, pp. 363-364). A meeting was held in a Sahthagara at Rajagaha where the people met and discussed the means of welfare but they could not arrive at any definite conclusion and the matter was referred to the Buddha who settled it finally by preaching the Mahgala Sutta of the Khuddakapatha {Ibid,, IV, pp. 72 foil.)* In theVepulla mountain surrounding Rajagaha there was a gem used by an universal monarch by which Dhananjaya, the Kaurava king, might be defeated in playing dice {Ibid,, VI, p. 271). The Gijjhakuta-pabbata has been described as a big Geographical. mountain in Giribbaja of the Magadhas (Itivuttaka, p. 17). The Udana mentions the Bo-tree at the foot of which the Buddha first obtained enlighten- ment on the bank of the river Neranjara at Uruvela (p. 1), Jetavana where the Buddha dwelt (p. 3), Gayasisa at Gaya where the Master dwelt (p. 6), Pippliali cave where Mahakassapa dwelt (p. 29), Upavattana, the sala forest of the Mallas (p. 37), Kalandakanivapa at Veluvana at Rajagaha visited by the Buddha (p. 39), and Kosambi visited by the Buddha (p. 41). There are references in it to Ganga, Yamuna, Aciravati, and Main (pp. 53, 55), Mahavana where the Master dwelt (p. 62), and to the five Cetiyas, Capala, Udena, Gotamaka, Sattambaka, Bahuputta, and Sarandada (p. 62). Kuslnara and Pataligama are also referred to in it (pp. 82 and 85). The Sutta Nipata refers to the Gijjhakuta-pabbata (p. 86), Rajagaha (p. 86) visited by the Buddha, Veluvana, and Kalanda- kanivapa (p. 91), Icchanahkala (p. 115), Savatthi (p. 18), Pubba- rama where there was the palace of Migaramata (p. 139), Dakkhinapatha (p. 190), Kapilavatthu (p. 192) visited by the Buddha, Patitthana, Mahissati, Ujjeni, Vedisa, Kosambi, Seta- vya, Kuslnara, Magadha, and the Cetiya Pasanaka (p. 194). This work refers to the rivers Godavari (p. 190), Ganga (p. 32), and Sundarika (p. 79). The Vimanavatthu refers to Cittalatavana which was beautiful (p. 16) and the Petavatthu refers to Ganga (pp, 28 and 29) and to two famous cities of Vesall and Savatthi (pp. 45 and 63). There are many geographical allusions in the Jatakas. It is said that Oampa, the capital of the kingdom of Anga, was at a distance of 60 yojanas from Mithila (Jat., VI, p. 32). In the Assaka Jataka (Jat., II, p. 155) we are told of the Assaka territory, the capital city of which was Potali. In the Bhlma- sena jdta-ka (Jat., I, pp. 356 ff.) Takkasila is referred to as a great centre of learning. In the Cetiya Jataka (Jat., Ill, p. 460) we are told that the four sons of the king of Ceti built five cities : Ilatthipura, Assapura, Sihapura, Uttara-Paneala, and Daddara- pura. From the Sivi Jataka (Jat., IV, p. 401) we know that Arifthapura was the capital of the Sivi kingdom. The kingdom of Baveru is referred to in the Baveru Jataka (Jat., Ill, p. 126). 662 A History of Pali Literature Bharukaceha, a seaport town, is referred to in the Sussondi Jataka (Jat., Ill, pp. 187 &.). In the Cetiya Jataka (Jat., Ill, p. 454) it is said that Sotthivatinagara was the capital of the kingdom of Ceti. In the Gandhara Jataka (Jat., Ill, pp. 363- 369) the Kasmlr-Gandhara kingdom and the Videha kingdom are also mentioned. The kingdom of Kasi is also referred to in the Jatakas. Its capital was BaranasL The extent of the city is mentioned as 12 yojanas (Jat,, IV, p, 160). There are also references to the Kosala kingdom (Jat., Ill, p, 237 ; Jat., Ill, pp. 211-213). The Kamboja kingdom is also referred to in the Jatakas (Jat., IV, p. 208). There are innumerable references to the Magadha kingdom (Jat., IV, pp. 454-455 ; Jat., V, p. 316 ; Jat., VI, p, 272). The city of Mithila, the capital of the Videhas, was 7 leagues and the kingdom of Videha 300 leagues in extent (Cowell’s Jat., Ill, p. 222). We find a reference to the Madda- rattha in the Kalihga-Bodhi Jataka (Cowell’s Jat., IV, pp. 144- 145). In the Kumbhakara Jataka (Cowell’s Jat., Ill, p. 230) we read that the capital of Uttara-Pahcala was Kampilla. The city of Samkassa is referred to in the Kapha Jataka (Jat., Eausboll, I, p. 193). The country of Suratfha is referred to in the Sarabhahga Jataka (Jat., V, p. 133). In the Salittaka Jataka (Jat., I, p. 418) and in the Kurudhamma Jataka (Jat,, II, p. 366) we find that the river Aciravati was near SavatthI, In the Baka-Brahma Jataka (Jat., Ill, p. 361) the river Eni is referred to. The river Campa formed the boundary between Ahga and Magadha (Campeyya Jataka — Jat., IV, p. 454). The river Godavari is near the Kavittha forest (Sarabhahga Jataka — Jat., V, p. 132). The Arahjara, a chain of mountains, is referred to in the Sarabhahga Jataka (Jat., V, p. 134). The Candaka mountain is referred to in the Samkhapala Jataka (Jat., V, p. 162). In the Gahgamala Jataka (Jat., Ill, p. 452) the Gandhamadana is mentioned. The Hingula-pabbata is in the Himavanta-padesa (Jat., V, p. 415). The Niddesa contains some geographical information. It refers to Gumba, Takkola, Takkasila, Kalamukha, Maranapara, Vesuhga, Verapatha, Java, Tamali, Vanga 1 , EJavaddana, Suvan- nakuta, Suvannabhumi 2 , Tambapanni 3 , Suppara 4 , Bharukaccha 5 , Surattha 6 , Ahganeka, Gangana, Paramagahgana, Yona 7 , Para- mayona, Allasanda 8 , Marukantara, Jannupatha, Ajapatha, Mendapatha, Sahkupatha, Chattapatha, Vamsapatha, Sakuna- 1 Bengal. 2 Burma. 3 Ceylon. 4 Souppara (Pali — Supparaka), o nee a great seaport town. 5 Broach. 6 Surat. 7 Between the rivers Kophen and the Indus. 8 Alexandria. Appendix A 663 patha, Musikapatha, Daripatha, Vettadhara (Niddesa, I, pp. 154- 155). In the Niddesa (II, p. 1) we are told that once a certain brahmin named Bavari desirous of akineannam (salvation) went to Dakkhinapatha from the beautiful city of the Kosalans. He lived on the banks of the river Godavari in the kingdom of Assaka near Mulaka. In the same book (Ibid., pp. 4-5) we find that there was a route, probably a trade route, from Patitthana to Magadha. There are references to Mulaka x , Patit- thana 2 , Mahissati 3 , UjjenI 4 , Gonadham, Vedisa, KosambI 5 , Saketa, Savatthi 6 , Setavyam, Kapilavatthu 7 , Kusinara, Pava 8 s Bhoganagara, Yesali 9 , and Magadha. 10 The Patisambhidamagga mentions Savatthi as the place visited by the Master (Vol. II, pt. I, p. 177), KosambI visited by Ananda (Vol. II, p. 92), and Isipatana Migadava at Benares visited by the Buddha (Vol. II, pp. 147, 159). The Buddhavamsa refers to the city of Amaravati where lived a brahmin, Sumedha (p. 6), the city of Rammavati (p. 17), the Himalayas (p. 49), Kusinara, Yesali, Kapilavatthu, Alla- kappa, Ramagama, Pataliputta, Avantipura, and Mithila (p, 68). The Car^apitaka mentions the following cities — Indapatta ruled by Dhananjaya, some brahmins from Kalinga came to him (p. 74), Kusavat! (p. 75), Campeyya where the Bodhisatta was born as a snake king (p. 85), and Pancala where there was a king named Jayadissa in the city of Kappila (p. 90), and there is a reference to Ganga in the Cariyapitaka (p. 87). The Apadana refers to the cities of Hamsavati famous for good flowers (p. 124), Bandhumati (pp. 270, 295), Arunavati (p. 282), and Ketumati (II, p. 354). This work also refers to the following rivers : 1 According to the Buddhists, Mulaka was a different town from Assaka. The countries of Mulaka and Assaka were separated by the river Godavari. 