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-JOHN -FRYER*
CHINESE- LIBRARY-
A CJvAAl.MAK
i>K TIIK
CHIXE^E COLLOQUIAL LANGUAdE
COMMONLV CALLED THE
MANDARIN J) 1 A J. K C T
i;»
JOSEPH EDKINS 1]. A. I.ond.
FOREinN A8S0CIATB OP THB KTIINOORAPIIICAL SOCrETY OF KRAXCBi
OK TDK
L(»NDON MISSION AUY SOCIETY
TKKINCr.
SECOM) KDlTlOy.
SHANGHAI:
I'itfASnVTKr.FAN MISSION pRKSS.
1864.
'»
V
Main Lib.
JOHN FRYER CHINESE LIBRARY
4 I
y^;^^ /^^
£2?
^
PREFACE.
In this new edition many corrections have been made. In pronunciation a fuller exhibition of the northern sounds as heard in Pckinfj and Chili will be found. Some new northern idioms have been introduced, and an attempt has been mad«i to distinguish such idioms as are exclusively northern or southern by notes wheie they occur.
The Mand;i'-in Grammar of INI. Hazin, and the Hsin Ching Luof Mr. Wade, have snpplied some- valuable assistance.
The results of further inquiiies into tiic laws of tones and accent in th^ Pekinc? dialect have been embodied.
If the first part of the work looks forbidding to the beginner on account ol the pliiioIo<rical discussions it contains, he will find no lack of simple exam- ples in the second and third parts. Ry first studying those portions where cx- amp'tis aboun 1 he will he supplied with many modes of expression useful in daily life.
The plan of the work embraces the northern and southern m-nvlarin. This renders it impossible to be uniform in orthography, in m.my instances where the sound differs, the northern and southern form of it have both been
given
The reader is rccommendod in writing for himself to adopt such modifica- tions in sp<'llinir as are rendered n(>cess.iry by the dialect of the native who is his instructor in the lanmi.ise. If he has a Pekinese teacher it will not be ne- cessary to maintain the distinction between the initials h and * where they coalesce in the metropolitan dialect, as they do before the vowels i and u. The same remark may be made with respect to is and /.• which coalesce, and b<comc nearly r/t, befor*; the same vowels i and u. It will Ixj more convenient to write the one h or s, or hs. and the other ch uniformly. Na- tives of Tientsin and Hankow al.so pronounce in this way. Hut in writing in the dialects of Chefoo and Nanking it will be requisite to keep h and s separate in all cases, as also is and k.
IX
i»Ki:i'Aci: TO THi; nus'r kditiox, isjT.
'Vho study ol tilt' CliiiiC'se latiguaiix- i:s inuc}i too extensive to be convenient- ly comprised witliia the limits of a siriirlc work. The eliicid.-ition of one por- tion only of Chinese irrunmnr has ()een undertaken in the present work, viz. that ol llie mandarin dialect. The field thus embraced coincides with thai of }*remare in tlie first part of his work, and with the second division of J?cnni- sat's L^r:inmi;a\ I v<'ry much regret that I have not yi't s^-en .M. Hazin's work on colloquial mandarin, published this year. 'I'he manner in which lhi^ author prefers to discuss the spoken languaire, is however clearly seen in his earlier brochure on the same subject, given to the public several years sine;.'. His aim has b<'en to exhibit in all their copiousness and variety, the laws of com- bination existing in cfroups of words, and lurther to trace the origin and pro- gress of the mandarin language by means of its literature. This mode of treatment is in harmony with the advancement of mod(>rn philology oroncrally. and has resulted in several valuahh^ contributions to Chinese philology in par- I iiular.
TIk; works of Morrison and Marsbman on the grammar of this language, (ail to convey to the mind of the student, the richness of its idioms, and the extended development of its p-jculiar principles. Tbev were not aware of what their predecessors had already accomplished, aiid consequently spent seviTal years in acquiring such a knowledge ol the subject, as may now be gained in one, by means of Premare and the otiier helps since place^l in the liands of the learner.
Pr«'Mnan' liimself with all his breadth of view, learning and ta-5.te, lived too early to be influenced by modern iniprovements in the study ot languages. 'J'hat part of his treatise which is occupied with the mandarin dialect, ischiefjy a dietionary of ]");u'ticles with copious examples of their use. Invaluable as such a work is to the student, it is nt)t properly speaking a grammar, nor did the author adopt I'or it that •itle.
The province of the grammarian I imderstand to be, to find out the laws of tb«' language, and arrange them in the most natural and convenient manner. It has lM>en my endeavour to do some little towards realizing this conception, but practised comparative philologists must study Chinese grannnar closely, before a treatise upon it free from blemishes can be composed. Ere long pro- bably, well-qnalified scholars in Europe, will pursue their researches in 'liis lic^ld. and m the ct,gnate languages sj)oken in the Hirman jjeninsula. If so the best mode of arranging the <rranmiar oi a monosyllabic language will re- ceive full COILS iderat ion.
That scholars of high reputation still forjn erroneous viows of the Chinese languairt'. may be seen in the manner in winch Dr. K. ]\ Bokker speaks of it. in his profound work on the OrgJuLsm of language.* He says, "'I'he old-
* Organism dor Sprnclie, von Dr. K. F. Bekkor.
IIJ
rst history ol" the (.'liiiiese and orolliLi iiiunosyllubic lanjiuagos is uiialtttiiuible l«v US. \\ t' art' not to a position evc-ii to coiijectun' with any prohnbihty, what tloviutions from early development, or what outward causes, liave occa- >ioned in these lanqnages the early and entire loss ol' inflLClions, or their ori- triiiul absence. IJut the whole organic structure of tluse languaiies, is less perfect than that ol'laniruages having inflections. Vet'' he continues. '' philo- logy ni.iy obtain valuable illnstrali()n.s from abnormal langnaees, just as phy- siology i£ains information from misshapen orLranisms in the animal world.'' A better acquaintance with the (.'hiaese language will probably lead to the abandonment of such words as ''abnormal '" and ''misshapen." in the descrip- tion o( it. It will rather be spoken of, as possessinij a very copious and ad- mirable development of the principles of monosyllabic language,— as indeed the most perfect example of that class o( languages. Comparative philology has hitherto directed its efforts too exclusively, to languages whose words consist of a root and some addition to or modification of the root. The Chi- nese must be regarded as the best type ol those languages, which do not admit any modification of the rool. but allow the appendage of auxiliary words un- der a strict law of limitation. The scientific investigation of it is adapted to throw light on the strncmre of a language like the Fiiialish. The lOnglish occupies a middle ]>osition between the classical LiUropean languages, and the monosyllabic languages in Asia. To the former, it is related by its tense and case endings etc. ; to the latter, by its formation ol compounds and its auxi- liary verlis, etc. 'i'onic pronunciation also is found more fully developed in (^hina than elsewhere, and a competent knowledge of it as there existing, will lead to a better understanding of the local accent found in provincial dialects of Cnglish and othfM- modern languages, and ol the syllabic accents of Greek and .Sanscrit.
The line of distinction drawn in the present work, lietween natural tones belongjnij to the dialect of a city, and tone-classes extending over several pro- vinces or the entire empire, will be found essential to clearness of views on the suliject of tonic pronunciation. The sketch here attempted of the origin and growth of the mandarin pronunciation, of .secular <'hanges in the tone- classes, and of the older form of the languag(\ as it was l''om about the eighth century upwards, will shew that the earliest history of this language, is per- haps not ''unattainable." The description of native mandarin diciionarie.s, and the notice at the end of native researches in philology. ^'iH shew that the Chiin"-o have airearlv doiv no little to aid foreign siMinlnr^ in tlios'> iuvestiorn- tidif^.
In' the department of etyuioloey* the auxiliary substantives, and the remark- able development of the verb, have received particular attintion.
I still feel some uncertainty as to the distinction to be preserved between etymology and syntax ; but such deviations as ore here observable, from the plan of a former work on the Shanghai dialect, will probably be regarded as improvements.
Tin- examples have been taken jiartly from the lips of natives, and jtartly from l)Ooks in collociuial mandarin. Two works, tlie Sarrrd Edict Cnl/ot/i/inl- i zed nnd the Dream of the lied (. f.at?ibcr,holh written since the timeof Pre- mare, have furnished a eoiisi(l( rab!'' nnmlxr of them.
In reffard to the spellmg of the rhinese sounds a few words are here re- quisite. Inaccuracies in preceding works on the langnncre had to be corrected.
In Prcmare for example, the syllables pxran, c/ii.jht and chil had to be alterL'd, to p'ni, c/ii, jen and c/m, in the ortlioi:raphy of this work. In .Morrison, the syllables shcii, ?nun, and chnrj^. needed to be changed into shau. men and clieng. Tiiese chanires, and otbers of the s;imc class, will possibly be objected to by those who are accustomed to follow without questioning the sounds of these writers. But they are necessary for correctness. Premirc appears to have betMi inflnenced by the dialects west of Nanking, and ^Morrison by those of the southern provinces.
That such improvements as these should not have been made till the present time, IS a convincing proof that a reform in our spellin;^ of Chinese sounds is mucli wanted.
In adopting Sir "William Jones' mode of spelling, as proposed in the Chinese Repository, some modifications have been introduced to obviate the frequenl use of accents.
In preparing the present work, while J have been far from indifferent to the advancement of scientific philology, in application to the Chinese language, my liighest wish is that it may be useful in opening the treasures of the lang- uage to C'hristian Missionaries. "With the hope that it may in some liumble degree, aid in conveying religious truth to the Chinese nation, I commit it to the blessing of God.
T A1]L K 0 F r 0 N T K NTS.
PART T— ON SOUND. Tp. 1—%.
cnAPTEn 1, Alphabet aiul Tone Symbols. pn^cl
ClIAl'TEll 2.
Systems of M.irdarin Prouunciation, central, northern and western. pa^c 7
cnAPTER 3.
On Tones. — Natural Tones. — List of Natural Tones witli tlieir modifications. — On Tone-classes. — Their provincial variations. — Characteristic of Short-tone Word.s. — Natural Tones now iu u.^^e, in the niaiulariu-speaking cities. — Examples for practice. — On Accent. — On the present distribution of "Words among the Tone-clasijes. — Table of "Word.s that have changed from the second to the third Tone-class, page 10
rUArTKR 4.
Oil tlie Initial.-;. — Ti.nal variations. Native system.^. — "Work of Chcu-teh-t'sing. p. 31
OHArTER 5.
Our the Finals. — Systems of native author.s. — Table of syllables. — Number of .sounds. — Local variations in the consonant finals, — in the vowel final.^, — in the short-tone finals. — Len^^thening of word.s in the short tone. — Table to find the modern tone- class, of words formerly in the .short-tone class, for the Peking dialect. — Examples for practice. — Table of variation.^ in vowels in words of the fourth tonc-cla.«s'<, in the l>riueipal Mandarin Dialects — Faults in Mandarin Dialects. P^gc 41
ClIAl'TER G.
Native mode of Writing Somul.-;. — Dictionaries of Local Dialects. — Syllabic Spelling. — Phonetic Characters. — Modern Alphabetic Writing. png<^71
CHAPTER 7. On the Age of the Mandarin Pronunciation. page 79
VI
illAI'TKU 8.
On the Partnt Stem of the Mandarin and other modern Dialects. — Its aljihabetic ele- ments.— Its partial rt-tention in variuus c■xi!^ting Dialects. — Table of the principal vowel changes. — Traces of old .rounds in old native works and translations. — Secular changes iu Tones. page ^4
PART II.— THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. Pp. OG— 21S.
(•HAPTEU 1.
Iniroduotory. — A list of Mandarin Particles. — Native Literature in the Mandarin Dialect. — Subdivisions iu Style page 00
CnAI'TEIl 2.
On Words. — Old words in modern u.<«e. — Changes in words. — Arrangement, page 100
CIIArTKR 3.
Divi.sion of words into Parts of Speech. — Indeterminateness of this division. }>ago 105
CHAPTER 4.
On the Substantive — Formation of Compounds. — Aiixiliary suffixes. — Different Kinds ofMuuns — Sex and Gender. — Number. — Ca.se. page 107
CUAriER f).
On Auxiliary Substantives or Numeral Particles. — Classification. — Distinctive Numeral Particles. — Significant Numeratives. — Collectives. — Numeral l^articles to Verbs.
]'age 127
CHAPTER 6.
On Adjectives. — Corapari.son of Adjectives: — Comparative. — Superlative. — Numbers. — Further rcmaiks on the Degrees of Comparison. page 143
CHAPTER 7.
On Pronouns. — Personal Pronouns. — Reflexive Pronoiins. — Demonstrative Pronoims. — Interrogative Pronouns. — Relative Pronouns. — Distributives. — Indefinite Pro- nouns.— Adjective Pronouns. — Substitutes for Pronoun.s. page 157
CHAPTER 8.
On the Verb. — Formation of Compounds: — Co-ordinates. — Auxiliary words- — (Jroups of two. — (Jruups ofthree and four. — Atfirmative and Negative Groups — Groups form- ed by Repetition and Antithesi.s. — Different kinds of Verbs. — Modes of Verbs. — Par- ticles of Time forming Tenses of Verbs, page 172
CHAPTER 0.
On Preposition? and Postpositions. page 197
vn
ciiAni:!; U'.
On Advorlts. — Cuuii>uiuuls. — Adverbs of Manner, — of lutonslty and Quantlt}-, — of Plaee and lUrectiou. — Affirmative, Negative and Knipliatic Particles, page iiOl
1 IIAI'TKK 1 1.
( )ii ('..iiiuiicfiniis. — Adversative — (\>njnmti\ e. — Causal. — Illative. — Ilypotlictioal.
page lil-i
I IIAIIKII 12.
^litfecllaucuus Partieles and lutcrjeetiun.s. page 217
I'AKT 111— ^•V^'TAX. lll\l•TKli 1. On (Jovernnient - - page 218
1 IIAITKI: '2.
Infltionte of J\)sitii)n on the Parts of Speech. — Sub.stantive.s. — Adjeetives. — Verbs. — Preposition.s. — Adverbs. page 219
' iiAiTKii ;!. lleduetiun and Expausiou. P^g^-' --2
rilAl'TKK 4.
Internal S tract ure of Giuups. — Governnn'nt in (jroup.'^. — Antltlie.sis. — Repetition. — Order of Speeics and (Jenu.s. — Order of Matter and Piirni. — -Order of Natural Prio- rity.— Order of Time. — Order of Arbitrary Choiee. — Order of a I'roposition. — Variation in Order. page 224
• IIAI'TKK 5.
External ll'lation.>i of ( IioajL-j. — In.separable (!roup«. — Separable Group.s. pngc 2o2
ntAl'TKK 0.
Ou *in>ple Propositions — Extension of the Subjcet. — Extension of the Predicate. — Extoo.siuu of the Copula. — Commands and (juestious. page 237
CIIAl'TKU 7.
Subordinate Sentences. — Cireunistantial Clau.scs. — The Object as a >'eparate Clause. — Relative Clausets. — Final Clause."*. — Explanatory Clau.ses. — Comparing Clauses. — Clau.-)cs expressing Similarity. — C«)nditional (clauses — Superadded Clau.'ies. i>. 2l(J
(IIAITKR 8.
Co-ordinate Sentences. — Simple Couneetiou — Councctivc Particles. — Sentences with Adversative Conjunctions. — l)i.«jun<-tive Sentences. — Illative and Transition Sen- toueca, — Uuestious cousistiug of two Sentences. — Comparison. page 255
Till
niAI'TKK .'.'.
Ellipsis aud Ploouabin. jtago "JO 1
CIlAriKI! |(».
AutitliC'sis. ■ j)!igc.' 203
CirAPTKU H.
llliytliiuus. ])ag<! 20")
APrHNJ)lX I. Ou rcccut Philological researches in Cliiua. — 2soticc of Authors. page 267
APPENDIX II. Ou Alauduriu Literature. pugu 209
APPi'LXDIX III. Ou the Southern Mandarin Dialect. page 278
RULES FOR USING THE OllTIlOCillAPHY HERE ADOPTED.
1. The five vowels i, c, a. o, u, in an open .sellable, have the Italian sound. They are the vowels contained in the words feel, fail, fatlser, foal. fool.
2. The vowels i, c, before n and ng are pronounced as the vowels in fin, fun. IJut after i aud y and before u, the letter e is to be pronounced a.i e in sent.
3. The vowels a, o, u, in closed syllables are the same as in opeu .syllables.
4. ^Yords iu the fourth tone-class (juh sheng) are terminated by h, to indicate that the sound closes abruntlv thou2;h without an articulate consonant.
5. The symbols i', ii, e, are pronounced as c in lasscl, u in the French word ///, and the first c in there.
6. The unites k, t, p. f, ch, thouirh sometimes a little softened in norUurn pntnuncia- tiou, so as to .'iouud like g, d, b, v, are to be considered hard like the i'jngli.>sli conso- nants k, t, p, f.
7. The aspirated consonants k', t', p', c'h, t's, are the corresponding mutes pron(mnced with a dif^tinct aspiration immediately fnllowinf.' them.
8. IJefore the vowels i aud ii. the letters k and is, are in the Peking and many other dialects heard as one sound, which appears to be approaching ch, but is not yet defi- uitely arrived at that sound. Before the same vowels, iu the .same dialects, h and s also coincide.
9. The five tone-classes are marked iu the following manner: — I. ,t'i; II. 't-i; TIT, t'i'; l^^ t'ih; V. .t'i. In Kiang-nan and the south, the regular four tone-classes are subdivided into an upper and lower scrie.-^, making eight in all. In mandarin this subdivisiuu extends gemrallv. unlv tn the fii^t which is subdiv ided iutit the first and the fifth.
A (JUAMiMAU
OK Till::
CIIINESK COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE,
COMMONLY CALLED THE
MANDARIN D I A L E C' T
I'AR'r \.~ON so USD.
CHAPTLK \.
Am'hahet and Tone Symhols.
1. ('oNsoNANTs. — Tlio foUowiiig syiiibols will be employed for consonants: gutturals, /t, /:•, ii'^; dentals.^, t'. n; labials, />, ;/, tn; aspirates,/, h; sibilants, s, nh.j^ Is, i^s, c/i, c'/i; liquids, /, ;•; semivowels, w, y.
p ^ ,kai, oughl.
iTfJ jk'ai, to opoi. IJ.;; I'l, boffl/.
^^( 'p'u, the whole.
!<: ^ngni, to grieve.
tt
>7H Jiwan;^, desolate. J{^ .jau, /A?<^'.
rJ cheu, «// round.
v\ .
7Q .n, son.
^^ \\\\\\ a grave. y^ jsieu, elegant. ^12 'tscu, to wall:. •fill jC'lieu, r/7-a?/) out.
m
^ ,wan, /o bend.
li, bottom. ^ pu', 5/r;). ,// ;fang, square. H/^ sheu, gather in. Y)\ jt'sieu, autumn, i'ij^ .leu, upper room. ^^ ,yru, sad.
The aspirated consonants /:'•, t\ ;*•, arc pronounced by inserting the sound h, after the letters A-, /, ;/. To obtain, for example, the aspirated form of t or ;>, enunciate the word Tahiti, without the vowel a, and fiap-hazard, without the initial hu These consonants, rare as they are in western languafjes, occur
A
2 MANIiARIN CIKA.M.MMJ. I'AUl' I.
extensively in those of southern and eastern Asia, and after snmo practice arc as easily distinguishaljle to the foreicj;n ear, as they arc to the native.
The consonant iii^, whether initial or final, is pronounced as in the word /.•/■??'■'•. Jt should jiavc a single letter as its symhol, but the Roman alphabet does liot lurnish one, • jtfdoes not occur as an initial in tlie English language. /.^1^<r""agiti.r*ata;/'. hag-, a- Citrons: harsh enunciation, apjiroaching before the vowels /, 1/, to s, and inniany dialects coalescing with that consonant.* This letter will also be used at the end ol words, as by many previous writers, to denote that they take a short intonation.
/ is the French /, and might be written c//. It is sometimes in English written z as azure, also si as in confusion.
Sh, properly a single consonant like ng, is written Avitli two letters for want of a better symbol.
Ts and cit, with their aspirated forms, are the only compound initials, or initials consisting of more than one consonant, found in Chinese words. Ch formed of t and s/t, is written ch instead of ish for brevity. The aspirate in these compound consonants, occurs after t, not after s, lor if t be omitted, the aspirate cannot be pronounced. Ts is pronounced as z in the German lano-uage, and as ts in Whitsuntide. Like ng and ;*, it does not occur as an initial in English, and lience, as in the case of those consonants, some effort is usually required by speakers of English, to attain the pronunciation.
2. Tn addition to the twenty two conso7iauts occurring in the mandarin dialect, eight more will be necessary to express provincial sounds. They are g, d, b, r, //j z, dz, dj. Tliey form a series of soft consonants, whose place is next to the aspirated letters /•', iK dec. of the first paragraph.
The symbol // is used for a weak aspirate, whieh in some dialects accompa- nies the common harsh aspirate of mandarin pronunciation.
/)/ is allied to r//, as g to /,*, dz to Is, *fcc. It is the English / as '\n jewel. Dj and dz though really compounds of r/, z and / are for convenience treated as single consonants, according to native usage.
♦ Since the publiration of the fir.st edition, Mr. Wade in his hook o( ex|HTiinenl.s, htis introduced the fij'inhol hs lo represent the strong hissin<T aspirate desrrilicd almve. The peculiar nature of this aspirate is thus constantly before the learner's mind, hut I prefer for myself to keep the distinction be- tween the two sets of wonU beginning with k and .i respectively.
•ii.\»'Tf;u 1.
AI.IMlAfUl' ANIi J'ttNF. SVMl'.iM.S.
[i.
The pronunciation of Snellen and llangclicn havini;^ tljf:5(! eight eonsonants, in addition to those ahove-mcntioned, possesses a Hcxihility and variety, which do not Ikilong to the mandarin dialect.
o Vowel StCiN.s. — Tiie vowels required for expressinii^ the sounds of lh<' Kwan-hwn, or mandarin pronunciation an- — i. e, r. a. o, n. Y. n and ei
I Din / iSi//iihnls.
J'Jnu-lish Value.
Examples of Use.
1 i e
e, e
a o u
u
ei
I ni marine.
1 m win-,'-.
u m sun. e in there.
a in father, o in lone, n in prune. e ill tnsscl or in
ample. u in plat. (Fr.) ei in ein. (Ger.)
U
\:7t
ft
;Si, west.
sing, iftar. ,fen, divide. she', cottage. ,tMen, heaven. 'waug, to go. 'k'o, can. ,tu, (dl. ,si, thinh'.
ri: rar. ^ii, must. wei', because tf.
l-It: neng, r.f/«. pf shell, tonque. -^- snieh. snow. fpl p'..',/rr/r.
i|l 'tung, understand. / ,tsi, sister. /»M rill; I: now. 4^ lei in I, cAie/*.
4. W hen a large iiumher ot vowds is needed, as in writing provincial sounds, accew/5 will be introduced according to the well-known system of .Sir William Jones. P^or the mode of using the accents adopted in the j)rpscnt work, sec the fifth page. No great inconvenience occurs from dispensing with the accents in mandarin as will be found on trial.
5. Some reasons lor not adopting Dr. Morrison's spi^lling for the vowels will be now given.
First. It is better to spell a single vowel sound with one letter than with two, both for brevity and (or accuracy. In writing 'ku, ancient, or ,c*he, a carriage, koo and ,c'hay, there is a sacrifice of analogy with other lansna^cs, in the use of vowel symbols in favor ot our own irregular orthography, and more than thi.s, there is a loss of time in writini:, through the inrreasod length of the words.