2 Paithan, the capital of Assaka or Maharashtra on the Godavari. 3 Mahe^vara or Mahesh, on the right bank of the Nerbuda, 40 miles to the south of Indore. During the Buddhist period it was the capital of Avanti-Dakshinapatha. 4 Capital of Malava or Avanti on the Sipra. 6 Kosam, an old village on the Jumna, 30 miles S.-W. of Allahabad. 6 Sahet-Mahet on the border of the Bhraich and Gonda districts of the Fyzabad division, U.P. 7 The village of Piprawa (Basti district) marks the site of Kapilavatthu. 8 Between Pava (Fazilpur-Gorakhpur district) and Kusinagara (Kasia) was the river Kukuttha or Kuku. 9 Vesali has been identified with the ruins at and near Besarhar Bazar (Muzaffarpur district, Bihar). 10 The districts of Patna and Gaya formed this territory proper. 2i iii III WSBiM 664 A History of Pali Literature (1) Sindhu (p. 325), Candabhaga (pp. 277, 291), G-ahga, Yamuna, Sarabhu, Mahl, Saraswati (p. 27), and it mentions the following cetiyas — Buddha-cetiya (p. 71) and Sikhi-cetiya (p. 255). The Himalayan mountain has been mentioned in the Apadana (pp. 15, 20, 50, 58, 160, 278, 279, 336, 411). APPENDIX B PALI TRACTS IN THE INSCRIPTIONS Much light is thrown on the development of Pali canonical v literature by the lithic records of Asoka. * S ° Edict, a rU The first inscription that deserves notice in this connection is the Bhabru Edict. It opens with a declaration of Asoka’s deep and extensive faith in the Buddhist Triad and of his firm conviction that the utterances of Buddha are gospel truth. It then enumerates certain Dhammapariyayas or canonical texts selected out of the Buddhist scriptures then known to him for the constant study and medita- tion not by the clericals only, but also by the laity and that with a view to making the good faith long endure. The texts referred to by Asoka are as follows : (1) Vinaya SamuJcase or the exaltation of discipline, Patimok- kha (Rhys Davids, J.R.A.S., 1898). Prof. Bhandarkar Mr. Mitra Prof. Oldenberg „ Barua Kosambi Rhys Davids . Tuvatthaka Sutta (Sutta Nipata). » Sappurisa Sutta (Majjhima) and later, A Vinaya tract in the Ahguttara, Vol. I. . The Patimokkha. . Singalovada Sutta (Digha) called Gihi- vinaya and Anumana Sutta (Maj- jhima) called Bhikkhuvinaya. (2) Aliya-Vasani . Ariyavamsa (Ahguttara), Vol. II, p. 27. . Ten Ariyavasani enumerated in the Samglti Suttanta (Digha). J.R.A.S., 1898. (8) Andgata b haydni „ Rhys Davids .. Anagata bhayani (Ahguttara). (4) Munigdlhd , 3 Rhys Davids . . Muni Sutta (Sutta Nipata), I, 12, p. 36* (5) Money a Bute ,, Kosambi . . Nalaka Sutta (Sutta Nipata), iii, II, pp. 131-134. 666 A History of Pali Literature Prof. Barua . . Nalaka Sutta minus the Prologue. „ Rhys Davids . . Moneyya Sutta, J.R.A.S., 1898. (6) Upatisa Pasine „ Kosambi and Sariputta Sutta (Sutta Nipata), iv, 16, Barua. pp. 176-9. „ Neuman . . The questions of Upatissa in the Rathavinita Sutta (Majjhima). (7) Laghulovdde „ Rhys Davids . . Rahulovada Sutta (Majjhima), xi, 2, 1, Vol. I, p. 414. „ M. Senart . . The Ambalatthika Rahulovada Sutta (Majjhima). These are the Dhammapariyayas or canonical texts which have been identified differently with suttas of the Pali canonical literature. At the time of Asoka there was a Buddhist literature. Asoka selected out of this body of Buddhist literature seven Dhammapariyayas which, in his opinion, would serve his purpose, that is, making the good faith long endure. It is generally accepted by scholars that Buddhism is the basis and source of inspiration in regard to Asoka’s Dhamma. The Singalovada Sutta of the Digha Nikaya and the Maha- mangala Sutta of the Sutta Nipata enumerate just those courses of conduct which Asoka was never tired of inculcating on the minds of his people and it is easy to understand how greatly the texts of the Rock Edicts, 9 and 11, were inspired by the Mangala Sutta. Now there are the two scriptural texts which have been particularly reserved by Buddhism for the lay people to read, contemplate, and practise. The style of composition and the subject of discussion in the last portion of the KalsI, Shahbazgarhi, and Mansherah versions of R.E. IX are almost similar to those in the Katha- vatthu (composed by Moggaliputta Tissa in the third council held under the patronage of Asoka), and the Samannaphala Sutta respectively. (Bhandarkar and Majumdar, Inscriptions of Asoka, pp. 34-36.) M. Senart points out that the use of the phrase £t Dhamma- daaa 55 must have been suggested to Asoka by a verse from the Dhammapada — Sabbadanam dhammadanaxn jinati On the monuments of the 2nd century B.O. the names of donors of different parts of the buildings are D ^f. r ® nces . t0 7 inscribed and in many cases with their titles, literature. Some of these titles are very important because they have been derived from the well-known divisions of the Buddhist canonical literature. Among these epithets have been found the following : Dhamma- Appendix B 667 • kathika, Pe^akin, Suttantika, Suttantakini, and Pancanekayika which refer to the Buddhist books. They conclusively prove the existence of a Buddhist literature before the date of the inscrip - tions. This Buddhist literature had divisions known by the technical names of Pitaka, Nikaya, Suttanta, and Jataka. Again the Nikaya is said to have five divisions. There were not only the Pitaka, the five Nikayas and the Jatakas but also distinct groups of reciters known as the bhanakas. The inscriptions on the Inner Railings and Gateways of the Barhut Inscrip- Buddhist Stupa at Barhut in Central India tions. throw interesting light on the development of Pali literature. Barua and Sinha in their e Barhut Inscrip- tions 5 have broadly distinguished the inscriptions as Votive Labels and Jataka Labels, grouping the former as they occur on the Gateway-pillars, the Rail-pillars, the Rail-bars, the Coping-stones and the isolated Fragments, and grouping the latter as they are attached to different scenes in accordance with the accepted Jataka- outlines of the Buddha’s life. That the bas-reliefs on the Barhut Tope illustrate several scenes from the Jataka stories can be shown by the fact that the titles of the Jatakas inscribed on the bas-reliefs correspond to those in Pali literature. The titles inscribed on the bas-reliefs, e.g., Vitura Punakiya, Miga, Naga, Yavamajhakiya, Mugapakaya, Latuva, Chadantiya, Isisingiya, Yam bamano avayesi, Hansa, Kinara, Isimigo, Janoko raja, Sivala devl, Uda, Secha, Sujato gahuto, Bidala Jataka, Kukuta Jataka, Maghadeviya and Bhisa Haranlya, correspond to those found in the Pali Jataka books, e.g., Vidhura Pandita, Nigrodha, Kakkata, Episode in Maha- Ummagga, Mugapakkha, Latukika, Chaddanta, Alambusa, Andha-bhuta, Nacca, Canda Kinnara, Miga-potaka, Maha- Janaka, Dabbha-Puppha, Dubhiya-Makkata, Suj'ata, Kukkuta, Makhadeva, and Bhisa. Again, in the Barhut Stupa we find some scenes which have got no title inscribed on the bas-relief. But a close examination of the pictures engraved on the railing enables us to identify some of the scenes with those in the Pali Jataka stories. The names of such Pali Jataka stories are, e.g., Kurunga-Miga, Sandhi-bheda, Asadisa, Dasaratha, Maha-Kapi, Camma-Sataka, Arama-Dusaka, and Kapota. The Museum at Sarnath shelters a huge, more than life size image of a standing Bodhisattva. Pali Inscriptions At the front an a back of the pedestal of Museum Sa h the image, as well as on the umbrella over his head, there are three Pali inscriptions inscribed in the 3rd year of the reign of Kaniska, the great Kusana king. The text of the inscription relates itself to the subject of the first sermon delivered by the Buddha to the five brahmanas immediately after the sambodhi at Sarnath. It is not exactly a quotation but is rather of the character of an abstract of the original subject from the Mahavagga (1, 7, 6). 