4 MANDARIN (.KAMAIAK IWIVV 1-
Second. Dr. Morrison's spellinir i.s jiot unilorni. For rxainple, >clien, tnic ; .men, door ; ^keng, watch, whicli have the same vowel, are written by him chin, mun, kan^. So also 'chi, paper, tsr, self, tsi', limit, 'si, die, 'si, to wash are written in his system incorrectly with the same vowels: thus, die, tsze tse, sze, se. By adopting another symbol for the vowel sound contained in the first, second, and lourlh of these words, this irregularity is avoided. Further tV, to meet, kliS a sentance, having the same vowel, arc spelt by Mor- rison yu, keu. By using the diaeresis y and c may both be omitted with ad- vanta'^e. INIorrison spells .hwei, to return, and .wei, to do, two words which exactly rhyme in their sound, in two modes hwuy and wei. So also the former of these words rhymes according to the same author with JSP^suiand ^(B, jChui, which he spells suy, cliuy. In fact, ei should follow kic, hw and ID, while ui is preceded by t, s, ts, ch, j, n and /. The voice passes quickly over w as in "swerve," but rests on u as in "ruin" Two symbols lo^n^u are tlieretore necessary, a vowel and consonant.
(i VowiiLs. — The symbols i, v., will be observed to have two sounds, ac- cording as their position is at the end or in the middle of a word. The me- dial lis always short in mandarin; the f^nal. except with the short intonation is always long. Final ii, which will be used to indicate the short tone, does not count as anything but a lone-mark.
For the short a of Sanscrit, represented in sun and^o^iby u and o, e is liere employed. This agrees with the usage of Prcmare and other French writers- If A or u were taken as the symbol of this sound, it would be necessary to in- troduce the accent for long quantities, in a large number of words. The same symbol e, will be appropriated to express the final vowel in .she, a snake, and similar words, and the grave accent will be used to distinguish the vowel in "^ cheh, from that in -i|'- keh. the former being pronounced as v in '-there,' and the latter as a in ^^son."
The vowels a and o arc in mandaiin both long, whether as medial or final,
and are never shortened into the a and o of the English words hat, hot. Tiie
accent therefore is unnecessary for these vowels, except for provincial dialects.
Wln'ii " follows /■ in words endiiiL'" with //, the sound ri;prri;ented is that
CHAPTER I. ALIMIABKT AND TONE SYMBOLS. 6
heard iii the Eii^^lisli words "men," "mend," e. 2:- 'ti<'ii |!^|4 a jjui/il. Tliis c is pronounced «, in many parts i>f North China.
Perhaps the u^rcatest difficulty in framing nn ortho<rraphy for Chinese sounds, is in findinsf a representative for tin' vowel part of the words rT, tieo, s'C. foni\ tsr, a character, chr, Lnoipledv:c, \\ jdi, a <luij^ and siniihr words. Tiio sound is easierto imitate than to writedown. It is produced hy enuncia- ting the consonant without any of the common vowels foUowiuir, only taking c:ire to m dvc the sound distinctly audilile hy a full expiration ot vocal hreath. To express it in writing, a new symbol, viz. i is here employed.* l?y this means, the insertion of z is dispensed with, and confusion in the use of i or e is also avoided. A further advantage attending the use of a distinct symbol for this vowel is, that .sounds such as |^^, p| ? [|^. pronounced shih, ji'h, chih, can thus be more accur.itoly represented than by the spelling shih, jih, chih. No vowel / is heard, and these words differ only in tone from the sound of p^ shi, /^ chi, ifcc. To omit a vowel symbol altogether as in the system of the Chinese Repository, seems to me uncalled for, since the sound answers all the purposes of a true vowel.
7. In expressing the much larger number of vowel sounds found /;/ pro- vincial dialects, many more symbols are needed, which arc o'^taincd l)y the use of accents. The acute accent is used (or long vowels. The grave and circumflex accents, with the diaeresis, denote other modifications of the vowel. In the short tone, linal h is added, as also /r, t. />. when reqnired.
8. Vowels with Diacritical Mark.s.
1. i as ce in sec ; i as i in sit ; i as e in tassel. E. e as ay in /kii/; e as u in but; 0 as c in thore, t/irn. A. A as a in culm; a as a in cat; a as a in man. O. 6 as o in tone; o as o in lot; 6 as o in ffonc; o as Ti in Gothe. U. u as 00 in fool; u as nfitll; n as n in nul (French); u nso pronounced long ; d as u in but pronounced long.
• For the same vowel i may be ii»o<l if prefrrrctl. But it is »uggcstive of short quantity whirh is an objcciion. It matters not what symbol is employcti, if only the sound be known, and the symbol s*'!^:!!^! 1h; suggestive of it.
6
MANDARIN (i RAM MA 11.
PAUr I.
The sound here written i, may Ue ilhistrated further hy words sucli as ma- son, Whit.mntide, where the sound exists after s and ts. To obtain it, the n that lollows must be omitted.
9. This is the system, slightly modified, introduced in the Chinese Reposi- tory several years since, and retained in other works issued at the Canton press.
The unaccented a is here made the symbol of a in liat, a sound not pro- vided for in the Canton system, tliough often needed.
10. Comparative Table of Orthoghaphies. — The following table will show how the orthoijraphy here adopted differs Irom those of Morrison and Medhurst. Premare. Goncalves and the Chinese Repository.
|
Morrison. |
Premare. |
Gongalves. |
Repository. |
Wade. 1 |
||
|
P' |
pe |
1 Pi |
pi |
pi i |
pi |
J:b |
|
pih shi SI |
peih she sze |
Pi chi se |
pi xe su |
pih shi sz' |
pi shi szft |
if w A 'iit % |
|
tsi |
tsze |
tsee |
tzu |
tsz' |
tsu |
|
|
pen jen |
pun |
pen |
pen jen |
pan j'li |
pen jen |
|
|
sh^ |
shay |
she |
sheo |
shio |
she |
|
|
teh |
tih |
te |
too |
teh |
te |
|
|
t& |
ta |
ta |
ta |
ta |
ta |
|
|
kiing |
kung |
kong |
kum |
kung |
kung |
rn |
|
td |
to |
to |
to |
to |
to |
|
|
pa |
poo |
pou |
pu |
pu |
pu |
|
|
sheng lieu |
sang lew |
seng lieou |
xam lieu |
sanq; lii'i |
sheng liu |
|
|
kiiien h'ln |
keuen 1 hm |
kiien li\n |
kiuen luen |
iciuen lun |
chtian lun |
i& |
|
kau |
kaou |
kao |
kau |
kau |
kao |
dr. |
|
sdi |
suy |
soui |
suei |
sni |
sui |
Sii |
|
kien |
keen |
kien |
kien |
kien |
chien |
m |
|
ri |
urh |
eull |
oir |
'rh |
urh |
% |
rn Al* TKIl 'i. SYSrKMS ok .M ANH.MIIX l*Jtt^Nr\riATlt>N. 7
1 I Tones. — Tlie only reiuaiiiinjr symlwls to be noticed arc those for tones. Tlie Chinese use a small circle at one of the tour corners of the character to mark the tone. Instead of this niarlc, a comma turned away trom the word will be employed for the 1st, 2nd, '.ird and 1th tones, and a full stop for the fifth tone. Thus i»j5 ii. (jW I'i, |^ tM , fi} til. , 7^ .t'i. The Chinese n unos of the tone-classes, to which these five word.-^ respectively belonir. are Jl I** sl»''"i? l'"'!,% _[l W ^li^"'ir sheng, ^ ^ff k'ii shcng, /^ ^:i^juh sheng, and P ""j'* hiap'ing. Hut for reasons stated in the chapter on tones they will lor convenience be spoken of as 1st, 2nd, 5th, (fcc, in preference to retaining the native nomenclature.
In illustrating the colloquial language from dialects where the tone-classes are more niunrrous, full stops and double connnas may be used. In sucli cases, there is always an arrangement in two series. For the ujiper scries commas may be employed, fnll stops for the lower, and double commas for other subdivisions. Thus, 71" sheng, 'pi 'shen<:, ^^ sheng, p^ .shih 'fj|(|i .sheng, 3l shang, _J2 sliaug-, li|^:jliien', ^ shih..
CHAPTF-R II. Systems of Mandarin Pronunciation.
1. The native name of the pronunciation used at court, and in public ofR- ces is kwan hwa, or iiutndarin* dialed. Tiiis dialect is in its essential fea- tures, the common language of the people in the provinces north of the Yang- tsi-kiang, in Si-chwcn, Yim-nan, Kwei-cheu, and in parts of Hu-nan and Kwang-.>i. At least, there is sufficient similarity in the sounds employed through this wide extent of country, embracing two-thirds of China, to war- rant their being called by a conmion name.
2. If is usual for the people, while includuig the dialects of so wide a ter-
ritorv under the designation Inran liwa. to distinguish them bv locals names:
e.g. S/iantmig' kwan hwa, the mandariti spoken in Shantiiug ; but it is still
• The word mandarin, ihoiich Portujjurse in origin, u too convrnicnl to Ik* rwi^nod .is an V.nz- lUh cqniv.ilcnt for Kwav. The term " court dialect " is not oxlrnnivi' cnoii;;h to nprocnt the public colloquial medium of conversation in all [(ulilic offirrx throu;;'' '''•" • fintry, nnd niiioni! thi- |>eop|e throujjhout twothirdu of it.
O .MA.NJiAlilN CiHAMMAH PAliT I.
correct to recognize the dialects of tlie provinces mentioned as Genuine man- darin, allowance beina made for some admixture ol hlaiig tan, or provincial- isms.
3 Naxking Mandarin. -The pronunciation of these regions readily se- parates into tlirce systems; that of Nanking, of Peking with the northern provinces, and of the wes'ern provinces. Jn the first of the systems, tlie words are distributed into five classes, with a tone proper to each. The fourth of these is short. The filth class does not admit the initials /•, /, y;, ch. ts with- out the aspirate. The final ii becomes ng^ after tlie vowels o, i. No conso- nant final exists except ;/ and //g, which is also true of all mandarin dialects.
The confusion of the finals ;/ and ng is not authorised by dictionaries, and should be marked as a defect to be avoided. Morrison and other writers, though professedly following the Nanking pronunciation, have been guided by the dictionaries, and the Peking dialect, where natives of Nanking are faulty, as in this instanc eaiid in confounding the initial n with /.
4 Peking Mandarin. — In the Peking dialect, ^ pj^" ching hwa, the words offourth tone-class are all distributed among the other four classes, Avith no rule but custom to determine into which they have wandered. The short vowels common to this class, are all lengthened so as to admit of their being pronounced with the long vowel tones. There is thesame rule as at Nanking respecting aspirates in the fifth tone-class, but words transferred from the fourth to that class, do not assume the aspirate, if it docs not belong to them original- ly. The finals n, 7ig, are kept distinct from each other after all vowels, and are the only consonants that can terminate a word. The initials /* and /,-, when they stand before i or w, change to s and ts (or ch.)*
5 Northern Provinces. — The pronunciation of the ncighbourino- pro- vinces is guided by similar laws. I3ut words of the fourth tone-class, in changing their class, and lengthening their vowels, do so without uniformity. Among the dissimilarities of the northern dialects, this is the chief Tiic ir-
♦ Scholars who arc nativos ol Pckirur clistinijuish the metropolitan dialect from the Kwan-hwa. SoundN used in reading:, and words found in i.rinted mandarin books, form tlie Kwan-hwa. i^ounds not used in readin? and words not found in l)ooks are referred to the local dialect. Of iho i)rr.>onal pronouns, npn. I, nl. 30U, are fvwnn-hwa, while vo and niii na arc Ching-hwa, — the first of tfiesc last inav on account of its almos>l universal use he called Ivwan-hvra.
CIIAPTKU 2. SVSTK.M OK MANDAUIN PRONUNCIATION. 9
regular distribution of the short-tone words, nmonjT the other tones, is found to extend southwards to the Yano-tsi-kiiiiiii: in llu-j)tli, but on the sea coast, not farther than the mouth of the \'('llo\v Kiver.
6 Westeun Mandakin. — 'riiroui^h pohtical and teinpoiary arrangements, the Peking dialect as that of the capital is the standard of Kwan-hwa, but true philology must embrace in its researches the whole territory, where in its es- sential characteristics, the same spoken laniruagc prevails. Accordingly a tliird mandarin system must here be introduced. The Nanking and Pekinji^ dialects are at least as wide apart, as that ot Si-c-hwen is from either of them. In fact, the tliree are varieties of the same great dialect.
In Wester)i Mamhirin, taking C'heng-tu-fu the capital of Si-c'hwen as the standard, there are four tone-classes; they are the first, second, third and filllr Words orisdually in the fourth or short tone-class, are here found to be all in the fifth, without however assuming the aspirate after /.-, /, c)'c., properly be- longing to that class, unless they had it originally.
The final ng, when it follows /, changes to n, so that sing , fainUij vavie for example, has tlie same pronunciation as sin, to believe. Tlie same law exists for the initials h and /.-, as in northern mandarin. Before the vowels /, w, they coalesce with 5 and ^.s\
The same system seems to be spread throughout. a great part of tlie western j)rovinces. It exists so far as respects the tone system, in Kwei-chcu and parts of Kwang-si.
7 ('ritkrion of Mandarin. — From tliis analysis of the preceding dialects, it aj)pears that mandarin, so far as sound is concerned, may be defined as that system which has either five or four tones, has only n and ng for consonant finals, and is wanlinor in the letters g^ d, 6, z, r, among its initials.
8 Standakl) of Mandarin. — l-^oreigners in writing Chinese sounds, have usually adopted a mixture of the Nanking and Peking proniincintion as a standard, and where it varies from the orthography of the national dictionaries, as given in initials and finals, the latter has been sometimes followed.* In the
• It h.os hrcn silrntlv tnkrn for c'Tinlrd l«v • -- that the ort' ' v of (nodrrn Jiclionarirs
reprosoiils thr proniini'i.'ition of oilier tiiii's. > in f • mfv ■ -■ tlictiunnries rcUin the
forj;otlcn sounds o( a tl)0U!ian(l vcam ajjo Mornv>n in pr> is vrrv useful syllatiir dir-iionary
from the native work Wu t'hc yun fu w ■■; n i ..i ir.- that iLl - ^ he followed were iiot Mandarin
at all, bnt «n obsolete pronunciation.
K
10 MANOARIN' GUAMiMAU. PART I.
present work, ali these modes ol proininciatioii, will be illustrated as far as appears suitable to the character oftlie book.
The Peking dialect must be studied by tliosewho would speak the language of the imperial court, and what is, when purified of its locahsms, the accre- dited kwan hwa of the empire. It has not been selected as the only standard of spelling in the ]iresent instance, because it is too far removed from the an- alogies of the dialects in the southern half of the country. While many de- tails respecting it will be found here, the form of tiie sounds hitherto adopted by ioreigners on the principle of compromise, will not be abandoned. The Pekinj? dialect is more fashionable, but that of Nanking is more widely under- stood and is better suited by its central situation to the scope of this work, which aims to collect and compare the characteristics of many dialects. The Peking sound of characters, where different from that of Nanking, will be usual- ly inserted in a parenthesis.
CHAPTER III.
On Tones.
Values of the vowels as used in this work.
Medial, i as in ring ; e as in run ; a as in rather ; o as in roll ; u as in r?de Final, i a^s in reel ; e as in there ; a as in rather ; oas ia yoq ; u as in trwe; u as in in ; i as in rattle.
1. In trcatino^ of tones, it is necessary to distinguish natural tones from TONE-CLASSES. By natural tones are meant certain injlcxions of the voice, and variations in time and pitch, used with vowels and consonants to form spoken words. By toiic-classcs arc meant those word-groups, into which the words of a dialect are divided, in order to receive the inflexions or other tonic variations preferred by that dialect. The tone-classes vary in num])er from four to ei<>-ht. The natural tones are upwards of twenty. From them each dialect chooses arbitrarily a set sufficient to furnish an intonation for each of the classes referred to. For example, in the Nanking dialect, the words are distributed inio live classes, ;iiid a distinctive intonation is applied to each
rilAl'TKK ."}. ON Tin: SAII l;\l ■v>\v II
thus j Ji -^- ni|i 'ji^ }j'\^ all written t'o, bclonjj to difTcront classes uiuuljcr- ed from I to V, and roceivc dillerent intonations.
On the Natural Tonks. 2. Till" natural tones nrc the even or monotone, the rising and fjillin" in- flexion, and the risini,' and tailing circnmncx. These five tones are donhled in nninhcr by pronouncinir them ([uickly and slowly. IJy placing the ten in tonations thus obtained, in a high or low key, they are still further increased- to twenty. Four more are formed by applying the rising and falling inflexion to syllables short in quantity, or terminated by a mute Consonant, or dis- tinguished in some other way.
i. The ;/iono/o;te is identical with a note of a musical instrument, or the sound ot a bell. Writers on elocution mark the monotone as that which should be used in describing wlnt is sublime and awful. The long monotone is much more used than the short, as an intonation in Chinese dialects.
ii. The ris^iyiff hijlcxion^ or slide of tlie voice upwards, is that modification of sound, used in English to express indignation and astonishment when placed in an interrogative form, also simple questioning and contrast. It may be called the interrogative tone, but it has not this character in Chinese pro- nunciation. It is a common fault of foreigners, in addressing Chinese listen- ers to ask questions in the same tone they would erajjloy in Knglisli. This should be avoided as giving a foreign complexion to the pronunciation. In- terrogation is expressed exclusively by the words, and the syntax which com- bines tliem. The most emphatic utterance of the interrogative or rising in- flexion, cainiot make it interrogative to a Chinese ear. If it exists in his dialect as most probably it wil 11)0 found to do, the words to which he applies it should be noted, and the intonation in question carefully attached to them, and also to all words in their class.
iii. The falling- ivjlexion is the tone applied in linglish conversation and reading to emphatic assertion, admiration, expostulation, and scorn. It is also used in sentences containing a contrast, and then stands in antithesis with the risint' inflexion: e.g. " Professing themselves to Ije wise, tliey l>ecame fools."
\2 MANJJAIUN" (.IIAAIMAK PART I.
'^To-day? No, next week." The lorei^ner in proiioiincin? Chineso is prone to make constant use of this tone in indicative and imperative sentences. To remedy the constrained and incorrect elocution thus produced, some attention should be given to discover, to which tone-class in the interlocutors dialect this intonation belongs. It is perhaps the most easily recognized of all the in- tonations. IJy exclusively employing it for words in its own class, a per- ceptible advance will be made in clearness of enunciation.
iv. In reading Ihiglish the falling inflexion is commonly employed be- fore a full stop, and the risinu: before a comma. The ri^iljig and fall ins- clr- ciunjlex are compounded ot arising and falling inflexion, and of a f;illmg and rising inflexion respectively. In English reading they express mockery. In Russell's Pulpit Pilucution, the following passage is thus accentuated: — "And Elijah mocked the priests of Baal, and said, cry aloud, for he is a god. " From the description given by this author, it is clear that the inflexions he re- fers to, are the same with those just mentioned as the rising and falling cir- cumflex of Chinese dialects.
3. These compound inflexions are not so common in Ciiinese dialects, as the two preceding. When slow they give a whining effect to a dialect. If two intonations are appropriated to one tone-class, the slower of the two is very frequently a circumflex. \Vhen a majority of the tones are quick, and pronounced with decision, a dialect is said to be //,«?•(/, ying'. In the opposite case, it is said to be soft, jwan or jk'ing (t'sing).
4. When tones differ in key, the interval is not usually greater than a se- cond, or two full musical notes, for common conversation. In emphatic and harsh enunciation, occurring in the elocution of individuals and in dialects, this interval is sometimes extended to half an octave.
5. The nine words required in describing tones, viz. even, rising, falling, circumflex, upper, lower, quick, slow, short, constitute a tone-alphabet, and may as such be represented for brevity by their initial letters. Thus for ex- pressing diflerences in inflexion, there are four symbols, e, r, f, c; in key two, u, l; in time two, u, s ; and one more for short quantity, sh.
6. A correct nomekcl.vtiu;e/'>/- the natural tones must evidently be
CIlAl'TKR O. ON TIIK NATURAL TONKS. 13
one descriptive nf their natural character : while tlicit of the tone-classes should be niimercial. The Chinese by usitig a nonienclalurc of the former kind for the classes, without distinguishing them from the intonnlions with wliich they are enunciated, have introduced a confusion into the subject, which can only be removed by the adoption of a more correct system. Using the initial letters according to the method here proposed, as symbols of the 21 na- tural tones, they stand thus : —
List of Natural Tonks.
]. q. e. lower quick even tone.
I. q. f. lower quick falling lone.
1. ([. f. c. lower quick falling circumflex.
1. ([. T. lower i[uick rising lone.
I. tj. r. c. lower ([uick rising circmnllex.
I. s. e. lower slow even tone.
1. s. f. lower slow falling tone.
1. s. f. c. lower slow falling circumflex.
1. s. r. lower slow rising tone.
1. s. r. c. lower slow rising circumliex.
I. sh. f lower short fnllimj tone.
I. sh. r. lower short rising tone.
II. q. e. upper (juick even tone, u. q. f. upjK'r quick falling tone.
u. <[. f. c. uppfT quick falling circumflex.
u. q. r. upper quick rising tone.
u. q. r. c. upper quick rising circumflex.
u. s. e. UpjK'r slow even tone.
u. s. f. upper slow falling tone.
IL s. f. c. upjx;r slow falling circtunll<'x.
u. s. r. upper slow rising tone.
u. .s. r. c. upper slow rising circumflex
u. sIl f. upper .short falling tone.
u. sh. r. npjwr short rising tone.
14 MANPAHrX (JRAMMAU. PART 1.
On "in: 'J'onk-Classks.
7. The tone-classes or groat groups into whicli the words of the Ian2:uapfe are divided for purposes of intonation are national, while the natnral tones are local,
8. In Chinkse books, the tone-classes have the namrs p'ing, even, shang, rising, k'ii. departing, and juh, entering, applied to them. When they are more than four, they are distingnished by the words nppor and loicer: e. g. shang p'ing, iqyper even tone : hia k-ii. lower departing tone. It is more con- venient to number them, thus I, shang p'ing; II, shanij shang; III, shang k'ii (c'hti); IV, shang juh; V, hia p'ing; VI, hia shang; VII, hia k'ii ; VllI, iiia juh. In mandarin, class VI is part of II, VII of HI, and VIII of IV.
9. The native name for tone is 'feif sheng. sound. The names '"j** p'ing, J2 shang, -^ k'li, /\ juh were given when there were but four tones in the language, about a.d. 500. They were so chosen that each name cxem- plied its own class. The word shang has now left the second tone-class, and passed mto the third. The division into an upper and lower series was a sub- sequent moditication, occasioned by changes in the tone system of the langu- age, and the words shang upper, and hia lower, were introduced to distinguish the two series from each other. Words are distributed in the upper series in the same manner throughout China, with very few exceptions. It is in the lower series that variations exist.