668 A History of Pali Literature (a) “ Chattar=imani bhikkhave ar (i) ya-saccani, (6) Katamani (ca) ttari dukkha (m) di (bM) kkhave ara (i) ya-saecam, (c) dukkha-samuday (5) ariya- saccani dukkha-nirodho ariyasaccam, (d) dukkha- nirodho -gamin! (cha) patipada.” Translation : — u Four are the Noble Axioms, ye monks ! And what are these four ? The Noble Axiom about suffering, ye monks, the Noble Axiom about the origin of suffering, the Noble Axiom about the cessation of suffering, and the Noble Axiom about the way leading to the cessation of suffering ” [Catalogue of the Museum of Archaeology at Sarnath, No, D, (c) 11]. Maunggan Gold plates Two gold plates bearing inscription in Pali, very closely T . . _ , allied to the Kadamba script of the 5th ruscnpnons^foimd centur y 0 f Southern India, were dis- covered at Maunggan, a village near old Prome, Burma. These two plates begin each with the well- known Buddhist formula : Ye dhamma hetuppabhava tesarh hetu, etc., which is followed in the first, by 19 categories from the Abhidhamma in numerical order and, in the second, by the no less well-known praise of the Triratana. (An. R.A.S., Burma, 1924, p. 21.) Bawbawgyi pagoda stone fragments In 1910-11, while clearing a small portion of the debris round the Bawbawgyi pagoda of Hmawza (old Prome) three fragments of a stone inscription were discovered. Their characters are the same as those of the Maunggan plates ; and the script may be referred to the 6th century A.D. It contains an extract from the Vibhahga , a booh of the Abhidhamma , and corresponds to page 144 of Mrs. Rhys Davids’ edition, (An. R.A.S., Burma, 1924, p. 21.) The two gold plates and the stone fragments have been elaborately treated by Mon. Finot in his article u Un nouveau document sur le buddhisme birman ” — a new document of Burmese Buddhism — published in the Journal Asiatique , Vol, XX , Juillet-Aout , 1912, pages 121 ff. Text of the two Gold plates I. (1) Ye dhamma hetuppabhava tesam hetu tathagato aha tesan ca yo nirodho evamvadi mahasamano ti (2) Catvaro sammappadhana catvaro satipatthana catvari ariyasaceani cutuvesarajjani pahcindriyani panea cakkhuni cha (3) asaddha- ranani satta bojjhaiiga ariyo atthangiko maggo navalokuttara dhamma dasa balani cuddasa buddhannani attharasa buddha dhamma ti. Appendix B 669 II. (1) Ye dhamma hetuppabhava (te) sa (m) hetu tatha- gato aha tesan ea yo nirodho evambadi makasamano ti iti pi so bhagava araham (2) Samma sambuddho vijjacarana-sampanno sugato lokavidu anuttaro purisadhamma sarathi sattha deva- manussanam buddho bhagava ti (3) Sakhyato bhagavata dhammo sanditthiko akaliko ehipassiko opanayiko paccattam veditavvo vinnuhfti. The first plaque begins with the well-known formula. After that it enumerates 19 categories in a progressively numeri- cal order : 4 iddhipadas, bases of magical power, 4 Sammappa- dhanas, good deeds, 4 Satipatthana, subjects of meditation, 4 ariyasaccani, holy truths, 4 Vesaraj jani, confidences, 5 indriyani, senses, 5 Cakkhuni, eyes, 6 asadharanani, special knowledges of Buddhism, 7 bojjhanga, elements of the Bodhi, the noble way of the 8 elements, 9 lokuttara dhamma, supernatural states, 10 balani, powers, 14 Buddhananani, knowledges of the Buddha, and 18 Buddha dhammas. The 2nd plaque begins in the same manner. It is followed by the well-known hymn (praise) of Triratna. See for example the Ahguttara Nikaya, II, 58. The script may at first sight be said to belong to Southern India — ‘ Kanara-Telegu 5 script of Biihler, more particularly Kadamba. Text of the f ragmentary stone inscription (1) na samphus (i) tattam vedanakkhando sannak- khando sankkharakhando (2) ditthivipphanditam ditthi ayam vuccati chalayatana- paccayo phasso tattha katam (a) (pha) ssa paccaya vedana I yam ceta (s) i (3) Sannojanam ga (ho) patilaho abhiniveso paramaso kummaggo. Translation : — (1) (the contact), the fact of coming into contact, the Vedanakkhandha, the Sannakkhandha, the samkhara- khandha — constituent elements of sensation, perception, and confections ; (2) quarrels of opinion, this is what people call opinion. (Ditthi.) Touch comes from the six organs of sense. What is the sensation which is derived from touching. That which in thought. . (3) Chain, inclination, contagion, bad path- This text is probably an extract from a canon, which is difficult to be traced. It presents considerable similarities with certain passages of the Dhammasahgani* It could, therefore, be found in a treatise of the Abhidhamma, and perhaps one of those which are still unpublished. 670 A History of Pali Literature A gold4eaf manuscript discovered at Hmawza , Prome A manuscript in every way similar to the palm-leaf manus- cript so common in India and Burma but with leaves of gold, twenty in number with writing incised on one side, has been discovered within a relic chamber unearthed at Hmawza, a small village five miles north of Prome. The writing is in characters of an early South Indian script of the Canara Telegu type, and may be assigned to the V-VIth century A.D. The manuscript contains extracts from the Vinaya and Abhidhamma Pitakas, together with those mentioned above, the earliest proofs of Pali Buddhism in Burma. The MS. begins on the first page with an extract giving the chain of causation (Paticcasamuppada) and ends on the last page with ‘ Itipi so Bhagava araham Sammasambuddho, etc/ enumerating the qualities of the Buddha. This manuscript may be assigned to the Vl-VIIth century A.D. (Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, 1926-27, p. 200). An inscription of A.D. 1442 The inscription of B.E. 804 (1442 A.D.) is among those collected by Forehhammer at Pagan. The Governor of Taimgdwin and his wife made various gifts to the Buddhist Order and this inscription commemorates this memorable event. The pious donors not only made gifts of monastery, garden, paddy-lands, and slaves but also offered to the bhikkhus a collection of texts. The importance of the list of texts lies in the fact that it not only helps us in fixing the chronology of many Pali works but also enables us to form some notion of the point reached by the Sanskrit scholars in Burma in the 15th century for the list contains a number of titles of Sanskrit works. The list of texts contained in the inscription may be given here : 1. Parajikakanda. 2. Paeittiya. 3. Bikkhumvibhanga. 4. Vinayamahavagga. 5. Vinayaculavagga. 6. Vinayaparivara. 7. Parajikakanda-atthakatha. 8. Pacittiyadi-atthakatha. 9. Paraj ikakanda-tika , 10. T erasakanda - tika . 11. Vinayasan- graha-atthakatha (the greater). 12. Vinayasangraha-attba- katha (the less). 13. Kankhavitaram-atthakatha. 