10. The number of tone-classes contained in a dialect varies much in dif- ferent parts of China. In the mandarin provinces the first five of the eight just mentioned are in use. In the system of the national dictionaries four on- ly are recognized, indicatincr thnt such was (he number in a.d. 500 and for several centuries after, that beins the period to which those words belong. Many dialects in the central parts of China at present have only four. Can- ton has all the eisjht. At Amoy and Fnh-cheu the sixth coalesces with the second. In the Ilak-ka (t^ ^) dialect, and its parent the Kia-ying-clieu dialect, the sixth and seventh classes coalesce respectively witli the second and third. In the Tie-chin dialect, the third and seventh form between them three tone-classes. In this case the additional class, called k-ii sheng, is composed
fMlAI'TKIl '.i. ON Tlir. TONr.-( l.ASSKH. 15
chiefly of words clscwlierc boloiiijin? to tho sixth and sovenlli rlassos. In parts of llii-pi'h, ns at Ta-ye near Wii-e'hnncr, tho sovoiith class doos not, as ill other regions whore mandarin is sj)oken, coalesce with the third : so that althongh the dialect there agrees in general character with northern mandarin, it dillers from it in havinir six tone-classes instead of five. At llwei-rlien, where as happens in many dialects, the same words have a different pronun- ciation wlien read to tliat which they have in conversation, the irrecrnlarities in the tone-clnsses are very great. Tin- natural intonations applied there to the classes in rending, differ from those l)elongin£j to the same classes in col- loqnial nsa^e. The eighth is prononnced as the fourth in reading, hut in col- loquial it pa.sses principally into the first, and partially into tho second. Words of the seventh class, if they terminate in a vowel, pass into the eighth, if in a consonant into the second or third ; hut words of the latter kind often choose n different class for reading, to that which they adopt for colloquial use. The sixth class agrees as elsewhere with the second. This anomalous tonic deve- lopment is accompanied, as is shewn on, further by changes equally irregular in the vowels and consonants that form the remainder of the words.
11. In Cheh-kiang and southern Kiang-nan the eight tone-classes of the more southern dialects are separated by alphabetic differences into two series.
''Classes I to IV, take as their initials k, t, p, ts, ch, either pure or aspirated, with s, f, h, sh, w, y, and the vowels. All the other letters g, d, b, ilz, dj, z, V, //, J. /, m. 71, 7ig, r, and the vowels and semivowels form initials to classes V to VIII. The intonations applied to these classes usually agree in inflexion but differ in pitch, the former series lieing heard a musical second higher than the other. Such is the law of the dialect at Hang-ch(Mi. The sixth class however is there not distinguished from the second in pitch or in- flexion, but only in the initial consonants. In other dialects where this sys- tem prevails, the seventh and eighth classes differ in pitch only tVom the third and Ibuith. while the fifth and sixth vary in inflexion also: e. g. Shanghai and Sucheu.
12. Tones .sometimes aff«3ct the ortiiography of words. Thus in the Fuli- chen dialect, the finals —
i<"» -MANDAKIN «;ilA.-\l.M AK I'AUl' I.
ung, iu, iii,:r, ti, iie, I'l, eiiij, ui, iiiifT, 6ng, i, eiig, ui, o, oil, are changed in the third and seventh tone-classes to —
ong, eu, eng, uii, oe, 6, aing, 6i, eiing, aung, e, aeng, aui, ae. aiu. In the fourth tone they become —
okj euh, ek, eiih, oeh, oh, aik, oih, eiik. auk, cli, aek. auih, ae, ainh.
13. Tliere are sometimes two intonations to one tone-class, one of which is used it may be when the word stands alone, and the other when it occupies certain positions in a group of words. Thus in Peking, words of the third tone-class receive usually the intonation lower-slow-falling-circumflcx when alone, but when quickly spoken and when they stand last in a collocation ot two words, they are heard in the lower-quick-falling intonation.
14. The average distance at which the intonations applied to the tone- classes are found to change, may be stated at 100 English miles. In the east- ern parts of China, places at this distance, are found to liave dialects whose intonations differ considerably.
On the Characteristic of Short-Tone Words.
15. In the short lone long vowels would be scarcely expected, yet they oc- cur frequently. Each dialect selects its own vowels, long and short, to be used in the juh-sheng, as for the other tones. Hence the diflerence between the short tone and the others is not one of the quantity of vowels in most instances.
In the Nanking pronunciation a, 6, u, i", ii, are constantly found in the juh-sheng, as in the words -g^ fah, ^ koh. f|L] shCdi, ^ chili (rhyming witli ,chi ^P), ti. siih, ^ ch'iih.
16. In the tonic dictionaries of the general language, the juh sheug is dis- tinguished frorii the other tones by the mute finals /,-, t, p. They also serve for its peculiar mark in Canton. For the dialects of Tie-chiu and southern Fuh-kien, some words in this tone are pronounced without the final conso- nant. Foreigners usually write h to fill the vacancy. In such cases, the only distinguishing mark of the tone, is the abruptness of the intonation applied in pronouncing the word. Father north, where the final k only is preserved as at Fuh-chcu and Shanghai, and where i, p, only liold their place as in Kiang-
CIIAI'TIR "J. OX TUK SHOUT TON'K. 17
si, it is Still more necessary to rofT.ird the shortness oftlic intonation as the characteristie of the juh-.sheng. At .Nankiiiir, where the mutt' consonants en- tirely disappear, and many vowels are \<m'g^ the (luiekness of the enunciation remairis as the only characteristic. At Suclieu, and in many of the dialects near it. this is combined with a chanjrc or shortenina; of the vowel. Thus u and i in the long tones, become 6 and i in the short. For examj)lt' j'}\^ jku, "^ 'ki'i, /jZ l<u. j^Y lv«jli, nnd y'^ ki, if(i l<i, fi'G ki, f^ kih.
17. All these characteristics of the jiih-sheng, viz. the Jinal consonants, the (juickness o( the intonation, and tlu; short quantity of the vowels, are wantinq^ i') the north nnd west of ( hina : so that this tone-class as a whole has lost its individuality, and taken its place among the long tones.
Intoxatio.vs Now ivi Vhk.
IS. The inflexions of tlie voice at present api)lied to tlic five tone-classes in the principal cities where mandarin is spoken, will now be described as far ns they have been ascertained.
19. Mr. -'\Ieadows* has staled the Pkkinc; toxks to be. — I, shang ping, high nnd even ; H, shang, commencinjr low and rising still higher; III, ch'fi, commencing low and sinking still lower ; V, hia ping, conmiencing liigh and rising still higher.
The following account di/fers but little from this. It has been drawn up from the pronunciation of a native of Ta-hing, one of the two districts included in the city ol Peking.
I. I'pp'T ([uick falling torn", or upper even tone.
II. Lower (juick rising tone.
Ill Lower quick falling tone, or lower slow falling circumflex tone.
I\ . Distributed among the other four.
V. I'pper (piick rising lone, or upper quick falling circumflex tone.
20. The following table, where the Roman numerals represent the lone- classes, nnd letters the natural tones, will illustrate the thrne systems, at present prevailing in the provinces where mandarin is spoken.
• Desultory Notes on Cliiin.
IS
MAN'DAfllN' CiHAMMAK.
PART I
Taule of Tonus in Five Cities.
Tu-liing.
Tion-tsin.
8i-iii:;iii. San-viit-'H-
^-1
11. (]. f.
5 11. 1.(1. r. sill. 1. .!• f.
I. s. c. I. q. f.
1. (]. r. n. q. f.
u. ([. r. ju. e.
■!,„ (,n. q. f. I.e. I.q. f. I
o*^- ^ 1. ,|. i-.^.^c. 1. q. r. \'c. ii.(|.f.A;c. \
y.
V. u. q. r.
u. q r.
1. q. r.
Nunkiiiff. ^ Slinng-yuen.
'H 1. e. or 1. s. 1. ^ 1. s. r.
= sh.
11. q. r.
C'lieiig-tu. ^ Hwa-yanij.
^ 11. e. or II. q. r. J; u. q. f.
:: 1. q. r.
"t 1. q. c. or 1. (J. 1". I.q. o. orl q. f.
21. Words in the fonrtlt tone-class, are short only in central mandarin- In the nortliern system they are divided irregnlnrly among the other fonr classes and in the western tiiey coalesce in all cases with the fifth class, or lower p'ing shcng. This last class whicli is new, is thus seen to be partly established on the ruins of an older one, as is shewn more fully farther on.
22 The particulars in the table here given, are taken from the lips of natives of the cities and districts named. In the pronunciation at Peking, I is sometimes u c • ITT is also heard 1. s. f. c; and V is also u. q. f. c. It is not uncommon in Chinese dialects for two intonations to be appropriated to one tone-class.
23 The following modification.s will be found to take place in the Peking
tones.
1. \ word in shan,"' sheng' before another word in shnng shcitg takes the upper quick iisin<r intonation, or that usually appropriated to hia pMng e. ^. 'si 'lien, wash the face is pronounced with the intonations u. q. r. and 1. q. r
2. When a word in c^hii shens, follows anotiier in cliii shcng it rises in pitch, so that the intonation 1. q. r. becomes u. q. r.
3. There is a singular effect of accent, M'hon placed on the first of the two words, in altering the intonation of the second. The unaccented word, Avhat- ever bo its tone class, takes for its intonation a lightly pronounced low even mo_ notone. atid it is said by the Pekinese to have chaneod into shangp'wg: Ex- amples |^' n v.n men, Magistrates' office :)g "fl^ ehe' Vo\ this -^- \f] shr ts'in?, thinsr ^]l^X\\ 'hw^o c^hV, aosistant in trade "^ f^ .shen mo, what > 5i "f ' ' '^^'^ *°" ^ S5 ^^^^' '•'• ^'^''^- 'T'lie last word in each of these
CHAPTER 3. ON INTONATIONS.
19
conii)(»iind words takos the intonation 1. q. e. and is said to l>c in the fir.st tone •1. \\ h.Mi /Q ri follows a word as a snliix, it is ollcn heard as a final ;• forming a pa-t of the preceding word. Its lone is then lost in that ofth,; word to which it is joined. I-^xamjm.k.s ~j' t'snn ri or t-.snr', a„ inr/t j^ ~^' ^^^i <;ang .ri or I'.ar | | men .ri or .nier, a door iU.j 'mar, a horsc—^Ji ^i^ j; ^tj^Mi .ri, or i' 'tier, ti little, a little more.
24. Conversation with individnals from man y j)arts of the western provinces led me to the belief that the fonr tone-classes (the J Vtli cunntini,^ as part of the A'lh), receive there nearly the same intonations over an e.xtent of conntry em- bracing two or three provinces. The symbols given above for C'licn^-tu the capital of Si-c'hwen, answered for many otiier dialects in that part of China
25. The intonations in nse at Tsi-nan-fu, the provincial capital of Slian- tung, n.s taken from the lips of a native of that city, are the following :— I. u.
0. n, n. ti. r. Ill, 1. s. r. IV, distribnled among the olliers. V, u. (i. f or
1. s. r. c.
20. In writing down natnral tones with appropriate symbols in the mode already explained, it is necessary to state the native city of the speaker, or that of his school instrnclor. In the examples given here, the district to wiiich he ])elongs is mentioned In large cities snch varieties in pronunciation .some- times exist, as to lead the people to say that two dialects arc spoken within their walls.
27. In listening to tones, a variation will sometnnes be hciwd in the enun- ciation of the same word. The proper tone of a word is that given to it wjien .'it'xnding alone and uttered with distinctness. If another is observed to be at- tached to it, it will be on account of quick speaking, or of the word occupying a particular position in the sentence or grouj) to which it belongs. Further examination will shew whether the word is capable of receiving two natural intonntions in nil positions, or only in some one. Of course, the limitations under which any one word is found to Imj placed in regard to change in tone belong to all words in the same class. In these matters each dialect has its own peculiar laws, to discover which requires long and careful observation. A like distinction l)clongs to the (piantity of vowels in (ircek and I,.-,(i„ poetrv
20
■SlANJ^AlilN tiUAiMAlAli.
fAKT I.
they mny be lonsr by nature or l>y position.
28. It u learner does not wisli to confine himself to any one dialect or any one teacher of the language, he may safely neo-lect the tones. His intclliiribj- litv wi" depend on his connnand of conversational idiom. In sue]] :i ca.se, his position Avith natives to whom ho sipeaks casually will be just tli.it of an inhabitant of C-heng-tu-fu, or any other distant city, conversing with a native of Pckin"'. The intonations differ and the meaning is learned from the ar- rant^ement of the sentence, and the general resemblance of the sounds in re- o-ard to their vowels and consonants.
When the same persons arc conversed with day by day, the imitation of their tones is essential to quick commmunication and tlie prevention of mistakes. The necessity of repeating the idea in various ways, with the help of signs addiessed to the eye, is thus avoided.
A little pains in noticing a teacher's intonations and imitating them, is more than repaid by the incre;;sed power thus acquired of sustaining a connected conversation, in which both parties understand quickly what is said.
29. Some examples are here placed, of words rhyming together but in cbf- ferent tones, for practice with a teacher of the language.
|
Examples for H |
L^ONE Practice. |
||||
|
tsien |
!ii^ d^,muu |
ye |
o ■ |
\ 1. & m m |
|
|
jfen |
^y o %' >^^ .& |
lin |
Ql |
'k fl -,^ o |
|
|
vim |
m 1 ffi o m |
liwu |
^'i |
'■'1 ft n Ii |
|
|
t'sing |
r m fiij o '■' |
b ^^3 |
kMi |
TiTJ" 1 |
il4 * Itti Mi |
|
wang |
]i 1i liT O 3 |
- |
hwci |
m ! |
n t O 1^1 |
|
fu |
% }H- '^ IS # |
l)a |
II |
r §1 A o |
|
|
mi |
O * til '^? :'- |
fan |
'M |
K m o )i |
|
|
shen |
^ m^O li' 1 |
t-ung |
ii!i 1 |
'^ m O nj |
|
|
fei |
W O Jill R'i t |
sheng |
1- ( |
0 m ^ m |
|
|
kiang |
a m i!$ Q o iTif O fi ^ i^ |
k-iau |
M - |
'■^; m. O t,^i |
|
|
lio |
shi |
m : |
kfi ^ Ya * |
||
|
ii |
M \U 1l :1;. ta |
wu |
hKj _ |
±L m tf- m |
rHAPTEU 3. ON TllK TONE-CLASSES. 21
30 Whoro tlio fifth class lias no word in these exam})lt's, it is becaufio the initials k, t, r, en, unless they take an aspirate, do not oQcnr in that class. When the first class has no word, it is because L, m, n, r, do not occur as in- itials in that class. The e>rigin of these two laws will be subsequently discussed.
Exanijjlcs of words rhyniinjjj together, and having the same intonation are here given: —
,pien.]g;p fj,,! p' ^^ t^s ^ik' (t^s)lHltt %l^M ts 7^ « f^k (ts)
.nien^n ^ ,,• $^i: jjf&c' (t'sjKn.EHfjT^ h (s) Jg y }^l
l.ien'f^I. Jt p' :i; n p!ii 1 JM^ Mn.:;^Ck' (t's) li h (s) >^k (Is)
poh fil^p ; i p' ^ ni ^l f ?#1 ^d^llt t^ ^ 8 -ff ts
Further Exami'Les for Practice in Tones.
31 First Tone.
Ifll P'" fo spread out; /JU l^i'^j fo add; ^ kwa, a melon;
HI fci, ^jy///; IKti, ^o/y; rj|} t-i, (/ ArrWer ;
^ chui, to pnrsKc ; ^ k'wei, /oss ; ^ hwei, at^hcs ;
^* hii [sii], empfi/; /j tJ^ig sv/jmre; T/< i, to obey;
Ijf-I k-ai, <o o;ic/i; 51 * t;'huen, <o;3M< on; ]^ ken, to follow;
5^ shen, rftT^j ; M t'o, to draio] |Wj kau, ///yA ;
■^ hweu, 6'<?<^>«W ; ic keng, ?/?o/t; ^ to, many ;
^ kung, puhUcJufit; ^k si, private, selfish; p)'^ swan, acvW;
t® yen, smoATj/oiflcco/i^c; I'i^"' «'^«/ ^ l»^i"> ''^ ^^''""^^ ^^P;
^& k'ieUj/o^t'rtt/orc^mu'inJ t'ung,iYj'«rea«o;ia6/f; it conveys the meaninrj ;
Second Tone.
Ifli pu, /o/// up; y\' »"". mo///er; 5jf na, that;
-51- kwo, /V«j7; S J^' to provoke; \L)C kai, /o c/R/n^rt.-
M: si, /o (/tV; l^'i ". '•"'"• .^ tsau, C'^yVy;
-1-11 I '1
fJH tan, //«■ liver; S siang, /o /Aj«^: ^>» kin, ^'.7//^;
^* lui, 6«^/; I'U l<an, ^; </«;-6-; fl. wang, /o .-ry;
22
MANDARIN (".llAMMAU
PAllT I.
Jlp li, to isorern ; to shew rcKurd la; reason; ^<^ kii (tsu). to raise up;
^ \.a\, old; J'l^O iii\.u,lip-^\:tf'C month; hi t'C'H, to light;
%^' hil (su),/o grant; ^^ ^hc, to let go; to throw ^ •^^'-'^ "r ^-'''''A, ^lill-
proniise; air ay ;
;;^ t'o, 5a/e; f r|? sail, ^o sjf^e;);
;^ mien, aroiW; /or o-iyf'/^' shencr, /o render it ride;
f;]l- nieii, /o i;«//ow; needless; a province; p, linj, ^o /<?«^/.
ntg: l^ kwan to attend to : to
7]/ pu, a s^e/?;
^^^ tsi; to sacrifice ; p^ pei, the back;
Third Tonk.
^^ ye, n/>A^- ^^pai, to worship; P^- tsai, again; HLk P"^''; ^'^ match;
-i^lai. to carry ; i /y^- k"\vai, quickly; y^ tui, /o exchange;
-^ tsi, a character;
p^ mian. a temple;
[llq^ kwei, <o kneel;
3^ sung, /o present; 4-'
p-an, to judge; ^^\\\e\^\.to think; to rend
aloud;
^^ yang, /o 6r/y?^ ?//> ; ^^'^ ^'^^^ ;
"filj t'si, to pierce; to prick; f i?f tsie, /o borrow ^JlX. kjeu, ^0 5at"e; n^ hwan, ^0 ca/Z /o.-
'^ku (tsu). a^en/cz/ce; i k-il, /yo-o; ^^ pien, then; ^pcbaii, to stand;
|i]j| nau, noisy; fin hwaj-MJorf/^ ,• ===;][* sheu, longevity; i^l tuu2:, ^0 freeze ;
-^ 5\\, common; plain; Tx sing, /Ac natural dispo-
sition;
t'ung, /o /ceZ ;^a/« )'j^ chano, ^/ic rising of //Z fang, ^o Ze/ ^o ;
^vl^ I-
\n, to forbid ;
,«.-
1 ilk wan. (iccustonied; Fourth Tonk.
+4-
J^^: poll (.pan), thin;
5^ siiiehjS/ioir ;
^ loh,;o?/;
^'»L shuh, r/y^e;
^IJ koh, to cut ; ^ kioh. a horn :
vpij
j^qj] choli, turbid;
iC chanij, to rely upon; yjj sfie, to shoot an arrow; llfj iigdii.dark ;
J.'^ t'ah, a pagoda ; nf^ t'oh, /o entrust to;
J lit,
^>-;J h\vi\h, slippery;
^P t'ieh. /y ;;a.v/e ; lij^ciiali. /o i///(/ :
^j^* hwohj //y//;^; jx p^^^i^ fo pluck up ;
) ;<]> t'sih, to paint ;paint;^\ tieli. /o/«// t/oif^j;
-f •-»
l''J\liir'li; to rest: t^niih, to seek ;
tl''- kcli. /o take away : to seperate; H4 P"^-''": animal prinrij,al nfUfr.
CIIAnKII rl. (IN ilU: Ti)Ni:-(LASSKS. 23
Fifth 'ro.M;.
II'i' II"" "''"-
lltl^ iniLii. t) hi' (h)ini : \\]^ man, lo hide: JJ '^^ ficn, tu sjtrtutl ,-
'Jm nan. r/////#////; -^Ijj Won, to rnn/nr/; Jj'f^ yen, severe :
^.j'- siiiii. /fj Ate/.-; j[2l''^'""' "•'•■'"'i Iy t'iiig, /o.v^)y>.•
'^I'l'' f'r'j -i^-
I'i: t'smar^ fo follow: ll'j^. k'nig, to left up ; \J[ liwang. y^V/ojr;
i'iC t'fii, /o^o towards, )T|[ lieu, tojlow: i^^ c'liau, « //t.vA
J-J: in;>i. /"y/// HI the ground : 'jl|l l an, to vlay the lu'.i]> ■
H/ c-ljweii, to hand down: ."^j Ikui, to hold in the mouth •
j2i liien. string- of a musical instrument: —
AVOIDS I.N LOMIilXATIOX ARRAN(ij:i) FOR PKACTICi:
I.\ TONFS.
riUST TiXVK, J; ^"- SIIANG I'MNG.
^-C 1^ ,kia,kiuen','jr//eanf/yfl/n////.-^<. A^l\ A&a ,%l family property : /Q |>§ jlvwaiiir .y\n, {lis:ht and dar/:ncss) tijne:j[^ }]']' ,sin ,kan, {heart and liver) the heart: '{i\ li\] ,h\ycn,yii],7narriagc:1i% j 7[; .shii 'si, /o co;/??> a/u/ ^f^a^A one's self: J] ^ ~J .chuu's^hou. bcchon irith l/ir hand : flti '7'* .shen 'shcu, to stretch out the hatid;^^ jJH ,slicn "t'i, the body: j}^ ;y|s: ,k\va *k\vo, melons and fruits: 7L 1^ .kwang 'kino^, appearance of things] '-y,^ Wj .tsiohu* ''to assist: 7\^ ^J;!, .t-ieii k'i' (Chi'), the ■weather; 7'' -^ yh'i tan*7o knoic lUj m M'-o »o''iS " hindrance: \{\ [§■ ,i kieii', as before: \\^i J\, ,sl)C k'ien* (c'hien'), to sell on long credit;?^ jjj^ .t-sin vsih, relations by rnarriagc and birth: ^\ \] .shenj? jih, birth-day; H '^ T\^ jSIkhi sJiih, to collert and ar- range: 3C \V\ •iiU'.iiiHr'h (,sie), to rest; 1^< }]\x i Inli, rhthes :>fi^ lJV ,sin pill, a new pencil: | i/Jl ,ya t'ou, « serving girl: k\J\ X, ,s'i , wen, refncd in manner; ^ .]' ffj ,shu ,fang, room for study :A^ )|l'p ,siii .slion, the mind. \li\^ fUjjkcn.t'sim-/. /o/o/Zo/c: ;]\ IH .kin .ii, a ^o/r//t.v//; ^jjt: |',','j \}'j yon .wo ,1'ani^, bird's-nest soup; ^»J/ ih^ ^>K •' '^'^^'O" -''i') ''^ car/// f'jr/-; >l\f\j ^ ^fv ,t\van c-Iia.lai, to bring tea: "{jJ^ Jilt -p jnu yin 'tsi, to wrap up silver: ^X P^^^ .shni^k''\{c'\i'i)M, to collect: y\l ';j l ' Asu Aan-^'lsi, to Id a house; m ^^ "J"* ,tiin«x, ku' tsi, ^)/)^ fT />?<f/(M/W w«w : ^'il /L 'V,t*sinliiun«xti, an own youufjcr brother \\y I ^>\\\ \ As'uv^nV .'yn, a quick-witted man ; ^{^ Q -^"^ fipf .]n\i\.you'k'\>\n'u.pl'iuMihfeninh'ii.'<iin(nfjufftrn)-ds: y[_^ }(;
24 MANDARIN (lUAMMAU. * PART I.
M> /[_,i^'in 'inan i" tsiili, wishes fully (j rat [fie d : ^-Jj /\< '\ij^ ~ZF^ ,fcUi .lai
full k'ti (c'liii), to turn round and round ] ^ Ij/j^. IH 3i j^ung .t'siau ,si waug', to look this ivay and that] ^^ 7^ f*' ' lUi .nirai .t'ien kiaii' ti', caUinr/jyiti/idlf/onhcaveyiandearthfor aid : Ha J ti /// ~f^ ,sheu sliih .fang 'tsi, to put a house in order; Jn/ )[l'|l .'UJ Tllj j^^i'i (cliii) .slien 'k'ien (ch'ien) ,tsiang,^o coc7Te sjDiVzYs «?ic? commission {heavenly) generals; j\^ M hrJ T^C j^ii^ 'k'eu 'liaiii!: y^iis' ^intentions opposite to ivords; false in his speeches; -^ ^VC J^T^ ^ ,kin -vi" 7^^^^^ 'v^^h (/old, silver, pearls and other p>^'€cio%is th in gs.