14. Khudda- sikkha-tika (ancient). 15, Khuddasikkha-tika (new). 16. Kankha-tlka (new). 17. Vinayaganthipada. 18. Vinayauttara- sincaya-atthakatha . 19. Vinayasmcaya-tlka (later). 20. Vmayabandhaniddesa. 21. Dhammasangani. 22. Vibhanga. 23. Dhatukatha. 24. Puggalapannatti. 25. Kathavatthu. 26. Mulayamaka. 27. Indriyayamaka. 28. Tikapattbana. 29. DukatJikapatthana. 30. Dukapatthana. 31. Atthasalim-attha- katha. 32. Sammohavinodani-atthakatha* 33. Pancapakarana- atthakatha. 34. Abbidhamma-anutika, 35. Abhidhammatth a - Appendix B 671 sahgaha-atfchakatha. 36. Abhidhammatthasahgaha-tika. 37, AbMdkammatthavibhavam-tika. 38. Sllakkhandha. 39. Mahavagga. 40. Patheyya. 41. Silakkhandha-atthakatha, 42. Mahavagga- atthakatha . 43. Patheyya- atthakatha. 44. Silakkhandha-tika. 45. Mahavagga-tika. 46. Patheyya-txka. 47. Mulapannasa. 48. Mulapannasa-atthakatha. 49. Mula- pannasa-tlka. 50. Majjhimapannasa. 51. Majjhimapannasa- atthakatha. 52. Majjhimapannasa-tlka. 53. Uparipannasa. 54. Uparipannasa-atthakatha . 55. Uparipannasa-tika. 56, Sagathavaggasamyutta. 57 . Sagathavaggasamyutta-atthakatha. 58. Sagathavaggasamyutta-tlka. 59. Nidana vaggasamy utt a . 60. Nidanavaggasamyutta-atthakatha. 61 . Khandhavagga- samyutta. 62. Khandhavaggasamyutta-tika. 63. Salayatana- vaggasamyutta. 64. Salayatanavaggasamyutta-atthakatha. 65. Mahavaggasamyutta. 66. Ekaduka-tika-ahguttara. 67. Catnkanipata-ahguttara. 68. Pancanipata-ahguttara . 69. Cha- sattanipata-anguttara. 70. Attha-navanipata-anguttara. 71 . Dasa-ekadasanipata-ahguttara. 72. Ekanipat a - ahguttara - atthakatha. 7 3 . Dukatlkacatukanipata-ahguttara- atthakatha. 74. Paneadi-ahguttara- atthakatha. 75. Ahguttara-tlka. 76. Anguttara-tlka. 77. Khuddakapatha text and atthakatha. 78. Bhammapada text and atthakatha. 79. Udana text and atthakatha. 80. Itivuttaka text and atthakatha. 81. Suttanipata text and atthakatha. 82. Vimanavatthn text and atthakatha. 83. Petavatthu text and atthakatha. 84. Thera (gatha) text and atthakatha. 85. Therl(gatha) text and atthakatha. 86. Pathacariya. 87. Ekanipataj ataka-atthakatha . 88. Bukani- pataj ataka-atthakatha. 89. Tlkanipataj ataka-atthakatha. 90. Catuka -pane a - e hanipata j at aka - atthakatha . 91. Satta-attha* navanipataj ataka-atthakatha. 92. Dasa-ekadasanipataj ataka- atthakatha. 93. Byadasaterasa-pakinnaka-nipatajataka-attha- katha. 94. V Jsati j ataka - a tthakath a . 95. Jatattaki-sotattakl- mdana-atthakatha. 96. Culaniddesa. 97. Culaniddesa-attha- katha. 98. Mahaniddesa. 99. Mahaniddesa. 100. Jataka-tlka. 101. Bumaj ataka-atthakatha . 102. Apadana. 103. Apadana- atthakatha. 104. Patisambhidamagga . 105. Patisambhida- magga-atthakatha. 106. Patisambhidamagga-ganthipada. 107. Visuddhimagga- atthakatha. 108. Visuddhimagga-tika. 109. Buddhavamsa -atthakatha. 110. Cariyapitaka-atthakatha. 111. Namarupatxka (new). 112. Paramatthavinicchaya (new). 113. Mohavicchedani. 114. Lokapahnatti. 115. Mohanayana. 116. Loknppatti. 117. Arunavati. 118. Chagatidlpani. 119. Sahassaraihsimalinl. 120. Basavatthu. 121. Sahassavatthu. 122. Sihalavatthu. 123. Petakopadesa. 124. Tathagatnppatti. 125. Dhammacakka (? pavattanasutta). 126. Bhammacakka- tlka. 127. Bathadhatuyamsa. 128. Bathadhatuvamsa-tlka. 129. Cujavamsa. 130. Bipavamsa. 131. Thupavamsa. 132, Anagatavamsa. 133. Bodhivamsa. 134. Mahay amsa. 135, Mahavamsa-tika . 136. Dhammadana (? in text dhammandan). 672 A History of Pali Literature 137. Mabakaceayana, 138. Nyasa. 139. Than-byan-tika. 140. Mahatbera-tlka. 141. Rupasiddbi-atthakatha. 142. Rupasiddbi- tlka. 143. Balavatara. 144. Vuttimoggallana. 145. Pancika- Moggallana. 146. Pancika-Moggallana-tika. 147, Karika. 148. Karika-tika. 149. Lingattha vivarana . 150. Lingattha- vivarana-tlka. 151. Mukbamattasara. 152. Mukhamattasara- tlka. *153. Mabagana. 154. Culagana. 155. Abhidhana. 156. Abhidhana-tika. 157. Saddamti. 158. Culanirutti. 159. Cula- sandhivisodhana. 160. Saddatthabhedacinta. 161. Saddattha- bhedacinta-ttka. 162. Padasodhana. 163. Sambandkacinta- tika. 164. Rupavatara. 165. Saddavatara. 166. Saddhamma- dlpaka. 167. Sotamalini. 168. Sambandhamalim. 169. Pada- vahamahacakka (Padavatara ?). 170. Nvadi (Moggallana). 171. Kataca (Krt-cakra ?). 172. Mahaka (Kappa or Kaccayana ?). 173. Balattajana (Balavatarana ?). 174. Suttavali. 175. Akkha- rasammohacchedani. 176. Cetiddhinemiparigatha (sic) (?). 177. Samasataddhitadipani. 178. Bijakkhyam. 179. Kaccayanasara. 180. Balappabodhana. 181. Atthasalini. 182. Atthasalini- nissaya. 183. Kaccavana-nissaya. 184. Rupasiddhi-nissay a . 185. Jataka-nissaya. 186. Jatakaganthi. 187. Dhammapada- ganthi-nissaya. 188. Kammavaea. 189. Dhammasatta. 190. Kalapapancika (panjika). 191. Kalapapancika-tlka. 192. Kalapasuttapratinnasaku (1 patinnapaka) t>lka. 193. Prindo- tlka. 194. Rattamala. 195. Rattamala-tika. 196. Roganidana. 197. Dabraguna. 198. Dabraguna-tika. 199. Chandoviciti. 200. Candapratti (Candra-vrtti). 201. Candrapancikara (panjika). 202. Kamandaki, 203. Dhammapanhapakarana. 204. Malio- satthi (Mabosadha ?). 205. Subodhalamkara. 206. Subodlia- lamkara-tika. 207. Tanogabuddhi (?). 208. Tandi (Dandin ?). 209. Tandi- tlka. 210. Cahkadasa. 211, Ariyasaccavatara. 212. Vicitragandha. 213. Saddhammupaya. 214. Sarasangaha, 215. Sarapinda. 216. Patipattisahgaba, 217. Sulaeharaka. 218. Palatakka (balatarka ?, logic for beginners ?). 219. Trakkabhasa (Tarkabhasa). 220. Saddakarika. 221. Kasi- kapruttipalini. 222. Saddhammadlpaka. 223. Satyatatvavabodha (?). 224. Balappabodbanapruttikarana. 225. Atthabyakhyam. 226. Cul anir nttiman j usa . 227. Manj usatlkabyakhyam . 228. Anntikaby akhyam , 229. Pakinnakanikay a . 230. Catthapayoga (?). 231. Matthapayoga (?). 232. Rogayatra (on medicine ?). 233. Rogayatra- tlka. 234. Sattbekavipasvaprakasa (?), 235. Rajamattanta. 236. Parasava. 237. Koladdhaja. 238. Brihajja- taka. 239. Brihajjataka-tika. 240. Dathadbatuvamsa and tlka. 241. Patigavi veka- tlka . 242. Alamkara-tlka (on Subodha- lamkara ?). 243. Calindapancika (commentary on 0° ?). 244. Vedavidbinimittanirutti-vannana. 245. Mruttibyakbyam. 246. Vuttodaya. 247. Vuttodaya-tika. 248. Milindapanha (in text Malinapaxma). 249. Saratthasangaha. 250. Amarakosanissaya. 251. Pindo nissaya. 252. Kalapanissaya. 253. Roganidana- byakhyam. 254. Dabbragana-tika. 255. Amarakosa. 256. Appendix B 673 Dandi-tlka. 257. Dandi-tlka. 258. Dandi-taka. 259. Koladhvaja- tlka. 260 Alamkara. 261. Alamkara-tlka. 262. Bhesajja- manjusa. 263. Yuddhajeyya (Yuddha-dhyaya ?). 264. Yatana- prabha-tlka (Ratana ?). 265. Viragdha. 266. Viragdha-tlka. 267. Culamanisara. 268. Rajamattanta-tlka. 269. Mrtyuvancana 270. Mahakalaeakka 271. Mahakalacakka-tika 272 Paraviveka (commentary on Parahita ?). 273. Kaccayana- rupavatara. 274. Pumbharasari (or karasari in text ’?). 275. Taktavatara (Tattvavatara ?). 276. Takta vatara- tika . 277. NySyabindu. 278. Xyayabindu-tika. 279. Hetubindu. 280. Hetubindu-tlka . 281. Ribkamyayatra (?). 282. Rikkaniya- yatra-tika. 283. Barittaratakara (Vrttaratnakara ?). 284. Shyaramitikabya (?). 285. Yuttisangaba. 286. Yuttisahgaha- tfka. 287. Sarasangaha-nissaya. 288. Rogayatra-nissaya. 289. Rogamdana-nissaya. 290. Saddatthabhedacinta-nissaya. 291. Paranissaya. 292. Shyaramitikabya-nissaya (?). 293. Brihaj j ataka-nissaya (?). 294. Rattamala. 295, Narayutti- sangaha. 1 The Kalyani inscriptions of Pegu (Burma) 2 * were erected c. 1476 AJD. by Dhammaceti, king of The Kalyani ins- Ramanhadesa or ancient Pegu, and record Introduction. egn the history of the establishment of Buddhism in Burma, and its gradual evolution through many vicissitudes of fortune. The main object in founding the Kalyani-sima appears to have been to afford to the priest- hood of Ramannadesa a duly consecrated place for the purpose of performing the uposatha, upasampada, and other ecclesiastical ceremonies, and indirectly to secure continuity in their apostolic succession from Mahinda, the Buddhist apostle of Ceylon, The object of the Kalyani inscriptions is to give an authoritative ruling on the varied opinions of scholars with regard to ordina- tion, and to prescribe a ceremonial for the consecration of a sima. The Kalyani inscriptions are situated at the western suburbs of the town of Pegu. They comprise ten stone slabs, more or less broken to pieces and scattered about. The language of the first three stones is Pali, and that of the rest is Talaing, being a translation of the Pali text. Owing to the want of a large number of priests well versed in Tripitaka, learned, wise and able, and Interpretations of w | 10 cou ]& after meeting and consulting together, investigate as to what was proper or not, disputations arose amongst the Buddhist Order of Pegu 1 For details, readers are referred to M. H. B ode’s 4 The Pali Literature of Burma’, pp, 101-109. 2 Taw Seim ko — A preliminary study of the Kalyani inscriptions, Pegu, LA., Vol. XXIII, 1893. (Caiva works ?). 674 A History of Pali Literature with regard to the performance of ecclesiastical ceremonies, such as the consecration of a sima and the upasampada ordina- tion. Each thera gave his own interpretation, and the king himself joined in the disputations. In course of these disputa- tions citations were made from various Buddhist authorities, most important of which was the Atthakatha. The following tracts collected here were incidentally made use of by the theras and the king in their discussion as to the performance of ecclesiastical ceremonies of consecrating a sima and upasampada ordination. 1. ‘ Anvaddhamasarh anudasdham anupancdhanti 5 Atthakathdyam Some theras could not rightly interpret these words mentioned in the Atthakatha, and would like in the excessively rainy region of Ramannadesa to perform the upasampada ordination in an udakukkhepaslma consecrated on a river or lake, which was devoid of its respective characteristics. 2. Dhammaeeti, the king, in repeatedly investigating and considering the rule of the Vinaya as regards the consecration of a sima, as interpreted by the authors of the Atthakathas, tlkas, and pakaranas, consulted both the spirit and the letter of the following works, controlling the Atthakatha by means of the Pali, the tlka by means of the Atthakatha, and the pakaraiia by one another, and at the same time, by collecting what was gone before, and what came after : — the Vinayapali, the Vinayatthakatha, the vinayatxka called the Saratthadipam, the Vinayatlka called the Vimativinodanx, the Vinayatxka written by Vajirabuddhi-thera, the Matikatthakatha called the Kahkhavitarani together with its tlka, the Vinayaviniccaya- pakarana together with its tlka, the Vinayasangahapakarana, the Slmalahkarapakarana, and the Slmalahkarasangaha. To the king who repeatedly investigated and considered the question and interpreted the ruling of the Vinaya according to his light and knowledge. 3. ee Yasma hi vassanassa eatusu masesu ” iti atthakathayam. This short citation purports to say that the rainy season comprises four months, during which lakes and rivers become filled with water and during which season the under-robe of a bhikkhunl crossing a stream of such description at any place, is wetted. On such a mahanadx such a udakukkhepaslma may be consecrated, and the upasampada ordination performed in it will be valid and inviolable. 4. There existed an old sima whereon the Kalyanl- sxma came to be built and consecrated later on. It was, tliere- fore, necessary to desecrate the old sxma, for otherwise the new filma would be null and void, because of the doubtful defeat of Appendix B 075 the junction and overlapping of simas. The king accordingly had preparations made for performing the ceremony of desecrat- ing the existing sima in accordance with the procedure expressly laid down in the Atthakatha. He then proceeds to interpret the passage of the Atthakatha in question. 5. With regard to this subject of desecration of an existing sima, and consequent consecration of a new one a question is made from the Vimativinodanl : — e< Keci pana idisesu pi viharesu ehapahcamatte bhikkhu gahetva, viharakotito patthaya viharaparikkhepassa anto ca bahi ca samanta leddupate tattha sabbatfha mancapamane okase nirantaram thatva, pathamam avippavasasimam tatosamanasamvasakasiman ca samu* hananavasena simasamugghate kate, tasmim majjha- gata te bhikkhu ta samuhaneyyufh. Tato gamaslma eva avasisseyya. Ha hettha slmaya va paricchedassa va jananam ahgam hoti. Simaya pana anto thanaxh sa muhanessamati , kammavacakarananc’ettha ahgam. Atthakathayaih khendasimam pana jananta avippa- vasani a jananta pi samuhataya vuttatta gamasimay > eva ca avasitthaya tattha yatharucilakaih duvidham pi slmam bandhitun c’eva upasampadadi-kammaih katun ca vattatlti vadanti. Tam yuttam viya dissati ; vimaihsitva gahetabban ti Translation : — C£ There are some theras, who, in the case of such viharasimas, would convene a chapter of five or six priests, would station them in a continuous row of places, which are each about the size of a bedstead, and whose distances are determined by the fall, all round, of stones thrown, first from the extremity of a viharasima, and then towards the inside and outside of its limits, and would successively desecrate an avippa- vasasima, and a samanasamvasakasima. If either a khanda- sima or a mahaslma exists on that vihara, the priests standing, as they do, in the midst of these simas, would, from a mahcat- thana, certainly desecrate the sima, and the gamaslma would remain. In this manner it is not essential to know the sima on its extent. But it is necessary for the reciters of the kamma- vaea to say : ‘ We shall desecrate the inside of a sima (and act accordingly) \ It is stated in the Atthakatha that those who are aware of the existence of a khandaslma, but not that of an avippavasaslma, are qualified to effect both desecration and consecration, and then thus, although the extent of a maha- slma is unknown, desecration may be effected. On the authority of this statement, they say that at any selected spot on the remaining gamaslma, it is appropriate to consecrate the two kinds of simas, and to perform the upasampada ordination and such other ceremonies. This dictum appears to be correct ; but it should be accepted after due enquiry.” 676 A History of Pali Literature 6# When the existence of an old- sima is not known, it is said in the Atthakatha : — “ Atthakathayanca purana-slmaya vijjamanattam va paricchedam va ajanantanam simasanugghatassa dukkaratta mahantam vayainam akatva yena va tena va vayamena samuhananavasena simas amuggha- tam sandhaya ye pana ubho pi na jananti ; te n’eva samuhanitun ca labhantiti vuttam 5J . References to Pali texts. Purport : — ‘ If both classes of sima are not known, the sima should not be desecrated or consecrated. 