/jif SHANG SHENG.
FiR ^ ^t'sing jiigan, to ask after a friend's health and prosperity; /y jlvf 'siau ,si, ivaiti7ig hoy; make inquiries about ; Ipv
1 Y^'ta' saw, to siveep; jl If^ 'ta t'ing, to ' :^ 'cliweii jshen, to turn round; ^J^ ^ 'tien
jhiang, to light incense; ^ "T^ 'lau 'tsi, father; ^x ]x\^ 'pi 't'si, this and that; ^* 'J^ 'kwan 'pan, to look to and protect ; ^>\\ n^/ 'chi 'ma, a pa- per horse; \\X ]\H 'yiu 'tsieii, to drink ivine; IJ^ /y 'i-M\'^\im timid -y^^ ^ 'tso 'shell, the left hand ; JL J^ 't'u c^hun, produce of the land; V P ^^ 'hng siaii', sardonic smile; 3PX p5^ 'hwei pang', to blame and calumniate ; /'[;yi p^f 'kan sie', gratefully thank; _^ ^^ 'sliang tsan', reward and praise: %^ oT 'Invo ki' (c'hi), an assistant in trade; 3(T ^H 'hau ban', a {/oocZ/c7Zo?y ; -^ ^J5{ 'tsau fan', f/te wjonii'Hj/ ?«e«/; ^^ 'teug lieu', to wait for ; :^- Bitl 'weik'iih (,c'hu), {bent and crooked) hard- ships; ]j^ >^\] 't'si k'eh (k'o'), now ; JJ ^^^ 'ta tali, fo se7ifZ; Wi @ 'yen mull, ^/<e e?/es ; 1]^ j'lljl.'t'i suli, s?/»?7:>of7<!/3t'; "Tg ^j^ 'sing ('sbeng) c^\i2\\,to inquire into; q± "^p 'wang .nicn, /a6f ^c'r/r ; v |j -^ 'leng .c'ha. cold tea ; •^ )^ 't.sau .c'lien, m the mourning ; l;}\ [i^ 'tien .t'eu, to nod the head; :\'\\ /\. 'ch'i .jen, a paper man; ^-p U^- 'wu .sliT, noon (11 A. M. to 1 VM.):/lS 'iM liiii .niang, mother; /y '\^% 'J^ 'siau ,p'u 'tsi, « ^/ shop; ^. S f ^ 'tsen 'mo yang', ]/(^ }Ji^' :JC 'si 'lien 'shui, water
smai
%
for wasliing the fact ;)yj 'jf^ /"[liy^ "iiang ,cliang 'clii, two sheets of paper; /V =^ 'lau .jen ,kia. an old man ; J J 7(>\^ -j-' 'in kieh 'tsY. to fir a knot ; -f J ]j] 1'^ ta sheu shih, ^u^vJti unaments in order; 3( t;^ yQ '^ii •^''^^
rilAI'TKU 3 ON Tin: TONE-CLASSKS. 25
.ri, a girl \ Al iLi>» f ' S' tso , si veil' 'siiiii;.';, ^o ///////.• ojvr (7 matter; ^\}l
^ Itfii j^4 'i'"'i'i-^''"o 'l>'«i'i ,«', wullcenst and iacsf;J\')i "(• f > -l^t ^'ts'ii, pci
ffrJ "7/ ~T-" i^ ''■^ .c'ha .lai, bn'ixj <i rup of tai ; -^ /J ^\: pl\ 'shwa tau luiij;-, ,t'sianf^, to
|] I.! / ,1. '/ ' ^ -J.
;t)/rty ?t'iV/i su'on/.s and speor-s :l^[ ||?/[l X(J- .-^>. 'n,ai 'wan 'liau .c'lia, bu// a vHj) <)/ (/()(><f fed ; /P J j^J il I 'siau ,ya .t'cii .iirmi, ijouu<j scrvintj f/irls; -^ 'Tr'l ^ '^ 'sii' k*'! .jell I<-ai!\, /(>/('>•//('/(</• y)^r.so7?«fo see; -^ jl} vj' 'hi ,c'huhi\vai%/o«(^ o/f/o/;<;/ oM^; ^ -^ JMv :^ 'fan puli tuiig' ,slien, he on the contrary would not more.
TlllUn TOXK, ^ Jj^ K'i;' SIIKXC.
-p .A^ iiair .t'icn. {Jialf a dni) a cmfiiderahle time; yy j^ wai' ,i)ien, oHt-siife; %^ >J>'i fu" ,t'siii, /W^//t'r; Jl[l "f-{^ chunijj^hwa, ^o/>7rn?^/oj<?er.s-;f:|? T^P i>aii' ,clri, to iii/hnit of: ^^, g- nien' ,sliu, to rcadjjt ^ffjk'wiu' 'tsui, (/ quiek fon(/ue;^jf .f||- pair 'li, arranfje for; manage; j^ ^' cliii- 'slioii, stay your hand; ^=i^\v W, in the night; ^^ J"t,"ang' 'shoi, fo ivarm one's hands with hot water ; ^ -j^ chc' 'lie. 7/(-;r; 'I'TI & si' '.sian<j;, fa think earef idly of; til 'J -It k'iucir "clri, urge to stop; v'/L .LLk'wjiiig' 't'sie. ' and sti/l more; _£^ v^j shang' 'ma, ^> mount a //o>-sc;j=i" p/]*kan' su', fo /;^- form; ^ ,^1,^ k'air hi' (si), /o^sce «2'A'//;]'-l lllj '' P^'i' ^^^ prej^ai'c he- forehand; "^ ;v^' \\\\\'V i\ /o eomprehcnd; -j,( /rjici' yiing', expeiises ; '^J -4- tiii' tso', ^) sjY opposite; ]^ I'^s: wang hwai', /b^-^cf ; JJIH .^i^jiyiien' i' willing ; i^^ lilj' tsien' tah (t'a) ^> ^rew// doivn ; ^- y kau' jioli (]>ai), to advertise jndtliely; ^^ ^;X •"iig' shall, /"o /.•///; Jlj- ^l l"'"' ^^>ih, honest liberal; ^f^ /] V)' \\]\, strengh: /3<C I I '"' j'"^'- (f<>/'"ss the days) make shift to live; \-^] \ \ \)V men, to shut the door; "3 Ir ij ying' .c'hcu, to have intercourse with the world; returning civility for civilittf: y fllhia' .k'i, j)lay at chess; y* ,• |^>J | kair .t'si, to say farwelf ; ~]i- '| pj shi' .t'sinnr^ matter;thing ; -j\\i x)y( Is'iu' x'heu'^ enter a city; JMH ('L' J-hiiir .f-surig. to comply with and obey; yC 'i^ m* ^^^ ''^^" -y^^- honound sir; j^ ^< ]y^ hwan' jifuh, ^> (7m7/;/e owc'« (/re**; -MJ, \t j chc' hwei' 'tsi, /or thin time; ^^ i^U. ^^fC sung' kwo* .lai. /o ^/Av over a„d present; ±\j jfj" h" tau' kiai (chic) shang', go into the street; \;ii ^< :^c tso* ,i .shajig, to make clothes; ,Al -II yv ta' ,kung ,fu, « v^vr^f undrrf eking; ^'j-|
26
MAXDAIIIN <.IIAMMAH
P\ l:r I.
^ tso' yih (.i) tso', to mt a little ; iJft IJC f^lmi- > ili \<-\ to puss a
night ; iM i^H pfjj lui ju 'u, fears fallhnj like rain ; ^ jj;f f^" ^ pan'
"77 /*=-* -3^ ';!''
jSin^r piihkicu' (cliii-u), lialf ncir, not xcorn out; .^, '^(^ :^ 'j^:if^ ^j.-n k-i' (t'si) t'un jslieng, to repress anger and keep si/ent; 3v^ " ' y> ))ji|l yang' yih (,i) yang' .shon. to recover one's spirits a little; ^} J ' Wj IJjJi tiiiig' 'shew tunf:,'-\d()]\ (chian), to motr hands and feet; fh ^'i- T^ til tsai" 'ii pub if^ixv , at home or not \ \\i\ y^ |]i) J.U. wen' .c'liang win' tv,im.tnusk aboutthis and that.
^l^ .nil SHKNCi.
PEH "^' iwh ,^hxi, to read aloud ; to stud u; p ^C Imh ,kia, the whole ^'a- wi7?/; (/^ tj\ fall ,tai, /o he mad; ^IJ p^' k'eh ,sliu, fo engrave a book; pq rR c'huh ,slieng, t7o7;iesfK'««/mcf?j?;/v U c'liili t'sun-. /ee^ and in- ches; length ;2Jj^ '^' ytih ,tsan. a jade-stone hair pin ; J^ ~y toh 'shcu, to p>ull out of his lands; ^(th '/q pih 'si, to kill hij oppression : J Prrl ^'^'^h 'chn, to act as master ;^^ J ' teh "slicu, to be successful; I I ~J' jih 'tsi, a day; time; fp :;^c kieli (.tsie) 'kwo,^oifor/7-?/iV ; JK 'f^:;* cliili 'kwan, just give your 7nind.to}^J!j Hfj dnili fir, to give directions*{\^ Tt|/ sih fu', daughter-in-lawj\\ j .j- fuli.'jlj'r, j'o wait upon: n>L on sliwoli Inya'. i'l) ^r///.- : f^|- 2A^ tall yiug*, to answer; Jjj^J (,lii!| nah men-, to became sad; ^4" \]^ tseli poi% to blame: ^^ /£ tscli (.cliai) ting', to f.v ones choice upon \ /lii y;2 yiieli fah, so much the more; ^^ ^"^ choli(chau) kill, f/nximcsand hurried; H^ §J§ e'hih yoh (.c-hi yau'), to take medicine; fj\ .^ liieli (,sie) sih, to rest :^i ^\] tsih k'ch (k'o'), immediatehj W\'. \] tsoh jih, yesterday; ^ ^ Jiioh (.siau) .fang, school-room :u^^ H slnvoh .niing, explain clearly: "j^f ^ sheh.t'eu, the tongue; pJ ^)K. c'huh .fheng, to go out of a city; \^- ^ toll (t'o') .lai, come on purpose; ' ipj yih .t'ung, together; )j '/^ ^ ^ t'oh i- .slumg, to undress; \] ^ f^jili loh heu', after sunset; /fC [}} /|^ nmli .n ,shong, noise of beating the wooden fish; *ili» a'iJ %f I'^^'ili ,t'ing tch, he suddenly heard; g^ -|?y \ tuh ,Khu ^en, one of the literati; | ^^ ^("- sliih slnr .uien, more than ten years; ^L pk y^ <^'liih .c'hang ,chai. to keep long fasts; Q 9^^ fl^^ P^li (-pai) ,tan koh. to linger for no use : \\\ '^'\^ ^ ^^ c'huh .lai tsin' k'li' (o'hii).
cHAj'iKi: ;;.
ox TUfc; TONK-l'LASSKS.
•27
ijniiil in or nnl; '^ij^ J'y'yi fl|( ^[j( p-oli j)',.li sail Puh, (/mnpi'jiq and sj,lot</n'n;f olnntf; f ^ ^(/^ >^ IJl'l piiii juli Jolnvu', t/iere is no need of many u'orils; ;!n ^i\ i\Vi ^'^ vi ("'li k-air yiieh iijj^ai'. Me more he saw the more he hvt'd: j?x (ill :& ~1< t^ieli ,t\i tsiir k'ir (c'hnO.^o meet and condvrt
-y- 7/"i' ^"^ in
/// : -'|\ '^y yt2> )l:_»' pull liau i- .sY, ashamed;
rilTM T-'NK, r ^p- HIA I'MNC.
5y ."&* .l»''^"o jpi'^'iN'"' <'/'■■•>•/</' : I^Ji^ V-]"- iiciin; ,kaii, j»oicer; [H] ^^^ .liwei .kia, to return home; ^p /j,*; .iiicn ,kong, o«c'« a</r : lijij ,[_^^ .sui ,siii,f/o as l/ou p/eaae-.lU -4^ .']ii M'ln.ftt present; v.'Ct Tl<j •^"•''' ''i'i'>> distressed in mind; Jjfj "J^ .yau 'sheii, t<> irave the hand: J'i: |^^ .t'i 'siu^', fn auudcen to a saisc of dutu ^^' dan'jer : i^, '^y^ .liaiig ,.sluii, rold icater; %II ij|^ .ju 't'si, thns; ^SC 11! ^^'''11 'li, bennty *f style; ^f- fL .uini ki', //«<>•*; -^
-J- .!:unLC tsi". name; 'K\j[ |,(3 .fan luoii', (jrievid; il< 'JJC yiii k'u', frm-
/^^ •■'ft JZ? ^77
sM/w/ ; xf J/Q .yung inair, eountenanee ; .^C ^j'j^ .c'heng jeii', fo acknow-
hd'je ; |;'^ IJii l'"? X^'"'' efertuaJ ; pf TM k'i (■t-''^') k^^"'. .s^/-««r/c ;|^:(| S .sui \\ as i/nu fdease; 7} \s\ .iniugjih, to-m<>rrnic ; |^|.) nS-liU'U shwoh, ?W/c /«/A* ; -f/|: ^S .t'i pill, /'//r uj) a peneil ; ^/Iv^.wcnynli, a written secn- >•''///; Ifli n'i.nanshwi.li, h(rrdto f<fii/;)jj ^l.i'ivvj; n\i,a house; <^f\Z lien .nianfr, immediate/f;f/v] ^ .Im .Vu,^ f oafish y[\i ,< .uii .t'sai, a stave ;
urn ]j-":j: f, (I -r\/- , . , . -4 4- "=*="
y\[ y^< .fan .k'in, ;)A/// the harp : |L1| /jv .Invci .lai. to return ; f\>- ^|i .C-lia .liii, t(((-pof: \\^\ Y I ^Jy .Ian .kan .i)'aiig, beside the bahtsfradr: Jpi /^ i^ .t'siang kioh [.chiaii] ,l>i('M. at the earner of the wall ; |jj |{lJ, |j' .yi'U ,t'a .incM, A7 /A«'//? 'A> <V ; 1H . ^i> l"J •^^'" 'i'^'' •l^<^ no other plan ofaetion ; Tpj .(^J /'l^ •t'>diig yucn' .lai. / desired to come; "^ ^ 5tJ Mix kwo' .\i\\. brinfj over here; "f ,1/ ijl/ J ' van .yaii sshrii, /o /^rtt'c <Ac hand;'^^\ \\\\ fi"|.lm sluing'. men, /?;/f/f////.v^ ;>r<V.v/.«» :fjj' ff'J Jp J"!/ -ling
li' ,kwai 'k'iau, clever and cunninir\\^ illi Uf! "-i'T •''^^^' 1^^^"' •^■^'" ^'"' [c'liii'], <o ^Mrn^/i<'/(raf/ rriray; ^-Jl -^Q j,'^ ^I'j" .>inii si mill hwdli, .vomc
seeking death and others life ; ]li\ 5k ^I' Jl y"*^" l'" J^^ '^''*»j '< »« ^^''^
^/<r *a;«r ; [^ ill — ' j^ t'ung tstii' yili c'hu', to be together at a place;
v}\ tl'j :!!l ^\i -^^'i .t'sing .wu i', without a feeling of kindness; '\^ ^
* llu tu' is common in rhihli. but ,t'a is the proper sound.
28 MAXDAHIN l.RAM.MAU I'ART I.
pl /lii .t-'sunf; ,kin [cliiii] jili 'k'i, herjinniiKj from tin's (hnj ; >|cX ^^ ^^ 1M i^ii '^i^' li'i" ,wcn, /o fr;/Z: « //^/t' on the lueatlivr •,%\ "© n=f ^JC J'l -ii toll 'ehui, liJccfsh on (/aiiiintj the wofcr.
Ox Accent. 32 If the nutivo pronunciation bo carefully observed, an accent will bo noticed in groups of two, three and four words, such as those in tie? j)rece- ding exercise. It falls in a group of two usually on the last syllable, in the Peking dialect (when the group consists of an adjective and its substantive or a verb and its object) for example, \pji ^f'/ tso' hwoh do icorlc. In a few dialects, as at Sung-kiang near Shanghai, the accent falls on the first of two combined words. The elocution in such dialects has an a})pearance of eaf'crness imparted to it as compared to that of other dialects.
33 Particles and enclitic words refuse the accent ; e. g. /\. 7li 'X'^' IIJ .jensh'i' 'hau tih, ^Ae man is (food; the word 'ha u is i)ronounced more empha- ticallv than in /v %£ ^^ Jl^- .jenshi' 'hauhan', the man is a hero, because 0-;/ being a ]>article the accent is thrown back on the preceding word. In the term ^j. ~4 'lau 'ts'i, father, tsi' is enclitic and the accent is on lau : yet when it means the Tauist philosoi)her, tsi takes the accent.
34 In groups of three, four, and five words, there is a subordinate as well as a principal accent. It is placed on the first of three words, as in /.'itl,'''i}(l -^ lah clndi ,hiang [s], candles and incense ;^^ "J^ J'^ .yin 'tsi .t'sien, silver and coppermoncy;^^ i(^ T^ hiau' fu' 'nui, to honour one' s father and mother.
35 It occurs on the second of four and five icords, as in llJiifj^ Uflil'Lj
. I . -^^l • T- tlj' 'li i' .lien 'c'hi, 7:>o//^e'??c.S6-, tiprightness, modestij ; pt ^ll^^- pj :i;'',- kn .king
'ku 'tien, ancient classical hool's; ■^ ^i J/L iiir ku'tungwan'k'i' [c'h], curiosities and toi/s ; ^ §\k IH "Wi -^^i" O'in •^'^''^^ 'P''^"' (/old, silver, and valuables ;^ .4^ TJC / V fll ,1^'" I'^^li 'f^l""i '1^*^ 't'u, metal, wood, water, f re and earth ; ] /L f f fi/l jtS >tii» ^'I'l"' -yt'" f^lii' jt'ing ,s'i, features, speech, sight . hearing and fhinkinrj.
CUAI'Tiac 3. UN ACfliNT 29
3") The princlpnl accent fulls rogularly on the hist word in all such ex- uniphs I'XL-opt wIr'U it is II partick'.
3{) In Rontoncos of sovcn words, such ns arc met with in proverbs and ballads, there is a ctBAMra commonly after the fourth word, dividing the sen- tence into two grouj)s of four and three words each. These take the accent as if tiiey formed indcpend(mt groups ; e. g. in T7, '-jf,l tjl \h "^f * l'^ kY ,wu kuh ,fung ,t('n<; .nien sui- 1i:ui, the five kinds of grain are abundant, it is a good year ; ^ jH: 5n ^ ^ H^ H ^^f^"' •''»!" kung' 'hiang t'ai* .pMng jYh, the people are together enjoying peaccfid times.
37 The word accent is here used in the sense in which it is applied to En- glish words, as when the verb convict is said to differ from the substantive cOnvict, in the accent being placed on tlie last syllable.
Ox THE Present Distribution of Words Among the Tone-Classes.
38 The circumstance that the tone-classes, with the intonations applied to them, are subject to secular changes, explains many facts which otherwise it would be difficult to find a reason for. For example, the student is not to be suri)rised when he notices that the intonations used by any native do not correspond with thefiames he assigns them. Probably no dialect retains the intonations just as they were when they W(Te first examined and their nomen- clatiu*e decided on. Further as already shewn, the '^territorial extent of the same intonations is very limited. If a word said to be ''in the even tone" does not appear even to the ear in one dialect, it may be so in another.
39 Another difficulty occurring to the student is that some words do not belong to the same tone-class in different dialects. According to the general analog)' of the language they should do so ; thus pj \ .ko, a song ; 3c ,A''«", to join with ; are in the first tone-class or shang p'ing in all dialects. But why do words such as %\i fu', a married woman ; I|l chung', heavy ; 'fi chu', a pillar, appear in the Canton dictionary Fen-yini in the loivcr shang sheng, while in mandarin they are in tin- /j'lt ehcng? The re^ison is that these with many other words, including all whncp initials are mute or sibilant in the lower tone-series, have l)een slowly making a transition from the shang sheng or chv<s VI, to th<' k'ii shong or ehus.s VII. This transition
30 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART I.
is in the Canton, Shanghai, and some other dialects, not quite completed.
40 The circumstance that the class shauf/ p^uu/ does not admit l, m, n, j, R except in a few recent words of colloquial origin, and that the hiaji'ing does not admit k, t, r, ts, cii, (except in words from the short tone.) is accounted for on the supposition, that these two classes were originally one. When this class separated into two, one appropriated certain initials, and the other the remainder. The aspirate and vowel initials still remain conunon to these two tone-classes.
41 In classes III and 7]^ of Mandarin many words have one sound, which differ in their tone in the southern provinces. Thus ^JyCkieu', to save; '^kiciv o7r7; with JQ shan', <7/a?i ; ^ shan', virfuous, and 'i^/ t^iS to carry, W tai', a generation, are placed in classes IIT, YII, in the south eastern provinces, while they all belong to class III in the north and west. So also y^ sh'ih, to lose, "U shih, a stone have one sound in Nanking and Western Mandarin, but are placed in classes IV and VIII respectively in the south west. The second tone-class furnishes no examples, because the mute and sibilant initials which should be found under class VI. have been long since transferred to class VII. In this point the modern prounciation is in opposi- tion to the the national dictionaries, where S, 'liia, summer; ^ 'heu after ; ;^'tso, to sit and nearly two hundred other words are marked as belonging to the second tone, though in mandarin they are pronounced witli the third tone, and in many of the south-eastern dialects with the seventh.
Two tones to one ivord.
42 These changes in tone must not be confounded with that power which many words have of assuming two tones, according as they take the form of a substantive or verb. Tlius "j^- c'hwen, to hand doivn, changes from class I to III when it becomes a noun chwen', a history. Here the change in tone is to distinguish between two different but contemporaneous senses of the same word, and examples of this kind are not uncommon. The distinction in the case of some words having two senses, fomerly marked by the intona- tion has been obliterated by modern changes in pronuciatiou.
43 The following are examples of words having two tones now in uae»
CHAPTKJl .*!
ON VAUIATIONS IN TONE.
31
^fl c'hunr,^ ,sin, afnsl ; Ij,! i^'tin dmupc' hcavicsf of all : W lYj till, ;/()(>(/; fi /t£ W AlT \\] l)'uh sill' hair i' tili, not wUJiug, not (hfiirous, not infi'nfinu(t/-/J/ (|J sli.nr ti)\ a i/oufli : ^J^ ^.j U J 'sliau'vou till, there nre/ew; fy]- j^l .l<iai J ,«lii«') sun<r', to escort a pristmer -yj^yf- p]^ 'k'ui'i {i:\nv) i^hw'oh, to explc ill. ^'J Nn liing .c-Invni set thr boat sailing; t:J (T.tch liiiij;', viiiue; [^ /.U .fliaiior 'twan, long and sl„>rt; j'^ J^ Vhaiii; shan^'% a irKpen'nr. j^i /V iiir,,li .i,.,!,^ f,„(l utan ; ^^J Jl^Vk'o wu', Imte/uL iMl ^ .i-it'ii .i, c/iedp ; |%" p{J .siii ])ion', ax yo?f ;>/ra.sr ; ,it //our
coni^enience.