5 This dictum of the Atthakatha does not, however, mean to indicate that, although the existence of the sima to be desecrated may not be known, if great exertion is put forth that sima will not be desecrated. Besides these quotations from and interpretations of Pali texts, there are a good number of references to Pali texts in the Kalyani inscriptions in the way of adducing arguments or citing authorities. The three pitakas are more than once mentioned the Vinaya having the honour of being mentioned most. But most often referred to is the Atthakatha of the Vinaya-pitaka. Other texts are the Patimokkha, the Khuddakasikkha, the Vimativinodani, the Vinayapali, the Vinayatfka called the Saratthadipani, the Vinayatika written by Vajirabuddhi-thera, the Matikatthakatha called the KahkhavitaranI together with its tlka, the Vinayavinicohayapakarana together with its ttka, the Yinayasangahapakarana, the Slmalankarapakarana, the Slmalahkarasahgaha, and other texts relating to the Vinaya- pitaka. Pali texts referred- to in the inscription of Pardkramabdhu at Oalwihdra, Ceylon L The Vinaya books, 2. The Khuddakasikkha, 3. The Pati- mokkha, 4. The Dasadhammasutta, 5. The three Anuinana- suttas, 6, The Mulasikkha, 7. The Heranasikkha, and 8. The Sekhiya. INDEX Abhidbammappakarana, xvii. Abhidbammattha Sangaha, 508, 599, 600, 602, 605. Abbidbammavatara, 385, 396, 599. Abbidhanappadlpika, 634, 637. AbMdbarma-Mahasastra, 342. Abhirupananda, 78. Aeiravatl, 369. Adhikaranasamatha, 20. Adbikaranasamatha&hamma, 47, 49, 60. Adhivacanapatha, xiv. Ajatasatru, 646. Ajatasattu, 12, 84, 429, 453, 653. A j itakesakambali , 108. Alwis, James, xviii, xxvi. Ambapali, xxiii, 302, 515. Ambattha, 418. Arnitabba, 646. Anagatabhayani, 30. Anagatavamsa, 389, 611, 612, 613. Aixatbapindika, xxi, 113, 435, 452. Andbaka, 12, 27. Anesaki, xxvii. Anga, 419, 555. Ahga-Magadha, xi. Angulimala, 506. Aniyata, 20. Aniyatadbamma, 49, 51. Aiinakondanna, 62. Anuradhapura, 556. Aimruddba, 301. Apadana, 1, 7, 33, 34, 35, 301. Aparantaka, 565. AparaseHya, 27. Ariyavamsa, 193. Asoka, xviii, xxii, xxiii, xxiv, 6, 9, 10, 15, 37, 40, 41, 112, 646. Assaji, 62, 66. Astadbyayl, xii Asvagbosa, 6, 7, 38. Atthaka, 2. Attbakatba, Andba, 374, Agama, 375. Jataka, 3/6. Maba, 374. Mahavamsa, 380, 381. Sankbepa, 374. Atthaka vagga, 1, 4, 5, 38. Atthasalinl, 473. Aung, S. Z., xxvii, 316, 330. Abhassaraloka, 83. Aeariy a-paramparay a } 27. Ajivikas, 453. Alada Kalama, 101. Ardhamagadki, xx, xxi, xxii, xxiii. Arya Maudgalyayana, 342. Bandbu, Cattaro, 280. Bapat, xxvii, 237. Barhut, 39. Barua, B. M., xv, 4, 28, 277, 301. Balavatara, 634, 635. Baranasi, 111, 368. Benares, 62. Bendall, xxvi. Bhaddakapilani, 302, 514. Bhadda-kundalakesa, 302, 512. Bharukaccba, 367, 555. Bbabru Edict, xxi, 6, 10, 30, 192, 665. Bhanaka, Anguttara, 28, 382. Dbammapada, 382. Dlgba, 7, 41, 382. Jataka, 28, 382. Khuddaka, 28, 382. Majjhima, 7, 28, 34, 382. Samyutta, 28, 382. Bhanakas, 27. 678 A History of Pali Literature Bhikkhu, interpretation of, 278. Bhikkhuni Samgha, rules for its guidance, 74-77. BMridatta, 294. Bigandet, xxvi. Bimbisara, xi, 40, 63, 429, 453, 620, 648, 659. Bindusara, 574. Bode, Mabel, xxvi. Bodhgaya, 39. Bodhicaryavatara, 624. Body, parts of the, 195. Brewster, E. H., 3. Buddha, Anomadassi, 288. Atthadassi, 289. DhammadassI, 289. Dipankara, 287. Gotama, 290. Kakusandha, 289. Kassapa, 290. Konagamana, 289. Kondanna, 287. Mangala, 287. Narada, 288. Paduma, 288. Padumuttara, 288. Phussa, 289. Piyadassi, 288. Revata, 288. Siddhattha, 289. Sikhi, 289. Sobhita, 288. Sujata, 288. Sumana, 288. Sumedha, 288. Tissa, 289. Vessabhu, 289. Vipassi, 289. Buddhacarita, 6, 7, 38, 615, 646. rBuddhadatta, xxvii, 10, 12, 384, 385, 559 ; works of, 396. Buddhadevaearita, 646. Buddhaghosa, x, xi, xii, xiii, xv, xxvii, 2, 11, 12, 18, 22, 31, 34, 96, 113, 274, 334, 387, 388, 389, 390, 409, 416, 422, 518, 589, 627, 632 ; works of, 399. Buddhaghosuppatti, 558, Buddha's prediction on the effect of the admittance of women into Order, 77-78. Buddhavamsa, 1, 7, 33, 35, 42, 285, 286, 613. Buddhism, an ethical religion from the Sutta Nipata, 235 ; traces of primitive Buddhism in Sutta Nipata, 238. Buddhist councils — First, 19, 20, 525 ; Second, 15, 525 ; Third, 40, 526. Bulls, 101. Bunyiu Nanjio, 80. Burlingame, xxvi, 450. Caityas, 100. Campa, 555. Campeyyake Vinaya Vatthu- smin, 15. Candrabhaga, 369, 664. Cariyapit-aka, 1, 7, 33, 35, 42, 290. Cariyapitaka commentary, 516. Carpenter, J. E., xxvi. Caves, Khandagiri, xxv. Udayagiri, xxv. Ceylon, xix, 38. Ceylonese chronicles, Geo- graphical references in, 552 ; Pah texts in, 549 : value of, 540. Cha-kesa-dhatu-vamsa, 588, Chandasa, xi, xii, xiii. Chandoviciti, 638. Channa, 617. Childers, R C., xviii, xxvi. Cina, 368. Cittayana, 585. Clough, xxvi. Conditions for entering the Order, 73-74. Culasaddaniti, 636. Culavamsa, ix, 547. Cullavagga, xi, 14, 15, 16, 19, 26, 28, 29, 31, 42, 45, 61, 65, 66, 609. Index 679 Cunda, 100. Dabba, 78. Dakkhinapatha, 419. Damilas, 576. Dantakumara, 587. Dantapali, xxiii. Das, Sarat Chandra, xxvii. Dative Plural in Pali, 640. Dasa, Cattaro, 280. Dathavamsa, 579, 581. De, Harinath, xxvii. Devanampiyatissa, 12, 524, 538, 576. Dhammapada, xiv, 1, 7, 33, 41, 42, 200, 623 ; editions and translations of, 223 ; Pali and Prakrit, 40, 215, 221. Dkammapada-atthakatha, 449, 457. Dhammapala, xxvii, 11, 12, 343, 392, 393, 597, 632, 637 ; works of, 481. Dhammapala, Anagarika, xxvii. Dhammasangani, 10, 12, 21, 24, 25, 26, 304-311 ; method of exposition in, 310. Dhammasoka, 40, Dharmaskandha, 341. Dhatukatha, 12, 21, 22, 25, 26, 42, 332. Dhatukathapakarana-attha- katha, 477. Dhatukaya, 340. Dighagama, 80. Digha Samgaha, 80. Dipa, 12, 78. Dlpavamsa, xvii, 379, 380, 517, 519, 520, 534, 535, 536, 539, 563 ; and Mahavamsa compared, 534 ; Pali Texts in the, 550. Dutthagamani, 12, 521, 529, 577. Dutthatthaka, 2. Eja, meaning of, 280. Ekakkharakosa, 634. 22 Eliot, Sir Charles, xxvi. Fa-Hien, 38. Fausboll, xxvi, 260. Peer, Leon, xxvi. Pick, 88. Pranke, Otto, xx, xxvi, 43. Frankfurter, xxvi. Gandhara, 368, 553, 662. Gandhavamsa, 372, 373, 589. Gahga, 369, 437. Geiger, xx, xxvi, 7, 9, 15, 533, 544. Ghositarama, 419, 655. Gijjhakuta, 408, 431, 661. Girnar, xx, xxii. Gods, grades of, 147 ; Tavatimsa, 103. Gogerly, 113. Gosala, 84. Gotaml, 302. Grammar, treatises on Pali, 636, 638. Grierson, Sir George, xix, xxvi. Grimm, xxvi. Guhatthaka, 2. Hardy, Edmund, xxvi. Hatthavanagallavihara-vamsa, 579. Hemavata, 27. Hewavitarne, xxviii. Hiuen Tsang, 342. Hunt, Mabel, 285. Inscriptions, Barhut, 667 ; Kalyani, 673. Isigili, xxv. Isigiri, xxv. Itivuttaka, 1, 33, 41, 42, 228. Jackson, xxvi. Jacobi, xxvi. J&gajjyoti, $46. Jain Schools of thought, 82. Jambudipa, 14, 111, 407. Java, 38. 