Of!
f^P H| ,cliiiiii,^ ,ki(Mi, //<f wiiW/c; 'P J cliun^^' 'liaii, //f // Jilt the mnrk'xu "K j^'I"^" 51»»»J-'j ^'> <^' ^^ soldier; -JH- ^f^ 'ticii taii«;-, a paicn- shop. t(lj 'j»|', kic'ir [q\\\ .k'iaiig, [c'h], strong in body; >jl[« ^'j'k'iaiij^pa*, to claim unjustly.}]^ %-y /Min^'haw, friendly ; Tl'lTi? ^i«'ing- ,pang /o o.s-.sj'.sY. -^ Tli] 'tsai siaiig', prime minister, ^f ^ .yuiig i', c«.s?^; ^ ^y .kong yih (i'), to change, q} ,\ ^^ f^ 3(t .wei .jciriiau piilrhau, is he a good man or 7iof '/ [a| .-f"!/ ,yin vrQi', because. ^'Ij'' ~i^<-lHiiig-'tsi, «ecf/; |[|( _C J cluing' sliang' 'liau, it is planted, ^(^j^ f'ljf i|f. the* cluing shi', this viattej'. j'-ll J j^ 'shi Invan', ^:) employ a person; -^ 'f^
,kung shi (,or 'shi)rtw ambassador. Jp! ^ shi' 'die, a messenger. Hj 3£|*
"in t— jdian k\va\ f>> divine by linear symbols; 'j>i» |_^ 'kMang dian', to size up- on unjustly |5k ^'Ie ?^>^'" "^"S misfortunes ; ^'jl j=f .nan t.h, hard to procure. ^^ ^i '\mvx \\\\\, to nourish; bring up ; \V^ '\^ kung' yan"-*,
^J yj^",i? y^^S ^<> nourish; bring up to attend upon. 1^1: ^ ,t'8ung .yung. at ease: pjli f^c .sui .t'sung, ^oo^/ey; follow. )^ J^lt tir .hang, j/ewcroj/s; jjj, — ' yf h;uig' yihliang'. 7;?'Y7.s?/rc if- i'ti .ni fii, carM; H j; kwuh tir, « ///'.V'^ow. :^7^ |j|-| ,t'ou ,k-ai, to divide : ^ 77 .niing fen', s/mrf ; t/?//y. ///^j 'ji'jf .siurn Cjiwcn, ^o <M/;i round; $'0' :l!iy. ^ dnvcn' kwo' .lai, ^o /wni 6ocA-. liJ )4' ,sianff .c\\y>-cn, mutually hand down; },,) j',/ yih, p'ion cliwcu', « />joyrr/y)/<//.
^^J 113^ ho mull, harmonious; ^\i ijlrij ln)' tiau', to accord with. j|^ j,^ jt'ing kifu', ^o hear: ^ f'!: tMng' .t'snng. to obey, jj"*,^ jj mo' sluh, a grindstone; \])^ J^-. yen .mOy to grind. J^'^ ^ .mo mien' grind meal; )%i' Jj .mo , tan grind a knife; "J- J "7^ .tinLr ,tsV. «7 »a{7; 3)J _t ting' Bhang', to naU ; US ']^ ,ying ,tang, omj//</; j)^ j^J ying' tui', to answer.
32 MANDARIN GRAMMAR, PART I.
^f W. II -^^'Jin Jnw^ .si, to watch over things; ^:f 'TF^ k'air' ping', ^o atttiid sick pcraons. -t^ lil]j 'lau ,slii, teacher; /Q nrj? .yum .slnvai' general in chief. ^V^ ^C tsai' 'mi, to carry rice ; ' ' ^ '-\^ Jji)^ vili (,i) .nien pan' 'tsai, a year and a half.
44 In some words this assumption of more tlian one tone has disappeared. For exam])le the shang sheng intonation in tlie lower series (chiss VI) has been lost, and with it the corres])onding exceptional sound of certain c'hu sheng words. For example, c'hii sheng was formerly used in pronouncing _£1 shang, j'' hia and "pi tsai, in the first three of the following six pairs of words, and shang sheng in the last three: JH •^ shang' ,king, to go to the capit d ; y /Ijpf hia'. c'hwen, ^o^ectue a hoot ; }y\ -^ 'so tsai', a place; J^ \b\ , shang mien', the upper side; y [rJ 'hia mien', &e/o?r; yj\ ^j^ pull 'tsai, he is not here; At present in ;il] such Avords, -^ )^ k'ii (c'h) sheng is used without exception.
45 The dialects of Amoy and C'hau-cheu, in the ijrovinces of Fuh-kien and Canton, contain some anomalies on wliicli liglit is thrown hy the liypo- thesis of progressive changes in tones. At Amoy the words -f^ ^lau, old; ^ 'jeuhave; ILL 'wnfve; H^ 'liang, fj^o; ^'^\'a,tdes; \^il 'ii, rain; s^ 'ri', the ear; ^t^ 'wang a net; are all read as book words in the second tone-class, but in colloquial use they are in the seventh. Tliese words all belong to the sixth tone-class in dialects where that subdivision exists. Sujjposing that it formerly existed at Amoy, and was gradually merged in the second, these and a few otlicn- Avords, preferring the low pronunciation they had originally, passed for a time into the seventh tone-class, where they could conveniently retain it.
46 In the Tie-chiu dialect the third tone-class of mandarin will be found divided ;'ito three. Of these, the _Q -^ shang k'ii corresponds to the tone-class of the same name in other dialects. The transition words already spoken of will lie found under y -^C hia k'ii, together with many words belonging to tone VII. Some of the transition words, with a i)art of those be- longing to tone VII and a very few from tone III, form a new class, viz. tone IX, called "^ ^j^f k'iis sheng. The mode in which these tones are distri-
CHArTEU 3 ON VARIATIONS IN' TONK 33
buted may be seen in Rev. J. Goddard's Tie-chlii Voca])ulary.
47 The fulluwin^ list of words formerly in the second, but now in the third tone-class has been i'onned j)artly iVom tlie ilictionary '^y; jjA^ ll', HJ^ of the fourteentli ceiituiy, (juoted in JiL J|'- liM VlTfJ- '^'^"* ^'^^^ ^*'"^<' ^^^^^ * dictionary several centuries older, called /j,lf \\l\ 'Ivwan;:; yiiir. The words have been checked one by one for their modern sound by the modern Mandarin dictionary T/, yy 7C ^-I' '^"^^ ^Y ^^e j)ronunciatiou of a native of Peking,
Amont; them will be found none with vowel initials, or eomnvneinc^ with the consonants sa, s, m, l, u, .j, the transition being limited to the mute and sibilant initials. Thus f-}- wang, fo go, in class VI, coalesces with f j^ 'wang, crooJccd, in class II. So also yp ^. I •( pT^ 'yen, mrjf ma, jy* lii ZTL 1'" JLii' >% ^^^- '^^'^ ^^^ "1 class II. The former difrerence in sound between ^:[: "wang and fx ,wang, is considereel by native writers to be that of the initial letters, and not a variation in tone. There can be little doubt that it was a variation in ])itch, while the intonation was the same. It is carried through all the four tones. Thus j^ /p ^Jj^ wang, yeu', yih., are said to ditiVr in initial from ^X 'Jj iSl ,^vang, yen', yih^. That this differ- ence occurs in the earlier dictionaries in which four tones only are recognized, shews that the dinsion of words into an u])|ier and lower series existed when they were compiled, and that it was a vju'iation in the height of the voice, but not in inflection. We cannot, as the Chinese do, call a high w and a low w ditferent lettei^s. They differ only in height. The modern pronunciation in Kiang-nan agrees with this account of the sound formerly given to words beginning with a vkwcI, and therefore conlirms it.
TABLE OF WORDS THAT HAVE CHANtJKI) FROM SHANCx SHENO TO K'F SHENG.
^(I'-l WJ tung, l[r Chung, $ fung, l|/ Vi ^|i il; ± h\i f^ ^\^
sM, ffi pei, f^ /( If m 1.. \a 'ii m v^ nii \\\\^ - ^p ^^ ti,
"& IP III ^1 • '':[• iB HI MiNl^ k... m siH., fJ; \\"y [y ^r tl^ ' If ch«, ./^ ^ IH i& ^ sn, A§l^fh-Ji± tu, j^'iV
34
MANDARIN' CRAMMAR
PART I.
Illj^ W 1'"- li' ^ 'M- fl '•.. M Vn, % hai. 1ft: f.ai. ^tf ,S I'r'l lg :ii tai, \% poi, # ,s„i, |ifj m I& £!■ tui. [,'gkw,.i. :|t|,i„, S'df III t-.. Ij^^.oho,,, g ki„n, f ft iJ) ,2j ^ fo„,^j>f W": ¥ 'If liaii, 'f^^ pan, [lllf twaii. >l\c liii-ii, ^'^ clian. f|t pan, #^ p pieli, Ifi ^ tien. m rk 5-^ tsion, # )J-1;: li|i H]i^i ip^ slum, fc ^ chwen, 11^ $1 ffi « kien, ^ ri;| jjli Jljl tian, ffi ^^ ^ cl.au \^] "^ liau, Jui pan, ^H tsau, ^ f^ tan, ft ^ 'If J to. |^'i In.. ^ tso, y MM, iH'^, )|ii slie, It fl "ft siantr, ^t: -j^" ;t)|:chaDg,±shang, W %i im! ^i.V tano:, ) Jl han-, -7^ }yC ht li^vaug, Jm taii-.TP Ijf pi'iiX, ^ tr # ^ ^t hing, # m ^M n tsin,, ^ # 1^ slu.u, E3 M ^ » kieu, JP ;^ ^ heu, W shen, P^ ^g kin, \^'}l ^ "f
-1-4- -<^A- VM
tan, yt^ jjHi <Jq fan.
In the distribution among other tone-classes of words in the juh-sheng
z^, many clianges occur in the vowels. It has therefore been thought
better to give details on this subject after the initials and finals have been
discussed.
CHAPTER IV.
Ox TiiK Initials. Vahu's of the Voiuel symholfi. I, see s/ng; e, i\\e\Q (final), s?/n; eh, there; a, father; o, go; u, It r?<e; ii, in; Y, tassel.
1 Division 0/ ivords into initials andjinals. Thesoundsof this language being all monosyllabic, it is convenient to treat them as the natives them- selves do, that is to divide tlicni into initials and tinals for separate consider- ation. The initials are 30 in numbei-, viz. k, k', ng, t, t', n, p, p', m, f, h, s, sh, j, ts, t's, ch, c'h, 1, r, w, y, i, e, a, o, u, ii.
2 Of these e and a, in many mandarin dialects, take ng before them unifoi-mly, and should not then count as initials.
3 Words written /, u and it, e. g. ^ ^ pjij are regarded by Chinese writers as divisible into parts like other sounds. Perhaps it is in consequence of this that foreigners have usually prefixed w and y to the two latter. To the Chinese ear u and wu are one sound, so that w though not necessary may ,
tHArTKU 4. IN THE INITIALS. 35
Ik- jtivtixoil without niislcaclinjji;. In tho Pckinfj; pronunciation, I hear the lo distiuctiy in the wunls )^ wuh, Al'iJ wong, i^j wo ^-^j wu, but the second of tliose words is also sounded un[^ hy some natives of tliat city.
4 Tn Pekin«ij pronunciation and als(» in the western provinces, ts and ^* and 6' and //, an- in certain instances undistinj^uishable, hut this does not aifect the number of initials, because it takes place only before the vowels i and M, Thus a native of the metropolis cannot distinguish between the fol- lowinjr words: —
1^ iP. ,tsing, ,king....Sr< fl tsiiS kii' -^- it^ ,t^si, k'i,
W #,• ,i, .hi ffe ^fl ,hu, ,su % ^r ,hing, ,8ing,
Dr. -Morrison long since pointed out this peculiarity of the northern dialects but without mentioning the coalescing of the consonants. The first of these northern consonants may be written ts k or di, the latter h or s. or as 3Ir. Wade projjose hs. It is difficult to say v.'hich orthography best represents them. There can be little doubt that a distinct ch and a distinct sh will become ultimately the sound of these initials.
5 Many sjjeakers of mandarin place ng before the initials e, a, o, in all cases, reducing the number of initial letters to 27. Sometimes a guttural g takes the place of ng, which led Dr. Morrison to ^\Tite this letter 'g. Thus there are three modes of })rououncing words such as follow: —
121 \ 1|J.j eu, ngeu, gen f^lj |) /[J rh. ngeh, geh.
43 en, ngen, gen_._ Jj4: ^* fl%} ai, ngai, gai.
I T >■ Vii an, ngau, gau.. .^ l\y\ PH an, ngan, gan.
*'!) -Jxi UA wooro, ngo, go ..ivi; ']' /y oh, ngoh, goh.
In Peking and its neighbourhood, all three of these pronunciatiims exist (though the first is more common) and in Nanking in the first and second. At Si-ngan-fu nrj, and at K'ai:fung-fu 'g are chiefly in use. At C'heno'-tu-fu ng is employed, as also at Tsi-nan-fu. and Tien fsin. In the syllabic spelling of the imperial dictionaries, ng is the initial to words belonging to the lower- tone series, but it does not occur in the upper. Such is also the rule at Canton, Fuhcheu, Ningpo, and Sucheu. At Amoy g is used with the same law as to tone. Ng thus appears to be the best orthography.
36 MANDARIN GRAMMAR PART I,
G When h precedes the vowels e, a, u, it receives in C'heng-tu pronuncia- tion a sound like kr. In this peculiarity, there is a resemblance to the initials formed "VN^ith r in the languages of the Birman peninsula, which probably have a common origin with the Chinese, and where kr, tr, hr, etc. are common at the beginning of words.
7 iV as an initial is in many dialects replaced by I. This happens at Nanking, and extensively in the western provinces. At C'heng-tu n is re- tained before i and m, but becomes I before other vowels. In the mandarin dictionaries this substitution of I for n, and vice versa, is never recognized.
8 >S', is sometimes used for sh, and ts for ch. For example (^ sheng, ^- shi [JLj shan, P^ slii are often heard seng, si, san, si'. Instances of the interchange of f s and c7/, are the itiost numerous. Momson has in conse- quence frequently given both sounds. In many words, the initial sh is in the province of Kansuh replaced by f. In reference to the initials ts, ch, s, sh, the Nanking and (more particularly the) Peking dialects are the best guides, ageeing as they do with the imperial dictionaries.
9 «7 is heard as y in parts of Shan-tung. In some dialects of the man- darin provinces it is sounded like r. Thus jih, sun, becomes the same in sound with r'i, son.
10 The Chinese r is jpronounced not Avith the tip of the tongue, but with the central part of that organ. It has no vibrating ring, so that the latter r has been avoided by continental writers, who have profeiTcd U as its symbol, It is not unlike the English r.
11 J,f,ch and sA, do not take ?' after them.* Hence words usually written by foreigners ching, shing, chin etc. should be spelt differently. The same vowel is found in the words / V .Jen, )|ii|i .shen, i'K ,kcn, | j .nun, pH. p.hpn. Through the operation of this law, Avords such as |-| jih, |{^ chih, ^ shilij originally in the short tone, when they become lengthened, invariably take the forms ji, chi, shi. This is their pronunciation even in Nanking where the short tone still exists. Hence also k and ts before i, though pronounced in some dialects nearly like ch, do not become confounded with words originally possessing that initial. Thus ^>^ king and fjg tsing
CHAPTER 4. XATIVK SYSTEMS OK INITIALS. 87
when pronounced in a manner hardly distinguishable iiDni ching, are not mistaktu for^ (by IMoiTison and otliers -WTitten chhuj, but really pro- nounced) clun'j.
12 A tew wurds taking the initial y, as ying "hard," are in some dialects heard ngeng, e. g. in the city of C'heng-tu. In the mandarin dictionaries this word is yhig. Ng is its old initial.
13 Of words having a vowel initial, some of those elsewhere pronounced ye7i, take a jjielix n as at C'heng-tu. Words in y are pronounced wth j in the pronnce of Kwei-cheu. In the fonner case it is but a few words as M: h 5/ii y^"' ^'tc- ^l''^<^ assume the i)refix. In the latter all words in i and y are heard with the initial j. In this respect, the Kwei-cheu pronun- ciation resembles the Hak-ka dialact, spoken in many parts of the provinces Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. At T'ien-tsin and Peking the initial y is also pronounced j in many words.
14 Morrison prefixes n to ^ yeh, and some other words in y without sufficient authority. He writes s in the sound of the characters ^, ^, WC, ^, ^'Hj etc, which are all pronounced with sh in Peking. AVhere he gives the initials ts and ch as both in use, ch is, according to Peking or- thoepy, to be preferred.
Native Si/sfe7ns of Initials.
15 Peking Initials. There are several systems of initials for the mandarin language formed by Chinese authors. In the work called Li-shi-7/in-kicn, by a native of Peking, many of these are given. The author's own consists of 33 charact<'rs, viz.
l^'koS fj-tuiS Wvo% ^S ,«""??, fi^i-tsuiS ^.Iwan,
§: ,k'ung, |j,tj| .fan, ^ .p'an, ^|[) ,sien, 2\tvmi', ^ .lieu,
^5,ngeu, WnunS i^^man, .^ 'shui, ifitsien, 3;*;> .y^u,
M ,king, ti tieh, f'l] pienS ^ .jan, )ft ,t'8ing, |^ 'fen,
i^-,k'i, A. jt'ien, J'l^ a*'''*") X ,chung, fiE -hung.
^ 'niau, \:\^ .mien, ^ ,c*hun, W\ .liiu<n.
* The ch which before i suid u, represents k aud is, a.s in Mr. Wade's orthography, is not hero takca iQlo accouul.
38 MANDARIN GRAMMAH TART
Of these all which take i after the initial, 13 in number, are supcrfluo^^^ Sh, j, ch, f, cannot take i. Si and hi, with ki and tsi, should be identified, according to the practice of the author in other parts of his work. In the tables constructed with the aid of this series of 33 initials, he however regards them as distinct, no doubt wishing to avoid the confusion that would arise from spelling many words in k and h, with ts and s. The same motive has led me in this work to retain the old consonants k, h, in such words as p^ k'i, J^ hii, in conformity with the common usage of French and English sinologues, instead of adopting c'h or t^s, and s.
AU the vowel initials are placed together under the characters yau and ngeu. The former includes under it i, ti, y, the latter e, a, u, w, with ng.
This work Li-shi-yin-kien, Mirror of sounds by Li-ju-chen, of the dis- trict Ta-hing in the city of Peking, was published in 1810, in four volumes. The order of the initials in his work is that of lines of poetry. For conve- nience of examination they are here arranged in a natural order.
16 Five tone mandarin initials. Another system extensively known is that of the dictionary Wu-fang-yuen-yin, by a native of Yau-shan, or what is now called T'ang-shau, in the southern extremity ofPeh-chi'-li, the metro- politan ])ro^dnce. It consists of the following characters 20 in nimiber, read from right to left.
-^ ,kin, ^ 'tsien, ^f cliuh, -f 'ten, ^% ,pf
pan
cr
;ti .k^iau, §1 t'sioh (,c'hiau),$, ,cqiung, i 'tm, |jg p^au',
tC 'ho, ^ hi' (s), Xi ^^^""^i) ^ 'nmvi, TK muh,
S ,wa, S .yiin, 0 jih, ^ .lui, JlL ,fung.
As in the foregoing table, the vowels are included under two initials. W embraces e, a, o, u, with ng and w. Y includes i, ii, and y. Art may be observed in the arrangement of this table. Ng, n, m come under k, t, p, as from their natural affinity, they should do. F and h, are nearly allied to p and k. L is allied to the t series, for it frequently interchanges with n, and in some languages with d. Thus the law of a well-arranged alphabet, which consists in placing allied letters side by side, is closely adhered to.
This work was published in 1710 after the author's death. His native
CIIAPTF.R 4. NATIVE SYSTEMS FO INITIALS. 39
place is u little more than 200 miles S. W. of Peking. He docs not mention the lengthening of the short tone, except in the cuseofa few words. In Chinese works on sonnd, not being compilations, it is always important to know where and when the authors lived, for not having alj'habetic syiabols to wTite with, their testimony is of vahie chietly for their own dialect. The above 20 characters form the ali)habet according to the order of which the dictionary is arranged. Tt is in two volumes, and is very extensively used, but contains only the most common meanings of words.
A new and extended edition of this work with many alterations, in four volumes, was prepared in 1810. The order of the initials and finals is some- what different. The place of each word in the old tables of rh}Tnes is pointed out, and more meanings are given to the characters ; but while it contains many more words, it is less eonvcmient for reference than the smaller one. It is called ll^ f f|j ^Ij ^ 5 ~}j 7C W- The editor olten shows bad judgment in following old authorities, where they differ from modem usage. He also counts eight tones instead of five, tlu'ough his desire to reconcile the old system ^vith the new.
17 A7ioth€r System. Another native writer in a dictionary called j^ /TJ -3^ 1^ Chung-cheu-t'siuen-yiui, describes the initials by their mode of ut- terance, instead of selecting characters as symbols for them. He airanges them in 15 classes as linguals, dentals, gutturals, etc. and places all words in his dictionaiy in the order of these classes. He gives the Honan pronun- ciation from the testimony of several previous wnterson the Mandarin langua- ge, being himself a native of the district Chau-wen, in the city C'hang-shuh, near Su-cheu. In this work, the native method of spelling called Fan-t'sieh is used to ^vl•ite the sounds, as employed in the older dictionaries. Two pro- nunciations are given. One contains the soft initials for words in the tone- classes V to VIII, and represents the pronunciation in Su-cheu and cities near it. The other places the aspirates k', t', p', c'h, t's, instead of g, d, b. dj, dz, in tone V ; and the hard initials, k, t, p, ch, ts, in tones VI T. VIII. in jilace of the same soft consonants, i, e, it givrs the mandarin or northern pronuncia- tion called by ]^f^ Q .yuen ,yin. The orderof the finals isessentially Ihatuf the
40 MANDARIN GRAMMAR PARS I.
common tonic dictionaries, formed by scholars of theT'angand Sung djuas ties. 10 Old mandorin initials of \Zth and lAth centuries. Tlie spelling and arrangement of the workjngt mentioned are taken principally from an earlier production, ^ JiA 0 HM Chung-yuen-yin-yun by Cheu-teh-t'sing, a writer of the Yuen or Mongolian dynasty, a. d. 12G4 to 1368. One author says that he was a native of Kiang-si. This author wrot« down, by help of the Fan-t'sieh, the mandarin pronunciation, while it was in process of for- mation. His initials are the hard mutes and sibilants, k, t, p, f, ch, s, ts, the aspirates, k', t', p', c'h, t*s the soft initials, g, d, b, v, dj, dz, and the nasals, liquids and semivowels, ng, n, m, w, y, 1, r. Of these the soft initials are found to their full extent only in the fifth tone-class. In the sixth they do not occur at all, and in the seventh and eighth only in a minority of cases. That the soft consonats are embraced as here stated, in the initials of Cheu- teh-t'sing, may be shewn in the following manner. The character pj is not placed with ^^ tsi' among the hard initials, nor with y\^ t'si' among the aspirates. Its initial must then be soft. To express that initial j^Y^iis used. Thus we learn that ^| and ^^ should be Avritten dzi', .dzi. This ortho- graphy is confirmed by the inscriptions of century XIII, written with Bjisch- pa's Mongolian alphabet. In that alphabet there is a symbol for dz, as also for g, d, b, z, and the characters which they are employed to write, such as,
^vith d, M-kiik U ^ vffl.b, i- fn ffi. g, Jt ^ tl. ^, %^
-71 rb^ ^^ Wx. >^ i \- 4f-'
P-U VM 14 J dz, r^sc. XSr I'd ^^ ^"^^ ^ pronounced at the present day in
Kiang-nan.
It is remarkable that the power of the Mongolian characters as known from the Tibetan alphabet, is in these monuments, for all the mutes and sibilants, the reverse of the Chinese sound. Thus k and p represent the Chinese g and b, and g and d are used to write the Chinese sounds k and t. Is thus accounted for by the fact that letters in course of change are jironounced with an indis- tinctness which deceives a foreign ear?