680 A History of Pali Literature Jayaddisa, 296. Jayatilaka, xxvii. Jataka, xxvii, 7, 33, 39, 267 ; and popular Buddhism, 272 ; literature on, 276 ; origin and purpose of, 271. Jataka, Andabhuta, 269. Asatarupa, 269. Ayacitabhatta, 268. Cammasataka, 270. CulladhammapaJa, 269 Cullasetthi, 268. Dasaratha, 270. Devadhamma, 268. Bummedha, 269. Ekapanna, 269. Ekaraja, 269. Kapha, 270. Katahaka, 269. Khadirahgara, 269. Khantivada, 270. Khurappa, 269. Mahanarada Kassapa, ■ 270. Mahapihgala, 269. Mahasutasoma, 270. Makhadeva, 268. Matakabbatta, 268. Nalapana, 269. Nalinika, 270. Nigrodhamiga, 268. Sakuna, 269. Sanaa, 275. Surapana, 269. Tandulanali, 268. Ummagga, 275. Valahassa, 269, Vessantara, 275. Vidhurapandita, 271. Jataka commentary, 472. Jetavana, 553. Jinacarita, 611, 614, 615, 644. Jfvaka Komarabhacca, 62, 84, 85, 417. J nanaprasthana, 336, 337, 344. Kaccayana, 504, 633, 634, 635, 636, 637. Kalihga, xix, 368. Kalyarn, 554. Kamma, Pabbajaniya, 66. Tajjaniya, 66. Kammavaca, 608. Kanba, 280. Kanbadipayana, 300. Kanishka, 564. Kankharevata, 501. Kankhavitaranl, 409. Kapilavastu, 87, 553, 657. Kashmir, 104. Kassapa, Gaya, 62. Nadi, 62. Uruvela, 62. Kathavatthu, 1, 7, 8, 9, 10, 21, 22, 26, 27, 40, 316; a work of Asoka’s time, 324 ; Historical connection be- tween the Katbavattbu and the Milindapanba, 326. Katbavattbu-attbakatba, 477. Kathavatthuppakarana, 407. Kavisarapakaranaiii, 638. Kavisaratikanissaya, 638. Kalasoka (Kakavarni), 12. Kalidasa, 615. Kama, 278. KamandakI, 638. Kamasutra, 147. Kasi, 651, 659. Katantr a vyakarana , 635. Katyayana, 642. Katyayaniputra, 336. Keith, xxi, xxii, xxvi. Kern, xxvi, 533. Khandhakas, 1, 7, 8, 14, 15, 32, 45, 61. Khema, 509. Khiddapadosika, 83. Khuddakapatha, 1, 7, 34, 193. Kbuddakapatba-attbakatba, 445. Kbuddakasikkba, 79, 609. Kbujjuttara, 462. Kinnari, 646. Kisagotami, 464. Kita Hill, 66. Koliyas, 101. Konow, Sten, xxvi. Index 681 Kosala, xxi, 368, 420, 453, 456, 657. Kosambi, D., xxvii, 6, 420, 453, 621, 651, 657. Kuhn, xx. Kumarapahha, 8. Kumarasambhava, 615, 646. Kuru Kingdom, 452. Kuru-Pahcala, 654. Kusinara, 100, 408, 432. Landsberg, xxvi. Lanman, xxvi. Laghulovada, xxi. Lesny, xxvi. Levi, Sylvain, xxi. Lexicographies, 630. Licchavis, 101, 453. Loka, 279. Luders, H., xx. Madhuratthavilasinl, 384. Madhyadesa, xx. Magadha, xi, xviii, 84, 368, 407, 648. Maghadeviya, xxi. Maha-atthakatha, 12. Mahabharata, 30, 615, 623, 645. Mahabha$ya, 642. Mahabodhivamsa, 561. Mahajanapadas, 658. Mahakaccana, 5, 301-2. Mahakassapa, 301. Mahakatyayana, 6. Mahakurundiya, 12. Mahalomahamsa, 301. Mahameghavanarama, 546. Mahamoggallana, 301. Mahanama, 62. Mahapaceariya, 12. Mahasammat a , 524. Mahasena, 524. Mahavagga, 14, 15, 16, 19, 42, 45, 61, 63, 80, 609. Mahavamsa, ix, 37, 522, 534, 535, 536, 537, 543, 563 ; Pali texts in the, 551. Mahavamsa-tika, 533. Mahavana, 650, Mahavastu, 6, 7, 104. Mahavira, 84. Mahl, 369. Mahinda, xix, xx, xxiv, 13, 14, 37, 410, 523, 528. Mahisamandala, 557. Majjhimadesa, 9. Malihadeva, xxi, 31. Malalasekera, xxvii. Mallas, 101, 432, 453, 573, 656. Mallika, 466. Manopadosika, 83. Manorathapurani, 440. Maudgalyayana, 342. Mazumdar, S. N., 10, 640. Magadhaka, xii. Magadhi, x, xi, xii, xix, xxii, xxiii, xxv. Magadhinirutti, x, xi. Mara, 62. Markandeyapurana, 629. Matanga, 296. Maya, 616. Menander, 354. Migara, 78. Milindapanha, xxvii, 11, 20, 21, 26, 28, 31, 39, 40, 644. Minayeff, xxvi. Mithila, 663. Moggallana, 62, 505, 635. Moggallana Saddattharatna- kara, 636. Moggallayanavutti, 635. Mokkkali Gosala, xxv, 356. Moneya Sute, 6. Mookerjee, Sir Asutosh, xxviii. Moore, xxvi. Morris, Richard, xxvi, 22. Mukhapathavasena, 27. Mulabhasa, x. Mulasikkha, 79, 609. Muller, 640. Mundarajavagga, 32. Muni, 278. Munigatha, 6. Naraslhagatha, 378, 379, 623. Nariman, xx. 682 A History of Pali Literature Nagasena, 356, 360, 363, 365, 367. Nalakaprasna, 6. Nalanda, 653, 657. Namarupapariccheda, 608. Namarupasamasa, 608. Narada, xxvii. Neranjara, 62. Nettipakarana, 351, 631, 638. Nibbana, 319 ; in the Dhamma- pada, 222 ; in the Khuddaka- pa^ha, 199. Nidana, 49. Niddesa, 1, 3 ; diseases in, 281 ; doctrines in, 281 ; religious beliefs in, 281. Niddesa, Culla, 4, 5, 33, 37, 39, 277. Maha, 1, 4, 5, 33, 34, 37, 38, 277. Nidhikanda, 8. Nikaya, Ahguttara (Ekuttara), 1, 2, 10, 12, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 30, 41, 42, 180-193 ; its im- portance, 191. Digha, 1, 3, 10, 12, 17, 22, 31, 41, 42, 80, 342. Khuddaka, 4, 10, 18, 22, 28, 33, 36, 39, 80, 193. Majjhima, xv, 1, 10, 12, 18, 31, 41, 42, 80, 115. Pahca, 16, 18, 28, 31. Samyutta, xiv, 1, 10, 12, 22, 31, 41, 42, 80, 157. Nimi, 291. Mpata, Attha, 188. Catukka, 182, 23L Chakka, 187. Dasaka, 189. Duka, 181, 231. Eka, 180, 230. Ekadasaka, 190. Navaka, 188. Pancaka, 186. Nipata, Sattaka, 187. Tika, 181, 231. Nirukta, 344, 638. Nirutti, xiv. Niruttipatha, xiv. Nissaggiya, 20. Nissaggiya pacittiya dhamma, 47, 49, 52. Novice’s questions, 195. Oldenberg, xiii, xvii, xix, xxvi, 16, 39. Oung, Tha Do, 640. Padasadhana, 635. Paisaci Prakrit, xxi. Pajjamadhu, 611, 624. Pakudhakaccayana, xxv. Pancagatidipana, 627. Panhattipatha, xiv. Papancasudani, xv, 436, 438. Parakramabahu, 549, 676. Paramattliaka, 2. Paramatthadipani ,516. Parissaya, 280. Paritta, 608. Parivara, xvii, 45. Parivarapatha, 13, 14, 42, 78. Pasenadi, 112, 448, 465, 652, 660. Patacara, 302. Patahjali, 642. Patidesaniya dhamma, 47, 49, 58. Patisambhida, xvii, 1. Patisambhidamagga, 33, 41, 42, 282, 337. Patthana, 21, 25, 26, 334, 335. Patthanapakarana-att-hakatha, 481. Pavarana, 61. Payogasiddhi, 635. Pacittiya, 45, 46. Pacittiya dhamma, 54. Pali bhasa, importance of the study of, xxvi-xxviii ; origin and home of, ix~xxv. Pali canon, chronology of, 1-42. Pali commentaries, 384. Index 683 Pali Grammars, 630. Pali Literary Pieces, 611. Pali Manuals, 597. Panini, xii, 632, 633, 637. Parajika, 20, 45, 46, 49. Parajika dhamma, 50. Parayana, 2, 42. Parayanavagga, 4, 37, 38. Patali, xviii. Pataliputra, xviii, 357, 369, 554, 650. Patheya, 80. Patikavagga, 80. Patimokkha, 2, 3, 17, 19, 21, 42, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 63, 76, 79. Pava, 566. Pavarika, 112. Petaki, 28. Petakopadesa, 31, 352, 389. Petavatthu, 8, 36, 42, 261, 263, 629. Petavatthu commentary, 492. Peta-vimanavatthu, 1, 7, 33. Pindola-Bharadvaj a, 503. Pischel, xxvi. Pitaka, Abhidliamma, 12, 14, 17, 18, 21, 23, 24, 26, 43, 303. Sutta, 12, 43, 79. Vinaya, xix, 10, 13, 14, 18, 43, 79. Poussin, La Valee, xxvi. Prajhapti-^astra, 342. Prakaranapada, 339. Precepts, ten, 194. Profession, various kinds of, 124. Prosody, works on, 630, 638. Przyluski, J., xxvi. Pubbasava, 280. Pubbaseliya, 27. Puccha, Ajitamanava, 254. Bhadravudhamanava, 256. Dhotakamanava, 255. Hemakamanava, 256. Jatukannimanava, 256. Puccha, Kappamaxiava, 256. Mettagumanava, 254. Mogkaraj amanava, 257. Nandamanava, 256. Pingiyamanava, 257. Posalamanava, 256. Punnakamanava, 254. Tissametteyyamanava 254. Todeyyamanava, 256. Uday amanava, 256. Upatissamanava, 256. Puggalapamiatti, 1, 21, 22, 23, 26, 42, 114, 328, 330 ; com- mentary, x, 477. Rakkha, 30. Rasavahinl, 625. Rahula, 61, 301. Raliula-Ratthapala, 443. Rahulovada, xxi. Rajagaha, 84, 407, 621, 649, 655. Rajagahe Uposatha Samyutte, 15. Rajatarahgini, 645. Ramagama, 566. Raya Paseni, 109. Refuges, three, 194. Revata, 505. Rhys Davids, Mrs. 0. A. F., xxiii, xxiv, xxvi, xxvii, 24, 117, 157, 334. Rhys Davids, T. W., xxi, xxii, xxvi, xxvii, 8, 81, 113, 275. Rock Edicts (of Asoka) ; Kalsi, 9 ; Manshera, 9 ; Shahbaz- garhi, 9. RohinI, 467. Rouse, xxvi. Rupananda, 468. Ruparupavibhaga, 599. Ruparupavinicehaya, 384. Rupasiddhi, 634, 635. Saccasamkhepa, 597, 599. Sadaw, Ledi, xxvii, 334. Saddamti, 635, 636. 