To sh, there is on these monuments no correlate consonant. Thus i., Tt' 15.' ni ' wL^ whi( h might have been expected to be written with zh, or dj, are all spelt with oh. The last three are now pronounced c'h.
ClIAPTKU O
ON THK FINALS.
41
Oil the monumonts, ami in the book hero iimler diBcushiou the initial of WKids, such as/v juli, y^ '' »» ^^^^ same, j and r not being considered separate consonants.
Cheu-teh-t'sinj;'s inonuiieiation is apparently more recent than that of the
monuments, for very many wuids written there witli the soft consonants are
found in the book with the corresponding hard letters. Thus -'p dz(j' in
pronounced as 3c tso', %i doh as ^ ,to, ^^ ziang' as f I j siaii<''' frfj
di- as 117 tiS ItJ^ gwei' as ^ kwei', ^p dzui' as ;^" tsui\ jM^f boh as
^;5cd"^- l^iit on the other hand while Jt ^vang and \^ vaiig, ijt^ wu and
^ vu. etc differ in orthogra])]iy according to the spelling of the monuments
they would in the work in question be all spelt with w, wliicli is the more
recent pronunciation. By both these authorities ng in words such as V^-^
npiu *tiy ^'g^""j is omitted.'*
/
(CHAPTER V. On the Finals. 1 Finals icifh a sin'jlt' voivd. In mandarin pronunciation the only co«5o- nants that end a word are the letters n and n<i. The vowel teinninat ions are numerous, and the introduction of the vowels i, u, and more sparinHy e a between the initial and tinal gives variety to the sounds. The Jinah fanned ht/ single vowels are the following: —
li
V 5^',chi ih ^ipih
ilishr JEv'ih
!{ h'p'in
'I
ih '^shili
in ,0^.min
ing ^.ming .y|'vjpin
c ^'Xshc- :iiJche'
t'h |ini"'l> pi'ijneli
eh ^jlfcheh "f'p''^''
<i ,^^.wt' en :*^,shen J2^'pen ens>^,sheng V p 'leng a ]f|ij|(].ma
ah 'J!jf(lah
'^J pa 5^*c'hah
u -ffjpu'
uh (;)ouh
T:t
|r_I jchan
I. I- , an i/pciian'
-« »- angi-^-mang
o ,^^^.mo ^h^'ha
oh /^.poh ^h..li
pT'ku |"]Miu
#luh Ji|fj>hun'
unglll,kung ^p.rhung
iih ^ijkuh uii fifiy Inn
* 866 Mr, Wylics article on the Shanghai momiinpnt, in tlic Asintic TrannaiMions" HonukoiT" 1864 — 56. ' * •
42 MAXPARTX ORAMMAR. PART I.
2 Thojinah aclmifiinf/ dlphthoiufs and tri/ihthongs are the followiii*:: —
le
ieh
ieu
ia
iah
iai
ien
lang
lau
ioh
711* .SIC .lieu
j^^ tsie' ?;J lieh
,sieu
^<< kiuh ^- ,kien
\l\[ hiah
.UKll
W 1 .
,]iian jy; lioh
iuh {i:i)J^iJ Iviiili
iieh ^a! kiueli •n 7S^ 'ki
111
iuc
iiin
men
Jsi ,kitiii
hi imp;
Ihiy ,tien ^bl) ,hiang UJ .iiiiau ^ kiuh f|t Hull /\ hiueli
^>// . :xm .siun
^ k^iiing
eu
ai
au
ui
uei
IK'U
rf" 'shell .niai Dll^inaii' J(H ,tui
P k'cu
par /J ,tau 113 .lui
rJ-. '
kwci
J» 'kw
en
ueng(?))ji; ,k\veiig Jst 'kwa
jy 1 1 wall J /; 'kwai
-S 'kwo hwoh
ua uah uai uaii
uaug
no uoh
'- .hwei ^ ,lnven ti.'( .hweng i^ liwa' i^jfjkwah
"O^f
Jnvai
7(£ ,k\van
rang
.hwans
t=}
4'^ 'hwo (ho) pXi slnvoli
3 Native sijstem ofjinah. The Jinah according to this arrangement 54 in numher, are compressed into 12 by the author of Wu-fang-yucn-yin. The characters he has chosen to represent them are given in the following tahle: —
Class.
Finals included.
1. 2. 3.
4.
5.
r— i .
8.
9.
10.
11.
1-2.
]:J^ .lung,.
^ .nieu,. I^.ngau,. ^*'hu,--.
!lrl: .she,
.^lif 'ma.
.c'hai. It ti-,..
ion, an, wan, men. en, ill, 1111, iuii, wcii. ung, eng, ing, iuiig. ang, iang, wang.
leu, eu.
au, lau.
u, nil,
0, wo, oh, ioh J woh.
0, ie. iuo, eh, oh. ieh. inch.
a, ia, wa, ah, iah, wall.
ai, iai, wai.
i, 1, ei, ui 11, wei, ih,iih, ih.
C'HAPTF.R ,'). ON THE FIKAl.S 43
4 Old Mandarin fniah. Thvjinalfi used in the work Chitng-cheu-f'siueyi- ?/j/«, and a small dictiunarv jJiiLlished in a. d. 1(j'J<>, called "j^T |]!,";^ ^^\\ yC|J, Vin yiin' ,sii ,tlri, arc borrowi'd from tho earlier work o^ (lieu-toh f-sinij, ilie first of the IMaiulariii dictionaries.*^ In that older work the finals are taken from the tonic dictionaries of furnjcr dynasties, adapted to the modern dialect of northern China. Thev are the followinj::: —
1- i-jl J'M^ -^""o 5f^'^i"g^ji»^"l"*^i"j;^ing, i^nS'^si" /111- .Iuukj:, '/J^kl"""?^ HEi •'""?:. »3li liiin^'.
-■ J.l. l'^ jl^ii"g) -y^^o' inchidinij; ang, iang, wang.
'^- ^ iLi>' -f"!*'' :^'h ineludinn^ ^^ .chi n'J" jS'i' -^ ,f^i, uS? •^'*'»? ^ .ri, and a few from the short tone, as J^'J 't«T (tseh).
4. 'f.(\ ^Ijjjic ,tsi, .-wei, inclnding i, ci, wei, ui, as in the words |5I ,si, T^P ,chi, ^p ,fei, ^n^ ,chni, ]\^ ,k'wei. and a large number from the short-tone finals, eh, ih, oh, as ^^^ .shi, "J^ .si, pj kwei, ,^^j 'hei. In the Mongo- lia!! ii!Scri{)tions already mentioned the characters Ba' |^ Jif are spelt hwe, kwe, tei, if the vowels, "which are difficult to decipher may be bo read.
.'5. tit \y\ \\, .mu, incliidinu: all wo!-ds in \\, u, and many from the shoi't- tone finals iuh, uh, as /|i| kii -^^ k'li, ^;f; lu^
G. ^t /N jkiai, lai, includi!ig ai, iai, wai, a!id many words ii'om the short-tone finals eh, ah, as |i[j mai', %.{' .hwai, p| 'pai. ]n Baschjja's Mongolian chaiacteis fr| is spelt pai. lie spells yC witl!ifi!ial. ByCheu- teh-t*sing, it is written dai or tai.
"• ]i 1- JX. jchen, .wen, includi!igen, in, un, tin, iun, wen,
8. y}^ LU lian, ,shan, inchiding an, and part of the finals ien, Wfi'i. as ^^ kien, -i^ .hwan, Jff ,pan, |f}'fij ,kwai!.
9. tW ^^\ .hwo!i, ,hwon (or hwon), i!icliiding many woids whose finals aie now jJFonouncedan, wan, as ^ .kwan, 75x ?P'in« /il/ 'twan, J-/(;J hwan', ^y p'an'.
1'^- 7L >\. ,sien, ,t'ien,'incliiding the finals ien, en, iuen, uen, wen, as ^^Hi .lien, ijiljl .shen-, ^^ .hiuen, )l]\ .yuen, ^^ .c'hwen.
* Another small dictioiiar}* by a native of K'wen-shan near Su-cheu, called ^ /T| tJ* Ul t T r J>C i'* compiled on the same plan.
44 MANUARl-N JjKAMMAR. PART 1.
11. jj^ ^' .siau, .hau, including the finals iau, au, and many short-tone \vords in ioh. oh, as i\% 'k'iau, j^ 'tsiui. ^ .hiuu. The ki.st of these words is 60 spelt in Monfiolian writing, being the same in written form as fX hiaii'.
12. HjK .Ai •^■^'J? .kwo, including the finals o, wo, and many words in the shurt-lono iinals uh, oli, woh, as jfijj cho, \p 'tso, li^fl 'k-wo.
13. %<. iJm' M'^^^ -"^'^ including words in a. ia. w.i. and almost all short- tone words in ah.
14. ^L :t^ jC'he, ,che, including the finals e, ie, iue, and the corresponding short-tone finals, as "] Wj -^^i^N Tu .tsiue.
15. Jy^ pel ,keng, ,t'sing. including words in eng, ing.
16. yd \Y^ -ysu, .Ik'U, including words in cu, ieu, and many words from the short-tone tinals uh, as J^ 'shen, ff^ jeu', for shuh, juh.
17. '1*^* ^^ jt'sim, .sirn. including manv words now pronomiced with the finals m, en, as 0 ,ym, ^^ ,shen.
IS- !mL Jy^ ,kiam, ,hiam, including many words now pronounced with the finals au, ien, as ^ 'kan, 4^ ,yen, $j^ kien".
10. ]f^ ^if\ .liem, jSiem, including many words now pronounced with the finals an, ien, as pzf chan, ^^ 't'ien.
5 Ohl mandarin final m of Cent. XIII. The final m in the last three classes is known to be the sound intended by the author, from comparison with the southern dialects, and particularly from monuments already mentioned, in the old Mongolian writing, where the sounds attached to Chinese characters in the 13th century, are expressed alphabetically.
6 These classes of finals representing the northern pronunciation in the time of the author, are headed by the same characters as those employed in many of the tonic dictionaries, but reduced from thirty to nineteen. Later writers have added to their number by separating ii from u, and ei from i, but they have not lieen bold enough to make the other changes in this system rendered necessary by the lapse of five centuries, e. g. the abandonment of the final m, and the union of such sounds as [^ > ^pj? kwan and jA^^ jC^^ chi, under one heading according to the modern pronunciation.
7 Even the author of the Wu-fang-yuen-yin, though he has adopted an
lU-
some
same w
CIIAI'TI'.H 5. ON ■JIIK FINALS ^^
entirely new system ui" liauls, and an alphabetical ananj^enK'nt for (iic initials has sometimes ajtparently relied too much on th.- older work of Cheii-teh- f sing, as in spelling cheng^ ,sheng ]£, }jl^, and other Avords chin- shin^^- and in i^eparating 7^M from X.' though thoy are both i>ronounced eliV. IMiese peeuliarities may however liave been required by the dialect familiar to the author, and his work is a most useful and convenient manual dictionary, being on account of the alphabetical order of the characters very easy of reference. There are many errors in it, but it would b.-dirticult to point to a better "uide to the mandarin sounds, there being no imperial dictionary in wliicli they are detailed. Some instances in which it does not agree with the present nn dann sounds are the following. The words -Sffi c'liuen, ^c'hangand other words in ch are spelt with sh. JIJ-'J^*, [Xj' ,*f^. ^. etc, have s for their initial, instead of t's. ^sk '« sheng instead of sing. The words ^I^and-^ are spelt kiung, kung, whereas they are now both called kimg. The remark may be made of other words agreeing with these in sound. Veiy fe of these faults are con-ected in the newer edition.
8 Tabic of SyUablcs. The annexed table contains examjdes of all the sounds formed by the union of the initials and finals. Words in the short tone are here given in their short form as they a].])ear in th(> foreign works and some native dictionaries. Th»> column inh among the finals is merely a repetition of iih.
I) Number of .souiuis. The syllables contained in the foregoiu" table amount to 532. In the syllabic dictionary of Morrison there are 411. Th«^ difference is occasioned princii)ally by his n..t counting asi>irated words, as distinct from those not aspirated. The number would be much greater when the final M, and tlur soft initials o, d, b, v, etc. were still in existence as under the Mongolian dynasty. There would then \\q at least 700 syllables.
10 Finals ill s nu. The finals in and iNci are kept distinct in northern mandarin (Poking and Si-ngan), but in the Nanking dialect, and in that of the western provinces they are confounded. At Nanking ^ t'sin and ^ t'sing are both called t'sing. In Si-c'hwen \^] )\\ thoy are both read t'sin. In agreement with the pronunciation of Nanking, ng is tin- favourite final
46
MANDARIN* tiUAMMAR
PART r
Table of ayllahlcs, made by joininrf the initials and finals.
p>i" n«,^
t
11
P
P' m
f
h
s sh
J
ts
t's ch
cMi
1
r w
be
fco
iO
j.t
-t
T
«5*
•i^r^
'V
111
0
|
% PS Weft |
|
|
WS:^ *# |
m |
|
gf -t |
^u^i^ |
|
H i |
t<j> / 4 i t |
|
wmk m^^ |
1)$ |
|
mm ms |
iji |
|
p ft i |
ii ;li |
|
r^ 71 |
ili 1i |
|
^ 'M Mm |
?^)j ' |
|
nil |
m mfomm wnmmmmu
^ m w> m m^ *
ciiAPTEU ;>.
TAHI.K OK SYLLAHLES,
47
•»
k k'
t
n
P
P'
m
f
h
B
sh
J
ts
ch
c'h
1
r w
y
'V 1;
a>
a 7i
B
1± IS
m ^
^ a
ii'i
>;;
^ij: 7k Mil
mmMmmm m m m
1'
M
.-II
lira 5m
m ts
■ffff s^x^
^10 ; i'?i'jij ft
MBi¥m n
m
W:
■* In northern mandnrin coalesces with i e. X In Wu-fanc-yuon-yiii-k'iai. In the north ,ts'a. ■f Also io in the north.
48
31ANi)AKIN UKAMMAK.
I'AKT 1.
k k*
t
n
P
P' m
f
h
s
sh
3
ts
t's
ch
c'h
1
r
w
y
c: ?=
o o o o r; :;
^ M^ t^ t^ p^ --
F- 1^ F- 1^ ?- ?;
5J
f^KiCvS
. ^ Zi S "-^
rt C3 rt O O
mmimimm
w
m
mm
mi
■^'^-^mm
$\i
^i.
^
* Tsun, ts'iupn, in fhe north.
CHAPTER. 5. ON THU FINALa 49
throughout the rej:^ion east and south of that city as far as Fuhcheu, while Hunan and Ilupeh like Si-c'hwen prefer N.
In the Nurth the finals x and kg are often lost when, the a'Hx yQ follows The Syllables jt)o/i. Jan<j, fen, pie7i, ffiuj, yiu, tiny, ti, etc. hct'omv jnir, far, fer, pier, fur, yir, fir, etc. retaining their orifj^inal tone.
The finals ix, ixg, do not occur after f, ch, sh, j. In southern China they follow ch, sh and j in many words, hut in all such words, the vowel k is used in place of i in the provinces where mandarin is spctken.
The final iex has the open sound of a in some northern mandarin, e. g. in Pa Erl 'Shan-si. Some natives of Peking prefer i:, others a. In the dialects of Nanking and C'heng-tu representing central and western mandarin it is IKS. Thus 5^* yiL ^^^ written either <mw, kian, (the a in/an), or tie7i, kien (the e \nj\n). As in other cases, the vowel i in this final refuses to take the soft sibilants sh, ch, .t, before it. In C'heng-tu pronunciation the i is sometimes omitted, as iujyj^ hien, pronouncccl han. Some words with the initial s called sien by MoiTison, insert u, e. g.^r IlM j''^^" ^^^ pronounced siuon in some northern dialects and in Si-c*hwen mandarin.
The final iaxg appears to be free from variations. It occurs only after the consonants k, k', s, ts, t's, n and l.
The final iuxg is used only after k, k* and ii. In many parts of Dnithern China, this final is heard ioxg (o as in bone).
The finals iuex, lijx, occur after s, h. ts, k, and their aspirates. For the vowel E, a is often used, as in the case of the final iex.
The finals ex, exg, rhyming with the English words son, sunxj, are found after all the initials, except that ex does not combine with t, l, or s. The number of words ranged und^r these finals is greatly increased by tiic transi- tion of many characters formerly pronounced with ix and ixr,, p. g. F|1 • \\' ■, /^PC' JR" ,shen, cheng', .c'hen, .c'heng.
Words in wf.x, wexg, are rare and are met with only wnth the initials k, k', H, e. g. Tii;- [l^^j- }'}'.' kwen, k'wen, hwen. In ii«>rthorn mandarin as at Peking, the syllables kweng/J^/ hweng \^{' are hoard kung, hung, th<-»ugh the latter is also heard in colloquial heng. Morrison has marked kweng, and
50 MANDARIN' GRAMMAR PART I.
hwcng as separate syllables, and Premare has kweng, but there is good re- ason to omit them as is done by the author of Wu-fang-yuen-}^n.
Words in an and ang are found after all the initials. The number is in creased by the accession of many characters having the initials sh, ch and j; f. g. ^; UJ* /i»\" These are spelt by Morrison (and in Wu-fang-yuen-yiu). shen, chen, jen, to rliymc witli the English words ten, pen) but at present the a m father is the sound given them whether in Nanking Si-c'hwen, or the north. Thus ^§- shan, _[! shang, are at Nanking, the same in sound, the final ng in that city, wlien it follows a, being pronounced n. At Teng cheu however, the vowel is e.
The medial w in the final wan is usually not clearly pronounced after the initials J, l, s, t, and y. Thus, "jfjf jc^jL, are heard toan, loan, where o takes the place of u.
Among words in wan and wang are included by Mon-ison, Premare, and other writers, many with the initials p, m; e. g. ^^j i^-]- pan, man. These I prefer to spell without the medial w, for though heard in provincial dialects, natives of the mandarin-speaking cities do not make use of that sound. The finals WAN and wang coincide in the Nanking dialect, where 7u and [^ are both pronounced kwan. They are kept clearly separate in northern and western mandarin.
The final ung is usually so spelt by English writers, as .^-kung (uas in true). Premare uses o, rhyming with go, and that orthography agi-ees witli the sound as heard from many native speakers of mandarin coming from various districts. But u represents better the Peking pronunciation. In some words belonging to this final, the vowel is variable; e. g. in Y}^. "tftf, jJ/J, pronounced feng, meng, p'eng, or fung, mung, p'ung, also t'M' l^ung heng or hweng, f\i[^' ]\ ^„ kung or kweng. The syllable shung is recognized in Wu-fiing-yuen-yin and exists at Sucheu, but it is pronounced with c'h at Peking. In Peking feng meng, p'eng, are conmion, but fung p-'ung, mung, are sometimes heard.
The final UN rhyming with moon, is often heard im as 4' J t'sun or t,sim a vifhige. The consonats k, ng, p, m, f, h, w, y, never take tliis final. At
-V
CHAPTER 5. ON THE SHORT -TONE FINALS. 51
Pikinff UN and un are both used. In the mandarin of Nankin'^- and Si- c'liwen im is pretVrrod. The uutliur c>l"Wii-lan>;-yiit'n-}iii makes hin and lUn separate syllables. Tlius fjftj Inn, discourse; 1njj hin human relations. 21 Voivel Jinals. The final i refuses the initials nu, f, j, sh and ch. Thus J y^'often written chi, nhi, should he made to rhyme with "pj, <^y, si, tsi, according to the orthography of this work, and with sze tsze, according to Morrison.
Words in i are limited t(^ the initials s, ts, sh, ch and r, with J, in the short tone, e. g. ^Q 'si, tl ^^i', ^ 'ri. Some may doubt the propriety of using the same symbol for the vowel jmrt of the sounds, ^q 'si, !P| 'ri, but this is what is done in the native mandarin dictionaries, and it seems to me that they are right.
Words in e take only the initials sh, ch, j, y, and m in one instance T^l 'me, or as it is perhaps more frequently called 'mie. For the ])ronunciation ofC'heng-tu, the best standard of western mandarin, this final should be written e, as thv a in case. At Nanking, it is nearer in sound to e, as the a in "care." In Peking pronunciation, when i does not precede, it ajiproaches to 0 as in go; e. g. in ^ ,che, to hide. After k, t, s, and ts, tliis final re- quires the insertion of the vowel i as^^^ 'sie. It occurs without the medial I only after sn, j, en, a limitation which also marks words in the short tone in eh; e. g. ^f sheh.
W^»rd9 in ei take only the initials p, m, f, and w; e. g. \f}. .mei, apricot. Occasionally after p, and f, this final becomes i; e. g. ^p ,fei, not, is some- times litard (i. When w intervenes, the consonants k, h, also take ei, a.-^ in iH-ir In'A' l^^^'i' b^vci. Words with the initialfl N. L, such as |A| nui, pg lui, are by many mandarin s])eaktTs jjronouncwlnei, lei. In P«king mi, and lei are more common, but nui, lui, are sometimes heard.
Words in A aftrr k and n, insert the vowel r ; e. g. ^ ,kiii, y hia', or the vowel u, as in ±X k^^aS PP hwa*, otherwise the letter a refuses to fol- low those consonants.
The final o, in many parts north of the Yellow River is sounded u, and is like the first vowel in the diphtiiong of words such as coiv, how. In the
52 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART I.
mandarin dictionaries another final is made by inserting ii before o. Thus "RJA' ^' ^re pronounced ko, kwo resi)ectivel3', and j;'h jjl^n]? ho, hwo, but the w after h appears to be now falling into disuse. Morrison omits liwo, but it is recognized by Premare. And is retained in many words in Peking.
Words in u in some dialects take ii or ft for u after sh, j and ch; e. g. -^ shu, pronounced shii in Hu-peh, and shft at Si-ngan-fu. Premare adopts without good authority, the orthography shii. At Si-ngan-fii, u after some consonants is changed to eu, so that 7^ 'tseu has the same sound witliljIfL 'tsu, pronounced 'tseu.
The final ii occurs only after k, n, h, s, ts, and standing alone; e. g.j^)"]^ ,ku, ,u. There is no need of the inserted i or initial y added to the spelling of such words as these in current orthographies.
For remarks on the finals ie, ia, see e, a.
Words in iai take only the initials k, h; e. g. f]^ kiai, but when i is not inserted, all the consonants except f and J are employed. At C'heng-tu the
^ hiai', pronounced hai. The sound yai heard in Shan-tung, is ugai at Peking as in J^? %-^j etc. In Peking the final iai is always heard ie.
Words in iau take all the initials, except sh, j, ch, ng, and f, which in this as in other cases cannot precede the medial vowel i.
The final eu takes all the initials. It rhymes nearly with the English word '-prow". The intermediate vowel, e in tew is the e in. "then", as in ^ nieu, an ox.
In the finals ai, au, ui wai, each letter has its full sound. After k, h, p, M, F, the termination ui does not occur.
12 Short-tone finals. The finals in the short tone all consist of vowels, which are lengthened in northern and western mandarin.
The final m as commonly written, should be subdivided as in the table into IH and ih. This is rendered necessary by the fact that i does not take the soft sibilants, sh ch, j before it. Thus Tg sih, ))ecomes si in Peking, and is there identical with si, ivest, while in Nanking it remains sih with the vowel short. Words like ^^ and ^1 * agree in tone and in vowel sound
CHM'TER ."). ON THK SHUItT-TUNf: IIN'Al.S. 53
■with \v^' .shi time, at rckinix, ^^^^ ^^ Nankinjr in tho vowol souml but not in tone. For (he latter the spellinpj sliili, and i'or the former .shi. is here adopted.
The iinal eh as in pj- ^J jieh, spelt by French writers pe, and by Mor- rison pih, varies in sound in the mandarin dialects. In Peking it is predom- inantly Ki, Ai, E, or o; at Xankinf; kii (the e as u in tun); in Si-c'hwen eh (the E as in there): and in llonan ki and ai.
The iinal eh preserves the same vowel sound in all the dialects. It only occurs after the initials sn, j, ch, y, as is true also of tho lon<^ tinal e, its correlate.
Words in ah become a (as a in fatlicr). in tlie nortliern and wesiern dia- lects, as y V pa. I iijJif.
Words in on take o, rhyming witii '-no, ' or au as ^^ yoh. pronounced like -j^ yau' at Peking, and ,yo at C'heng-tu.
Words in uii change their vowel to EU, u and ii in northern mandarin. When there is no consonant preceding, as in ZlL 'i i^^ the sound jireferred in all the dialects. At C'heng-tu eu is not used. Thus >'^ called lieu* in the north, and identical in sound with )\i] lieu', is heard .In at C'heng-tu, agreeing in sound with ^ij .lu, and %\. .nu, there pronounced .hi.
The final iih is usually written iuh by foreign authors, and both sounds are given in the preceding table. Almost all the words under this final are however pronounced ii at Nanking, and in the other dialects. Thus {4^ lii not linh, and {trj k-'u (t'sii) not kMuh. Yet |iq .c'hii is in Poking sometimes heard c*hiuh.
In the tinal ieh many speakers of mandarin omit one of the vowels 1 or E. They are more firmly fixed in the mandarin of the north, than in that of othi^r parts. Thus ||J,4*; tieh, hntterjln, in Peking tie or t'lc, is in C'heng-tu called ti agreeing in sound with jjj ti, ajiute] while at Nanking it is ch.
The final iah occurs only after k and 11. It usually fakes the form ia; e. g. ^jjj .hia.
Words in ion are lengthened to 10 or iau; c. g. |^{J sioh. to aU, is heard ,6iau at Peking, and .sio at C'heng-tu.
54 MANDARIN GRAMMAR PART I.
Words in lUH take ii in })lace of tliat final. The termination iueh often loses the sound u or that of e, as in !^^ siueli, J]JL hia pronounced sio or sie. The finals ini and il'EH occur only after k, ii, s, l and y.
The final "won often omits the medial w as in ^p .ho, living. Many
f >
speakers change theotoei; e. g. in -^^ pronounced liwei, in
— ti.
'^ "g" 'Slum-si
and Honan. The place of o is also often taken by e, as in PL)^ hwoh, pro- nounced in Si-c'lnven .liwe. This and the final Invah (pronounced hwa), occur onlv after the consonants k, ii, and sii.
Distribution of Short-tone icords.
13 In the lengthening of words in the short tone, as detailed in the work ^
1 Ji • — U- J. t-|
)W^ H hM ^^^^' t^^^' mandarin of century XIII, it appears that words in the lower juh-sheng or eighth tone, having mute or sibilant initials pass into p'ing-sheng, and chiefly the lower subdi\dsion of it, viz. the fifth tone-class. Words in the upper juh-sheng with the same initials pass into the shang- sheng or second tone-class. Words whose initials are l, m, n, j, y, take the third or k^ii-sheng. The excei^tioiis to these rules in that work are few, and it would be interesting to ascertain if they exist in the pronunciation of any large part of northern China at the present day.
14 In the tones of words lengthened from the juh-sheng in the Peking dialect, there is an approximation to the same law. By referring to the table,
it will be seen that a clear majority of words in the lower juh-sheng with mute and sibilant initials, viz, K, t, p, s, f, h, ch, take their place in the lower p'ing-sheng, while almost all words commencing with l, m, n, k, j, y, are classed under the third tone or k'ii-sheug. The second tone however, though it embraces only words conforming with this rule, viz. characters having mute and sibilant initials belonging to the upper juh-sheng, contains but a minority of them, the greater number being distributed among the other three tone- classes, the first, third and fifth. Of these the first tone takes the most.
15 The distribution of the A. >^^br Honan ^ jjl in the Yuen dy- nasty, thus appears to bo as follows: —
CHAPTER 5.
ON THE SHORT-TONK FIN.M.S
55
|
Original tone. |
liiitiul. |
Subseqiiiut distribution. |
|
|
IV. Upper juh-shenjr |
k, t, p, 8, ch, i\ h, |
w. |
II. |
|
VIII. Lower ,, |
k, t, p, s, ch, f, li. |
I. |
|
|
>» » |
g,a, b, z, d},v,h. |
V. |
|
|
VIII. „ |
l,ra, n,j, w, y. |
in. |
16 Cheu-teli-t'sing's dictionary does not say distinctly, liow tlie transition cliaracters are distributed between the classes one and five. I supi)Ose that words still having the soft initials (g, etc.) belong to class fifth, and such as had lost them to class first,
17 For Peking the following table nearly represents the distribution of the same characters.
|
Original tone. |
Initial. |
Tone at Peking. |
|
|
IV. Uj)j)cr juh-slicng VIII. Lower ,, VIII. „ |
k, t, p, s, ch, f, h. w. k, t, p, s, ch, f, h. w. I 1^, », j, y- |
I II, III, V. I,V. III. |
18 It will be seen afterwards that the separation between the upper and lower juh-sheng may be considered as having formerly consisted chiefly in the initial letters. According to this view, the mute and sibilant initials of
the letter are all to be read, g, d, b, z, j, v, A, agreeing with the present pro- nunciation in Cheh-kiang and southern Kiang-nan.
10 The dialect of Tsi-nan-fu, the provincial capital of Shan-tung, appears to approach still less to such a law of distribution for the juh-sheng than that of Peking. Most of the words whose initials are 1, m, n, etc. are indeed enun- ciated like words in the third tone class, but the rule extends no farther. Thus all words written sih, whether in the ujijmt or \n\vorJuh-shcnfj Are them identical in sound with 0 ,si, in the upi)er p'iug-sheng. All words such as W[' ^t' ^^"^^ whether in the upper or lower juh-sheng are placed in the lower p'ing-sheng. So again all words written sluih, whether in the upper or lower series, an» pronounced witli the intonation of the k'ii-sheng.
56 MANDARIN URAMMAR. PART 1.
Sukordinate laws in the distribution of short tone loords.
20 i. In Peking pronunciation the words y\\ puh not and i one as-
sume one of three tones according to their position.
1 Before p'ing sheng they take c'hii sheng ^\ ^* pir ,tO; not many.
2 Before shang sheng they take chli sheng .^\ ^Q pir \si", he will not die.
3 Before c'hii sheng they take hia p'iug ^"^ ^P) linxig'', on once moving.
4 When last they assume shang p'ing, as in | * ' shi ,i, eleven.
ii Upper juh sheng words are found in Peking for the most part in shang p'ing. The following with a few other words from the lower juh sheng, are ^Iso enunciated colloquially in shang p'ing examples J^^ nie, to take luith the Jingers ^^\ mau to touch l\W lei, to rein in.
iii. The tone class hia p'ing in Peking embraces not only all lower juh sheng words with mute and sibilant initials, but a considerable number from the upper juh sheng. They are chiefly among those written chi, c'hi, chie, chu. fu, ko. su, shi", te, and tsu.
iv. The second tone class, shangsheng inPeking, attracts to itself afew of the upper juh-sheug words. They are principally such as are accustomed to stand alone in colloquial usage e.g. y^ 'chai, narroio Jp^ 'kei, give r]i|J 'chiau foot JilL 'hiue, hlood 0 'pai, a hundred J^ '^'^j pagoda.
V. The third tone class, c'hti sheng is in Peking the favourite tone of juh- sheng words in reading. Not only do words beginning Avith 1, m, n, ng, j, almost exclusively prefer this tone, but many others form the upper juh- eheng, used in combination and not found alone also assume this intonation EXAMPLES JJ^ li', to stand ^K'J ^'-C'S observe, search ]j\\\ dm' , a wooden bar- rier p") chi', method, plan i}-ij- t'e, pwposely.
Juh sheng words that have found their way into the upper or lower p'ing sheng are in poetry by the laws of rhythms forced to abandon their new intonation. Such words assume the intonation of c'hu sheng for rhythm- ical purposes. This tone-class thus becomes in the metropolitan province the representative of the \ostJuh sheng for ]H)etical comjiosition and veritation.
rnAPTER 5.
PF,K INC/ ROUND OF SIIORT-TONE WORDS.
57
21 The following t.ible is extracted from tlie native work Li-sliT-yiii-kien.
The words are there spelt by the method called Fan-t'sieh. Thus under
^^ yo, medicine, the direction given for the pronunciation is p|l ^'-j ^
tl" Z^j i- ^'- ''comLine the initial of yin- with the final of tiau'. It is the
same in sound with yau', to wish." So also ^ meh, tvhcat is followed by
the words \Ki\ X"^ y] ^' ^, i. e, "it is to be j)ronounced as the two
sounds, men, hwai united, and is hoinophonous with mai', to ntll." The
characters iJ i?:{i I 'Tiiij ix? J^'*^' directed to be pronounced as I'fv fj^,
HIF' T^P- tS' jk'i (c'h), ,shi, .shi, ,chi, .mei, respectively, in spelling and in
tone.
In transferring the sounds thus given to a i)Iace in this work, the process of Fan-t'sieh has been omitted, and the result only given, viz. the correct spelling and tone in the Peking dialect of all the short-tone characters con- tained in the table.
Tahle ov short tone words distributed. N.B. This Tabic gives the Pekiufj leufjthened sound of short-tone ivords, ivith the tone marks as there pronounced.
Common orthography.
c'hah chah ch«di chill
c'hih choh
»
choh chuh
Examples
c'ha cha che clu
c'hi
chau
cho
c'ho
cho
chu
m ^ fi'; n
'M -^f^ -1^ S^ -f^ li'fr -ffl Hf(^
,^ ■\\ m ■'^ ^A ivi m ^'k i\yk \^
■n M M ^ M
#r;^ ?>j:- 'K- siiij- nij- n M 4!|(
•jtiS '^
,^ -ii M-^"^. Hi m u -^
58
JI A N DA n IX U l\ A M M A P. .
PART I.
Common oi-tho<z;ra])liy.
5>
chiieh
C'llllt'll
c'luih
fah
full
lieh
?? hi ah
hieh
liih
hioh
55
hiueh
55
hiiih hoh
hwah liwoli
hwoh hwoi hAviih jeh
juh
jllll
Examples.
hei
ho
?ia hia hie sie si hi sio hiiie siaii (li) sic (h) sioe (h) m (h) ho hau hwa hii
ho Invo liu
J^- jrll
fill "M Ml II
II 111
•tB
'<^
m .i£ Vs m ^i'
f'T, ll,'-"
' "in
■m -'Jifii -1^ -tt -^ M n -n s m I'M '*iii '^ % m
•1 -l^i) ili^ !£'
■w m n m ^^% -m -e m m ■% m m -pt m m m ■)'/? m
-HF^ '^^ 'EI3
/\ (or sine)
fl'A ,^, n -u -^ m .m .-h n ^
Ay:. J.|^.
a .M m m C eIl^ ^'
t-r
14 ^J;=i
cHArTKll i).
PRKIKG SOUND OF SHORT-TONE WOUDS.
59
Common orthotj^raphy.
Examples.
kt'h
k^eh kiali k'iah kit'h
kill
kMh kioli
k'luh
kiueh
k'iueh
kiiili
k-iuh
koli
k'oh
kuh
k'lih
kwali
kwoli
k'woh
lali
K'h
>>
ko
tsie k'o
tsia (eh) t'siu tsio
tsi
t'.si
tsiau
tsio, Of
t'sio, ue
tsitie
t'siiu'
tsii
t'sii
ko, ke
k'o
kii
k'u
kwa
kwo
k'wo
la
\A
lo
AWWlH^R'
4 m .^i': M m r6 .SiS .Jis m u
•^^5 'i'^i ^i ^^i '^^coatofmal7^'^ a symhoJ, XV [I A:
il m Mi M m 4^ 4 ji m ^ m
tf
m « M R -Vi M m m R'
tt 'Z ri- iii^
IP
■fi.fh
m- m M'r-
4-k Mi h'i M
ffl'|lM!l|c,ook..,rill:|..«nn-
m m -m y^
M )!« f> iV-j 1:)' Iji^oiall r -|-
•J.5 ¥, -^ -M m f^i:- lv|!-
^IJ ,k'e, to rw/, engrave k'e' po, to rff/i/ hardly with »h! .k'« *<7Mn and quarters.
60
MANDARIN GRAMMAR.
TART I.
Comiuuii
l\'kiii<r
ortliop,Tap]iy. soiukI.
lieh lih
liol
liueh
liiili
loh
liih
meli
J? iiiioli mill moll miih
jj
53
iiali
iigeh
ngoh
nieh
iiih
nioli
noli
pah
ji'ah
pell
lie
li
liau
Ik.
lie
lu
laii
lo
lu
lieu
mai
1110
miu
mi
mo
mei
mo
mu
na
DgO
ngo
me
iii
nioe
no
pa
p'a
pai
l»'i
Examples,
5^'
■iti
m: m w m
^ ^ M- m m' m If
1^' ^;/f ^^
m ■/;§' w i§^ 3S^ m It w m m m m m m
r m m m *' if wj m m m-
^t^.fi
«^
i^ ^O' >lL
j^^^ also commonly called ,mau
Ift'
eft' Ift'
rfs-
ffl- Hi-
•A m « jjf ij{
4b
CHAPTER 5.
PKKINQ SOUND OF SHORT-TONE WORDS.
61
Coiumou orthocrrapliy.
Examples
jj
p'cli
j>
pi eh
})'ieh
pill
jrih pull
}) p'oh
J)Ull
J) p*uh sail seh
J) sliali
J' sheh
shih
sliili
shoh
sliuh
po
p'ai
p'o
pie
p'ie
l>aii po
p-o ]i'u po pu
p-Il
p'u
sa
sai
shai, se
sha
sia
she
shi
shi
shall
slitii
■i\\
n m M If:|- ffl- iE-
•ff-yij-fu!
:■^u\ -Ml] -^[^2 iji- rki ^i p*^ os: ^^ Js
'iflU" ?,-' "^I^^ (^vhen hist) >i^' (before ^@^) • lii illi/ -iij,'-
'*^i# •^^€ 15 -^ I* ■# # .*t
^ •--.»-
^i4i
.11 m
M
^4b 2K ^i{i XI5. ^iii. /."t • JT-. 5lt'
tN luj aut Lj ,ii^» ■^<- ^
1'
I J 'f'r
I iT.Mj mux tiiii ri'i I") (m:- lL ^>
X. :5
:>^C m m r\ ■ .Yi M^ :k
'v'iu\\\ ''^- m m- w ^ ^t- u
^^ htandins last.
-f^ l>efore±-'F, [^ ^. ±^ •>P before "S* 5)p For Examples v. Usui ching lu Part III.
62
MANDARIN GRAMMAIi.
I'AhT i.
Common orthography,
»
tihwah .shwoli sieh
sih
sioh
siueh
siiih
}}
8oh
BUh
»
tah t'ah
teh, t'eh
tieh
tMeh
Examj)]<js.
M fL .n< Mi .;i$ m m m ~M- m- m n- w
m
}i-^=
•i-\- !>>:
I
•&- Js?:- 1 1^ .11 11 li tiV il m
r m m ^iT- n m m
s
to
•ri f i' iP^
>S M -^ 4§ .M ai ^' m'
4§^ constellation ,4§^ pass the night
^^^V
M' is^ m ^' 'i§ m mm
q^ ought Jjivjv
>iitc % s i^- i'k m m m m
U 'M 'hi- n
|
CHAl'TEK .). |
rKKlNG SOUND OF SIIOP.T-TOXK WORDS. |
i;z |
||
|
Coiumou 1 1 1 |
Peking 1 |
Exann)les |
||
|
orthoj^ra]>liy. |
so unci. |
i |
||
|
tih |
ti |
n ]% fii Wi m m w .ir. }K |
m |
|
|
t-ih |
t'i |
'^An.n |
||
|
toll |
to |
mm |
||
|
foil |
t'o |
J] \. •PIj ^ |
||
|
tsiih |
tsa |
w. w: |
||
|
tseh |
chai |
- |
\t .^ M m ■^. |
|
|
» |
tsei |
I |
flc |
|
|
7> |
tse |
jj .If m K^ R' |
||
|
t'seh |
t'se |
•> 1 |
'%^j^^^-m.M-m'%- |
|
|
tsieh |
tsie (ch) |
* , |
\t m B |
|
|
t'sieh |
t'sie |
1 |
^7] ^ ^Tl- m- |
|
|
tsih |
tsi |
mm^mMmwimm |
1* |
|
|
mfw^.h'iMmm.ivpJiii/^' |
||||
|
jj |
tsie |
.it |
||
|
t'sih |
t'si |
•-b-^'il-Jt lira .film |
||
|
tsioh |
tsiaii |
i |
||
|
>» |
tsiue o |
\V']' or chio |
||
|
t'sioh |
t'siau |
'm |
||
|
tsinfih |
taioe |
.^(^ or tsiue. |
||
|
tsoh |
tso |
m-: |
||
|
t'soh |
t'80 |
m -^s m -life M m m- |
||
|
tsuh |
tsu |
.)iL .4i m |
||
|
tllll |
tu |
lit |
nt |
|
|
t'lih |
t*n |
-ife |
||
|
wall |
wa |
# 'it m |
||
|
wuh |
wo |
•r^ |
||
|
*• |
wu |
^ |
&'^')t7[-Sig"i-/L |
J>
(A
MANDARIN GKAMMAU.
TART 1.
|
Common |
Peking |
|
|
c»rthog;i |
•apliy. |
sound. |
|
» |
wa |
|
|
yah |
y''^ |
|
|
yeh |
ye |
|
|
}nh |
• 1 |
Examplf^s.
yoh
J}
yiieh Yuh
vail
yo
yue ii
©/
m m B' m m m j
'ft'
ji' w- m If ^' iiiv "# m- #^ j f
22 ^^o^e. In tliis table the finals eh, oh, often coalesce through the exten- sive use of the latter in Peking. The words ^'>^, >^ij, heh are the same in sound with -p" hoh, and -£p-, P]^J, kehwith ^, -^,koh. The words^'^ |taf, ^, ^, ^;, are read by Morrison sih, in our orthography seh. In the dictionary Wu-fang-yueu-yin, they are pronouncedsheh,-\vhile words such asniare read shieh, The medial i in'Q' etc. is not now heard. The word )^ is oftener jironounccd yo or yau. The n stands for the old initial ng now disappearing.
When characters have two meanings, they are frequently distinguished in the lengthening process, by different tones; thus pij j" a song, is read 'c'hii 'tsi, while jirl bent is read .c'hii. So also '\' in the sense of coat of mail, as in ^3^ ^\ k'wei tsia, is heard 'tsia, but as a symbol in the denary cycle, it is called tsia'.
23 Examples. One of the most marked peculiarities in the pronunciation
.standing last, before ~2Z^^ — before ±¥ FT ±
CIIAriKU :>. K.\.\^U•I.K^<. (JS
of Pekinu; ami tin* ii.»rtli j^riR-rally, is the ultcivd lonii jfjuli-slicii^ words. The following; examplt s are f]jivc'ii to aid in iaiuiliarizing to the eye of the render. tln> ortlioj^rajiliy of siieli words as actually heard. — ^^ ^<j, M^ jl[^ ta-lin- jii "t-.si, (jenvraUij sj,ca/chii/ if isasfoUntcsr^'^ I'j/j .^\ '^' yair .e'lii pir Iiau, he fakes mcilirinc iritJiout benefit: "XT "l* -^^ ,t"si .sill li<'ir, scveutij six; ^''i\i l^il, [^ lii" .ytii 'sai. of n i/reeu colour: ^ "g ^i '^ ivj '1''^'' tsi mei ,ko titc wheat is not yef cut] -j J J'j( 'ta lie', to hunt: 'lil htj 4 ,^"^^0. .tail 'ts'i, a place for showin<jflou-cr.s\ ' * yj, ||/){ Itu itii 'i^ 1^ ■• li' I'l"' ,tsaii t'a' pu* .te, o single fjrain of rice must not be trodden upon; y)/, IJjJl Itjr]" T'j^ j pei' 'tsiau t'sai (t'a') liwai" 'Iiau, it 2vas troffden upon and destroyed : JiJj 7^ cho pen', stupid; (l^ t-.^t'siiie, .shi, (ircurntehj true : \^\ -^ Vamv cliiau, Just at the time; fortunately ;
fli llll §f ^M '^-'i^u r^^ .^^-^"'^ ."=1".' ^n'«(/mr/ «''^^'// K ^'K f P fflJ sie* til .shen .fo, to insult the gods and Buddhas; |]: -i^j^ ,tso yo', to play
■music; y^\ ' " \'l}j\ ,sie ,i ,sie, rest a little:] [- riiy- jii ^2^' ^^'^ "S*^* f"*"' .fa. fo do wrong mid break the laws; uM 'J''1» ^^'^ '''" " y^«'^(^<'<^ covering for the knee; /Jjji /Ijl I ):::\ J 'tsiau 'ti sia- ,shi Iiau, tcet nnjier foot; '\/^ .ehai i', a messenger; ^^ ^J ,kenj,' i', to charge; J^ ^ .fang , ahouse ; 3}! i I'J c'hi% ,fung, ^o canonize; pj jj^ .liwan;^li', imperial calendar ;^^ ±1^ shw \\\ upright; ttj 7J ■.cMiu l\\ to exert sfrrn>rfh : yfiX l|'')C '^^^'^ tsei, <o /aV^ thieves; YjL i'jl^ .e'hcii ni', /o ir drownet/ : /J// J I L fSx shenj;' 'Iiau .c'heu .ti', he has conquered his enemies: 5H'J J35: 1\ U-I t'.^^nii .to pu' .('hu, cannot Jind it out by thinking: )'lj i W^>i<' hu', to let iva/er through :'ff}l j^. 'k'wn .tseh, to choose : j (j -j\ ^ Vhau pu' .chau, cannot find him; ^^ J [|j){ J -^ ^j ^..i,-,- 'Iiau fan* .niei 'yeu. have you hrefd.fastrd {dined) y,t or not; ^I'K l.j^.nan .te, dij/icult to g<f: -{^ /v^ H|''J 'jv'; -t^i'l •^'J'^n '^^^ .(hen, /f»-r/r/y / /.//,-, rongrr: fl ;-,V; ^\ F1 !">' ,hei pu- .pai,i7 /« neither black nor white: ^[j} j/j^ j | J :2V J .clii .n .( Iiu chii* Iiau, my nephew is gone oJit; 'j^ '|'LJ - j * shui .ya t.si, o </»/r/.; 'Jlift /'m3 ^X 5Wi J la-.(hu hwo juie' 'Wnn^ the candle is gone out : \\ OS - y 7f^^ J sill ten .f.sa ,sha Iiau. /<e teas stoned to death: Iji^-jfi jjl Tm] -^lieu ..shi .clie .eheu. mend the carriage nxh : A^ ^-i .^in ehai. //r
,wu
titi MANL>A1'.1.N OKAMM.Vli PAUT 1.
has a 7i arrow heart •,\» 4] J >'^ 'b I'l ko 'liau lieir ,fHi }'i', after six or seven days; 'X M^ ']' 'nii .sia 'ta'i, a hlhid icomav, JJ-ji }^i W .tsiiie, tstag horns ^\ ^}] \l^ \m' .m'm^ .\-)ai, he does not U7idersta7id; J^. ^ )'|*i 'j^fj to lijl jClicn sill" .liwo .lb ,c'hu slii', he is truhi a living Buddha horn into the ivorld; 7v ^ ta' mai-, luheat; f\. ~T A^ :i:-t 'c*hi .t'sun .pu tui-, the measurement does not agree; Jjll. IJlC A^ \ II '!^ii'<^ i^o' (mai-) pii' .hwo, f/ic Z>?oocZ is not active; Q EL IVj W l^J tsi- 'clii .ti 'ku jeu', otic'* own blood relations; 0 JI^ 7JC ^--ji' -t'eii t'ai* .tu, ^/<o sun is very power- ful (poisonous); ^ W yfc '& ^^ \nv yair' t'ai' .sin .chi. do not he too anxious; ^K ^y ^^ j j* ,c4iiue 'shau wir, cliien'. ^//c/t r/z-e .so/»e f/r/?i(7S missing; ^<c jS £■( ffi P^^^i' i^'^i'i' 'P''^i sing', Ae oppresses the people; _ — _^ ^^ "tr li/k jSan -Inven .c'hi p'o', three souls and seven animal prin- ciples; ^'^i ]^ ,t'sin ,t'si. relations; jQ "J ,p'ai 'sbeu, to clap the hands; 1^ ^S ^^'^ -V^^ tin-foil: )x "W tM -^5 j'l^ei 'yen .Hang .shi, ///c?/ /^are no provisions; TjC ^^ ~f^ mir .sai 'tsi, a ^cood en palisade ; ^ h'ilI Plfe llli pu' jen' ,shi ,t'a, I do not know him; "^ [trj ~J"* c'hang' 'c'hii 'tsi, to sing songs; ^ t2 .clui,hwa,, chrTjsanthemum ; "]£ -0: |1| & T ^^^^' tsai' ,shan 'ku ,chiing, he lives in a mountain valley; -pi 7\^ Pj^ ^=f ^:J* ^^ 't'siau .11 shall' .te 'hau .t'ing, the birds sing sweetly -M"^ f±_ ]yLj 'tsui "li 'k'o. I am thin^fir.^^ It^I .tsic sii', to connect; WA A^ 1^ ^ai' pu' .te, it is unbearable; ^ -^ ^K ^ ,siang k'o' 'hen ,to, the visitors who come to burn incense are very numerous; //ij ip'l /V .pie ko' .jen, another man; }] >7gj i^^ yne' liang' "haii, the moonlight is beautiful; ^ f £ ^ ^7" ^^ che' 'li pu' .sing .ti, it must not be done hcrc;^^:^ -flE ^ifv l^lH tsin' tsai' u' 'li, to shut up in prison; 1^ j\^ ^ 1^. .t'ung ,siu .ho i', of one mind and h€art;'i'il jj^^ ~^ .man ,iiiau k'an'. toxich it andsee;^<, ^ ,tsia ye', family property; -^ iJ: tsr 'nni', written characters; ^ 'Jht ^t'sinje', <o «««cA one's-self closely to ; W k'. "iR fe -^^^^5 ^^^^ ;^^'^"o M^^, '^*<' Aowses >j';? o//; — ' Ijr. fti a ll'j A. ,i .chwang .ii chu' .ti .jen. men who live in onovillaae;^ J\l& m'Vi^'\ .fiin shf .fsing, all hinds of things; IF. li^, fill- ^A ^heng' .chi .wii ,si, upright and unselfish ; ^jt (J J >(j* .shwo .ti 'hau, he spealcs writ: n/^ ^^ )^ -^ "St )^ -■^l^' -t^' -k^wei shV 'hnn
CHAPTF.K r».