684 A History of Pali Literature Saddhammasamgaha, 560. Saddhammopayana, 611, 626, 627. Sailagatha, 6. Sakanirutti, xi, xii. Salalavatl, 63. Samantapasadika, xii, 405, 407, 408. Samarasekara, W. A., 80. Samghadisesa, 20, 49, 67, 68. Samghadisesa dhamma, 50. Samhita, caraka, 344 ; Susruta, 344. Sammohavinodanl, 476. Samyutta, Abhisamaya, 168. Anamatagga, 169. Anuruddha, 179. Aranavibhahga, xv. Asankata, 177. Avyakata, 177. Anapana, 179. Bala, 179. Bbikkliu, 170. BhikkhunI, 163. Bojjhanga, 177. Brahma, 163. Citta, 177. Devaputta, 162. Devata, 160. Dhatu, 168. Ditthi, 172. Gamani, 177. Gandhavyakaya, 173. Iddhipada, 179. Indriya, 177. J ambukhadaka, 176. Jhana, 174, 179. Kassapa, 169. Khandha, 171. Kilesa, 173. Kosala, 162. Lakkhana, 170. Labhasakkara, 170. Magga, 177. Mara, 162. Moggallana, 176. Naga, 173. Samyutta, Nidana, 168. Opama, 170. Radha, 172. Sacea, 37, 179. Sakka, 168. Salayatana, 175. Sammappadhana, 178. Satipatthana, 177. Sariputta, 173. Sotapatti, 179. Supanna, 173. Uposatha, 31. Uppada, 173. Vacchagotta, 174. Valaha, 174. Vana, 164. Vangisa, 164. Yedana, 175. Yakkha, 164. Sahgitipariyaya, 339. Sairjaya, 81. Sankhapala, 297. Sarabhu, 369. Sarassati, 369. Sasapandita, 294. Sandesa-katha, 560. Sanghamitta, 575. Sanskritabhasa, xii. Galiyas, 87, 101. Salho, 78. ^antideva, 623. Saratthapakasinl, 438. Sariputta, 62, 118, 301, 505. Sasanavamsa, 592, 593, 596. SavatthI, 78, 456, 663. Schrader, Otto, xxvi. Sekhiya rules, 21. Sekhiya dhamma, 49, 58. Senart, 102. Shastri, Haraprasad, xxvii, 43» Siam, king of, xxvii. Siddhartha, xxvii, 65, 619. Sikkha, 278. SikkhJLpada, 17. Silakhanda, 80. Silas, 2, 42. Silavanaga, 294. Index 685 Slmalankarapakarana, 609. Sirisudhammaraja, 43. Sivi, 292. Smith, Helmer, xxvi. Social conditions in the Ganges Valley, 85. Somanassa, 297. Sona Kolivisa, 63, 442. Sonapandita, 298. So-sor-ther-pa, 48. Spiegel, xxvi. Stede, xxvi. Steinthal, xxvi. Strong, xxvi, 561. Subodhalahkara, 634, 638. Sudassana, 292. Sudatta, 620. Suddhatthaka, 2. Suddhodana, 616, 620. Snkhodaya, 274. Sumahgala, Snriyagoda, xxvii. Sumahgala vilasim, 3, 7, 18, 19, 22, 33, 409, 411, 419, 426, 434, 451. Sunakkhatta, 110. Sundari Nanda, 509. Superman, his thirty-two marks, 145. Suppiya, 81. Susaddasiddhi, 635. Susandhikappa, 635. Susunaga, 407. Sutasoma, 300. Sutra, Madhyamagama, 116. Sutta, Abhayaraj akumara, 137. Acchariyabhuta- dhamma, 152. Aggahha, 111, 644. Aggivacchagotta, 140. Alagaddupama, 128. Ambalatthik arahulo- vada, 138. Ambattha, 86. Anahgana, 119. Anathapindikovada, 155. Ahgulimala, 144. Anumana, 18, 125, Anuruddha, 152. Sutta, Apannaka, 138. Aranavibhahga, xv, 154. Axavaka, 243. Ariyapariyesana, 129. Assalyayana, 146. Attadanda, 253. Atthakanagara, 136. Akankheyya, 119. Amagandha, 244. Anandabhaddekaratta, _ 153. Ananj asappaya, 149, Anapani, 151. Atanatiya, 30, 113. Bahudhatuka, 151. Bahuvedaniya, 138. Balapandita, 153. Bhacldali, 139. Bhaddekaratta, 153. Bhayabherava, 118. Bhumija, 152. Bodhiraj akumara, 144. Canki, 147. Catuma, 139. Cetokhila, 125. Chabbisodhana, 150, Chachakka, 156. Channovada, 155. Cula-Assapura, 133. Cula-Dliammasama- dana, 134. Culadukkhakkhandha, 125. Culagopalaka, 132. Culagosinga, 131. Cuiahatthipadoma, 129. Culakammavibhahga, 153, Cula-Maluhkya, 138. Cujapunnama, 150. Cula Eahulovada, 156. Cuja-Saccaka, 132. Cula- Sakuladayi , 142. Cuiasaropama, 130. Culaslhanada, 122, Culasunfiata, 152, Cula-Tankasankhaya, ■ 133. Cula-vedalla, 134. 688 A History of Pali Literature gahe, 15, 16 ; Savatthiya, 15, Sutta Nipata, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 40, 42, 232, 632 ; editions and translations of, 257 ; its im- portance in the history of the middle Indo-Aryan lang- uages, 258. ^471 commentary, Suvannabhumi, 554. Suzuki, xxvii. Tailang, xxvii. Takakusu, xxvii, 115, 339. Takkasila, 555. Tambapanni, 14. Tathagata, 94, 95, 100, 318. Taxila, University of, xx, 455. Taylor, Arnold, xxvi. Tekiechakari, 40. Telakatahagatha, 611, 623. Thera-Therigatha, 1, 39. Theragatha, 1, 263, 264. Theravada, xvi. Theragatha commentary, 500. Therigatha, 1, 264 ; essence of Buddhism involved in, 265. Therigatha commentary, 508. Thomas, E. J., xviii, xxvi. Thullananda, 78. Thuna, 63. Thupavamsa, 562. Tin, P. Maung, xxvii. Tissa, Moggaliputta, 9, 564, 574. Tissa Samanera, 418. Trenckner, V, xxvi. Turnour, xxvi, 533. Udana, 1, 33, 41, 225. Udanavarga, 220. Ujjain, xx. Ujjeni, xxiv, University of Taxila, xx. Upali, 63, 444. Upanishads, 84, 91. Uposatha Samyutta, 31. Uppalavanna, 408, 510. Usiradhaja, 63. Uttarakuru, 408, 556. Uttaravinicehaya, 384, 397, Uttarapathakaj 27, 408. Vagga, Appamada, 201. Arahanta, 202. Atta, 205. Atfhaka, 251. Bala, 202. Bhikkhu, 213. Bodhi, 227. Brahmana, 213. Buddha, 206. Citta, 201. Cula, 228, 244. Danda, 204. Dhammattha, 208. Jaccandha, 228. Jara, 204. Khandha, 158. Kodha, 208. Loka, 206. Magga, 210. Maha, 159, 248, 282, Mala, 208. Meghiya, 227. Mucalinda, 227. Nanda, 227. Nidana, 158. Pakinpaka, 211. Pandita, 202. Panna, 284. Papa, 203. Parayana, 253. Pataligamiya, 228. Puppha, 201. Sagatha, 158. Sahassa, 203. Salayatana, 159. Sona, 227. Tanha, 212. Uraga, 241. Yamaka, 200. Vai^all, 649. Vanga, 369. Vangisa, 443. Vasumitra, 339. Index 689 Vattagamani, xx, 11, 12, 13, 14, 26, 34, 598. Vattapotaka, 299. Vattkugathas, 4, 6, 7, 254. Vajiriya, 27. Vanarinda, 299. Vatsayana, 147. Vedahgas, 630. Vedas, 91. Vedic mantras, 95. Vesali, 554. Vessantara, 293. Vetullaka, 27. Vibkajjavadin, xii. Vibhahga, 313. Bkikkku-Bkikkkuru, 17. Bojjkanga, 315. Dkammakadaya, 316. Indriya, 315. Jnana, 316. Kkuddakavatthu vi- bkanga, 316. Magga, 315, Patisambkida, 316, Sacca, 24, 315. Vibhangas, 10, 12, 16, 24, 25, 26. Vidyabhusana, Satish Ckandra, xxvii. Vidyasundara, 647. Views, current philosophical, 82. Vijaya, 542. Vijnanakaya, 340. Vilata, 369. Vimala-kondanna, 502. Vimanavatthu, 36, 42, 260, 261. Vimanavatthu commentary, 481. Vinaya, xi ; Bkikkku, 18 ; Giki, 18 ; Ubkato, 16. Vinaya texts, 78. Vinayasamukase, 192. Vinaya vatthus , 16. ■ Vinaya vinieehaya, 377, 397, 559. Vindkya mountains, xix. Visakka, 469. Visuddhimagga, ix, xxiii, 399, 400, 401, 403, 404, 410, 627. Vitasoka, 40. Vuttodaya, 638. Vyakarana, 630. Walleser, Max, xviii, xxvi. Warren, xxvi. Watanabe, xxvii. Westergaard, xx, xxvi. Windisch, xix, xxvi. Winternitz, xix, xx, xxvi. Woods, James, xxvi. Woodward, xxvi. Yamaka, 42, 333 ; Anusaya, 334 ; Citta, 334 ; Dkamma, 334 ; Dhatu, 334 ; Kkandka, 334 ; Mula, 334. Yamuna, 369, 437. Yasodhara, 302, 620. Zetland, Lord, 261. Zoysa, xxvii. Published by Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd., 38, Great Russell Street, London, W.C. 1, and Printed by P. Knight, Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta. ERRATA Page Read Instead of 350 quietude- qvAeiitude 355 perorations prerorations 358 another the another 399 Grimblot Grmholl 402 are is 404 ghcma jliiina 409 great erudite 443 shone shined, 453 an interesting legend legend 487 she he 505 dropped dripped 513 a banker's family banker's, family 520 Bindiisara Bimbisara 590 0 mit Amiruddha — Khuddasikkham 592 Pnsadanl Pasadayanam 616 her his