KXAMTLrS.
67
han', he who bmrti an injury is a hero ; ^-f-* f^f; ^-* }^1 pjiii' ,h(i |)!in' .{jai, half black ami half white : "}][ \] f'- /\, Ik* ilia- .jtii, to friifhtvn and deceive peoph \ y^Jv 4^{. xt J 111 -I'inc: 'siiie \ni\v \\\ ire and snoic are on the ground \ ~~* ^^ mi ;' -^'^'i .''liwfii. o boat: bIj ^[ tsi' .clio, remember-, 'J/' .^ 'l^ 'shall pir .ti', it /.s- indisjiinaabJe ; n>i ^^x /t. ,s)i\vo jm' ting', I cannot say certainhj \%\\\ 7] ~X^ p^ .in fcir 'veil sioir. A/V share of happiness- is small; i}^ ^] ^^ J^ .luci 'vcu .chuu lu-, without a home; ^^ ^ ^\ IJ^^ slur nnr pir .rlitii. /Ae calculation is wron>/: ^'|^( -f^^," ^4v: J§ ,tsi sii .yin .t'sion, to add constantly to his gains; ij^'j y\\ |^ 1'^ ;?^" 'she pu' .tu jC'hi ,t'-lnviii. he will not spend even for food, and clothing; ^ ||5 'S^ Jpg .ia .t-t:{ii .til .fii, //(' /.«??•/>•// and h(rj>py;^% tl ' ' /v .tu tsr J .jon,
he, a single '}'^'''f''-p.Mwi\ I'I'I' li^'l" Uj ^\"' '^^'*^' ^^^' *^'^' -^^ ^'^<^'^'c a"(/ pin- ching; -fj- /^ ri3^ J_l, ^^ !^ [ly ki»- c'liu' she' li' 'sie .siiie 'kwan, eve?*y- tvhere establish schools; -^ ^^ ^<4i — ' ^x ko' c'iiii' kwang' ,i kwang', /tc went everywhere amusing hiinself;Jf^^ \yi\\y>\[ y\'\)v,i kiv chen' shi', he arranged them in order of battle; Jf^* ,\r[! ^T^ t'e' i' .lai, conw intentional- ly; ^^ ~y 'so 'tsY. string; ropei^H ^^ -^he "pen, to b>se capital; ^K.]^ r//v *^ ,sie ,si ,sie ,si, res/, rcis/ : XL l™ xE A'^ ,\noi\ .t-hii tBai' .sin, the injury he has suffered is in his thoughts; -^ [-^ ^ j- [J-J [iJX ^^'^^ P^ a'lnv' ,i\ ,tfie'i, the theives that plunder the people; ^\ *\ g^ pir ,chiing jt'ing wo< pleasing to here; /\. r^^ /(^" jii' k'o' ticn', /iCf/i/frec/^Ae /oc/j7J»<7- honse; ^^ /^ 'jj,* ^[^ P lien' .jen .i tai' tso' sia'. the six men sat
down together.
24 Thf ♦■misiiig tahlo cxhihits in "iio viow. tho principal vnnatinns to which the .siiort-tnne finals uic .suhjorl in ihc mandarin diahrls. The co- lumn marknl: '|^ IJj\ contains the soiuuIr givon by Chcu-tch-t^ing.
|
Final. |
Nanking. |
! Poking. |
Tsi-nan. |
Ir'hcng-tu. 1 |
t Ijjl |
|
ih ih eh |
_>/. lib ^a^ pib y jiii ^i'i .-bih 4h i"i' i''( <-b |
!li' pi* \yV .chi 1 rp<i .tRoi |
jT- .chT '|)oi .tHPi |
.ji .chi 1 •pe |
li* 'pi ji' •(•hi 'pt-i ,1,s**i |
68
MASDAUIN OUAM.M Ml.
I'AllT I.
|
Final. |
Nanking. |
Peking. Tsi-nan. |
C'heng-tii. |
^ m |
||||
|
0 peh |
^ nieh |
I • I.pai mar |
.pei mei' |
.pe |
.pai mai' |
|||
|
O sell |
1^ tel. |
1 pai .to |
,pei .tei |
.pe |
'pai 'tei |
|||
|
^ sell |
so*^ sai"' |
'shei sei |
.se |
.se |
'sai 'sai |
|||
|
^;> sell |
^5: SPh |
1 she' se'' |
.sho |
.se |
.se |
1 'si 'si |
||
|
eh ah |
t2J shell ^1 tsah |
A pah |
j.she je' .tsa .pa |
.she hwo tsa })a' |
.she .tsa |
•je "pa |
.she je' '.tsa ]ia |
|
|
oh oh |
f^ loll yf^ loh |
f# poll i$ i)oh |
lau' pau' :lo' .po . yau' "so |
Id' po' |
.lo |
po' |
lau' .})au lo' .po yau' sau 'so |
|
|
m yoh |
^* soh |
yo' 'so |
.vo |
.so |
||||
|
^ yoh |
7f^* soh |
yo' |
•f |
•> |
||||
|
uh |
>^^ luh |
lieu' |
lieu' |
.hi |
lieu' |
|||
|
M j"h A juh 'fj fuh |
^ pull |
jeu' |
jeu' |
■J" |
•jeu |
|||
|
ju' "pu |
hr' p'u |
•j^i |
poll |
ju 'pu |
||||
|
fo. |
.fu |
.fu |
.fo .fu |
|||||
|
j'^ muh |
.mei mo' |
mo' |
.mo |
mu' |
||||
|
llCjiih ~hyu |
ii' or yo' |
•ii |
.yo |
ii' |
||||
|
u' |
ii' |
ii' |
u* |
|||||
|
$suh ^'J peh |
M meh |
shwai' .pie mie' |
.pie mie |
'shwai |
||||
|
ieh |
.pi |
mi |
'pie mie' |
|||||
|
iah |
g§ hiah |
1:5 k'lah |
.sia t'sia' |
.sia t'sia' |
.sia |
.t'sia |
'hia 'k'ia |
|
|
ioh |
i |
J kioh |
'tsiau |
tsio' |
.tsio |
'kiau |
||
|
i |
J kioh |
.tsio .tsiau |
jtsio |
.tsio |
'kiau |
|||
|
iuh |
7^ kiih |
/a3 k-uh |
,tsu jt'sii |
tsii' t'sii |
.tsii |
.t'sii |
.k'ii 'k'ii |
|
|
] |
'i sQh |
He siih |
sio' or sir |
1 1 sio' sii |
.sio |
'sii |
||
|
iiieh |
jnL hiueh |
'sie |
,sie |
.sie |
'hie |
|||
|
.^ siueh |
.sie 'siue |
.sie |
'siue |
|||||
|
1 |
^ yneh ^ kwch |
yue' |
yue' |
.yue |
yue' |
|||
|
well |
.kwo |
,kwei |
.kwe |
'kwei |
||||
|
wah |
S! |
] kwali |
.kw;i |
.kwa |
.kwa |
1 |
'kwa |
C'HAPTKU 5.
FAULTS IN MANKAKIN' DIAT.F.CTS.
69
|
Final. |
Nanking. |
Peking. |
1 T.si-nan. C'heng-tu. |
^W. |
|
|
woli |
P k'wcli j'n' hwoh gl^ hwoli |
k'wo' .ho ,ho |
,kSvo .hwo .hwei |
.k'wo .ho .hwe |
'k'wo .ho .hwei |
25 In 'Shan-,8i the lengtliening of words in tlic short tone, may he juil<;ecl of by the following examples obtained from a native of j^ 7[_^ !|!:^1 San- yuen-hicn*, in [|y >C Jl'J' Sin-gan-fn.
y^ leu or lien, ,Fc-hi, P^ c'lu, ^[Ijchuejj^ .Invei, ^ hwei, ;f^ .hu, |: ,ri, A J'^ ^ ,^ln, /Iwim, ^ ,ki, 1n*,^+.sl.V. IZE 'p'i, :^'j kio, l-g
ha, fU. ,hie, ^ .ho, f/j .kii, ^ ,ko, TJC slni, ^ ,si, j}^ 'die,
,i, Jj-: Jce, 1^ zeuS ;|^ 'zeu, # ,tei, H ,kwei, |t •"•
Faults in Mandarin Dialects.
26 In regard to the pronunciation in Peking and the north generally, it may be observed that the lengthening of the juh-sheng, and the coalescing of K and T8 before i and ii, and that of ii and s before the same vowels are not faults, but rather steps in theregulardevelopmentof the language. From the lengthening of the jiih-.sheng results an inconvenient variety in the vowels of the lengthened words, as when ^^ is pronounced tei in Shan-tung, to in Peking, and te ia the west. These liowever cannot be considered as faults in either case. We do not know which form of the vowels will ultimately l)revail.
27 By Peking sjteakers somewordsiii rxc with f and m ]trei-ediii<j;are ])ro- nouncedeng, asinj'Ji\, feng. They also })ronounce st»me words ini,, asifthey had N for their initial and vice versi; e. g. ^- lung' j.ronouneed nung', and neng' to meddh with. Some words in y receive j, as |>?[] yum, an ollieial residence, ^ ,keng is heard ,ching, JJ| tsin is heard tsing. Tlien' are also similar errors in words like these. \V is in.scrted in w..rds, which should bo pronounced lio. as in j/C 'hwo,/rf, jg^ 'hwo, an afisi.stant, %Yl h\yc)',ca7n- m it I/, },'i hwo', yuods. Collo(iuially IpP ,tu. <^// is pronounced , ten. The
70 MAN'OAKIN tlP.AMMAR. FAftT I.
final NO ill ^ k'enp; is duingocl to n. Tlie use of /Q as fin allix to suh- stantives affects the sound of vowels and pushes out the finals n and n*;;, as in /\ TLi .jen .n, a rnan, iironounced nearly like .jer. in | ) ^'U .men .n, a door, which is like .mer, and in Tjv i'JX yCi inu' ]ian .n, ivoodcn hoard, heard like mu' 'par. Aspirates are incorrectly used in the words 51^ tie pro- nounced often 'tie i|^ telr pronounced t'e. Further, words in iai, iue are heard ie.
28 In Nanking n is very commonly pronounced 1, as in Y^ nan, .so?//"// pronounced Ian. The vowel i in such words as^lj? yj lieh. t'sieh is oft^^n omitted. Words such as 7^ I'ien ^f- nien are frequently heard t'eu, nen. The final n becomes ng aftt-r i, and ng hect^mes n after a. Thus j\^ sin, heart is the same in sound with ^^ shig, a star, and J'Ul ,lian, order, with
/ P >pang, a kmgdom. In this city the mandarin jn-onunciation has not penetrated deeply among the lower classes. At a i;'w miles distance from the walls, the soft initials g, d, b, etc. prevail among the country people. Bad speakers of mandarin are more common among Nanking ukmi, than among those from Peking and the other mandarin speaking cities, because the former city is on the boundary between the northern and southern sys- tems of pronunciation, while the others are In the midst of a population using the same dialect with slight differences.
29 In the western provinces, the initial n gives place to l' except before the vowels i, ii. At C'heno:-tu, the capital of the province of Si-c'hwen, g is heard in words such as ^§ i'. In ^? ^ .c'hang, the initial is sh. The vowel I is omitted in words such as ^Ji^.hien, complete (heard han),^3:-^"'^i- shoe (heard hai). Some words in ie. as ;^ ,sie, are heard i, dropping the last vowel E. Tlie words^^ yiin', yJC 'ynng,J]lL, /\ hiue, ^ shi'. are called yin', 'yun, .hie, si'. In ^, ^^ kwo, to is omitted.
30 At Tsi-nan-fu the capital of Shan-tung l is often substituted for j, as in ^' jo, ]^P .ju. Y is also found for j as inf rj jim' called yun. Words in Y often substitute i, as in/^.lung for .yung.
31 In the north, the variation in the vowel part and the tone of juh-sheng words gives rise to much inconvenience. From the preceding tables it ap-
riTAP"Tii. (». \\TivK modi: ui uiiiTiNf; S()i-\ns. 71
pciiri?, that many wnnl-^ have two or tlirfo ]troiiiin('iati<nis own in Pekim; itsrlt". The wtmlf^ lor exam j)le, is then' ch1I('<1 liio liiiie or liiau (s). and .'I'-'J has til.' tluro sonncls .lei. hi* amMo'. Sonu' words that have •'one far ironi their oritcinnl t'orni in tlie colloipiial, arc nineh nearer to it when ])ro- nounced as l)ook words. Thtis |/^J )\ih. Jlrm// is heard in ettHoquial '\o\v. ])\\t in readinc^ it is eaiicd jir.
'V2 At T'ien-tsin the port of Pekins:, tliero are some diti'erences in the initial letters: e. •;. .i for some words in y. and TS and s foi- many words inrn iind sn.
33 Tlie ])ronunciation in larc^e cities adheres more closely tlian country diale<ts, to the standard pronunciation. That of Hani^-cheii. for example, is mticli in advance of neighliourin;; cities in aj)proxiniation to mandarin sounds. The vowels usually ai;ree accurately with the recognized orthogra- phy, but the initial consonants still retain among them the soft letters, c;. d, b, z, etc. e. g. Irjif .jwen, a boat lor .chwen, -^ .dza for .c'ha, tea. So the country dialect near Tsi-nan-fu in Shan-tung does not confound the initials K and TS before i and u, nor ii and s before the same letters, as is don<' in that eity.
CHArTKR VI. Nativi: M(»i>k of AViutisg SorNns.
Dirtionnrit'ft of local diahctx. Works for teacliing the colloquial pronun- ciation of particular cities, repre cut the sounds with tlie h^lp of the Fan- t'sieh, or syllabic s]i«'lling. A series of charact(^rs suited to r'jiresent the initials, and another the finals of a dialwt, are chosen as a standard of pro- nunciation. Ry means of them the s«nmds of all other words are expres- sed. In many ca.ses however, words to represent the Found are choven with- out regard to any series. Kxamples illust ratine: this method are here given.
72
MANDARIN GRAMMAR.
PART I.
Example. Initial. \ Final.
Sound.
Authority.
KL^i dz
f-ch
k
ch
If t's Kl-
t*i^ iun f ? i
ling
Hi, ung
ling
<^ ong
ung
;fiE un
?
dziung
t'sung
k'i
.t'sung
.k'i
chung
ki
chong
ki
.t'sung
.k'i
t'sung
k,i
Chung-yuen-yin-yiiu.
Chung-clieu-t'siuen-yii.
Wu-fang-yuen-yin.
>>
7J
Fuh-cheu dictionary. ■•'•■ Chang-clieu dictionary.f
Canton dictionary.:!:
jj J?
Peking dictionary. §
35
J5
Syllabic SpeUinf/.
2 Tliis method of syllabic spelling, the Fan-t'sieh JX, yJ , from fan, to turn over, and t'sieh, to touch, to rub, was introduced to China by the Hin- doos in the 5th and 6th centuries. The first dictionary, in which it was
'•' This dictionary of the dialect of Fuh-clieu is called /v HZI M pj Pah ,yin hoh ting'.
f This dictionary of the dialect of Chang-cheu j^ yTj in southern Fuh- kien, is called ~| JLL EI shih "wu ,yin.
X This dictionary of the dialect spoken in the city of Canton, is called 77 y^ J^ ^- 'pf ^ ,Fen yiin' tsuli yau' hoh tsih, or more briefly Feu- yiin.
§ ^^ l\^ "of i^i^- The pronunciation only is given in the dictionary in- cluded in this work. The words are arranjjed accordinur to their initials as in our own alphabetic dictionaries, but in a dillerent order.
ClIAI'TKU G.
SYLLAUK SPELLING.
73
3' AA-
Ku-ye-waiifij, J)lll>li^ll(.•d 543. Some specimens of the mode of .spdliiif,' adopted in tliJit work, with tlie prohahle ]»rominciation of tluit period attached to the chiiracters, are here ap}»ended.
|
Example. |
Initial. |
Final. |
tSouud. |
||
|
^ |
T tanj? |
t |
pT ke' |
6 |
te' |
|
t |
r J 'zhi |
zh |
p h nionj,- |
• iong |
'zhiong |
|
■El- |
■^ 'ko |
k |
W lan^ |
am |
kftm |
|
PJ |
3 -k^-i |
k' |
?JC 'nga |
a |
'k'a |
|
\H |
3^^* .nio |
ni |
-^> 16k |
6k |
ni(5k |
|
-?i |
H^ .zhi |
zh |
M let |
et |
zhet* |
|
# |
"i' 'ko |
k |
/b diang' |
iang |
kiang' |
|
+ |
li# .zhi |
zh |
A. nip |
zhip |
It is in this manner that all words are spelt throughout the dictionary. The tone of the sound thus written is known by that of the final, and four tones only are recognized, viz. p'ing, shang, k'ii, juh, without subdivisions. Tliis dictionary has a cumbrous system of radicals 590 in nuniebr, whicli ren- ders it inconvenient for reference.
3 Other works soon followed in which the characters were ditierently ar- ranged, while sounds were expressed syilabically in tlu^ same manner. Near the end of the sixth century, the lost dictionary T'sieh-yinr the basis of that called 'Kwang-yun' J^^ h8> ^^'^^« coni.iledby Luh-fah-yt n. The latter, still
extant
tan t, appeared eatly in century XI. It was succeeded by tin* Tsih-yiui i \\\J(, Wu-yin-tsih-yun' IL ^' U!l \M- i^nd Y nn' -\iv,\v H^ ^, the last of these in the 13tli century uii<l.r th.- Mongols. A few years later aj.- peared Hung-wu-cheng-ynn il\ ii\ IE liU, '" tl>'' tinirof the first Ming emperor. The work called M{' hI4 T-ang-yuir published in century VTII. was an enlargement of Luh-fah-yen's dictionary.
4 Thr tirst of these dictionaries had orginally a system of i»0() finals, which aft<rwards (cf-nturA- XT II) were reduced by Lieu-p'ing-shui to a little morr-
74 MANI'AiaS (.UAMMAli I'AUl' I.
than one hnndrcd. His system ^vitll slight variations has. continued in use to the present time. The finals may he still further diminished one halt" by not eountinj^ diflbrences iu tone.
5 In consulting these dictionaries, it is necessary to know (1) the tone and (2) the final, all words having the same intonation being placed together, so that the most general division of the book is into four parts, one for each tone. Subordinate to this is the classification according to finals.
G Through the greater part of China, the pronunciation preserved in these early works is now obsolete, but they are still the standard according to which literary candidates write poetry for the national examinatiuns. The tradition- ary soimds of the T'^aug dynasty as here registered, fonii the rule according to which all Chinese poetry is still composed. The natives consult these w^orks with facility from knowing l>y the habit of reference where a word is to be expected.
7 The syllabic spelling learned from the Hindoos was soon followed by systems of initials and finals, which very much assisted the natives in com- prehending the analysis of sounds.
The initials were an-anged nearly in the order of the Sanscrit alphabet. Thus, k Mi kien', k'^ ^ ,k'i, g^R giun', n #$ .ngi, t j;^^ -twan. t^ ^ ,f'u, d % diang', n ^'It^.ni, ch ^P ,chi,^ c'h fwi c'het, dj M-djing, ni^d^J .niung, p % ,pong, p' )^ ,]''ong, b 3^ 'biang. m ^W .miung, f ^p ,fi, f C^lfo, V ^ 'vung, V ^fd .vi, ts f f|,tsiang, t's jR .t'siang, dz iJl .dzung, s
j]^ ,sim, z y f) .zia, ch {If"? 'eho, e'h >|- ,c'hon, dj i\X 'Jjnng, sh ^ 'shim, j '- joibv f;^ 'yang, h 0^ 'hio, u nf;f.',/, jlLhap, 1 ^ loi, ni 0 nyit We are told (Li-shi-yin-kien, vol. 2, p. 6,) that a priest of the T'ang dy- nasty, named She-li ^,- A"'} formed this system, but without the six cha-
racters %li, \\'\\, ^^ , )^j, ^'ii, ^&. These were afterwards added, and in fact some of them are sujiei-fluous. For the first two can be identified with the initials \Z\ nyit and )Q^ djing, and the last four with the initials^p, ^J,X, 3B? ^'J; ^'V loading p for f In the Sanscrit alphabet there is no f, and in tlif lifth cf-iitmy words afterwards placed under the initials i\ \\ were pro-
CHAPTER G. SYLLABK' SI'KI.l.INC. 75
nouncecl with p, h. Tlnis yfj full, j')|j fuli^ luul for their ])honetic value at that time the t!>anscrit syllables jmt, biul, ami were changed for other eliaraeters hy later traiih^lators of the Budiiist hooks when aiming; to express the llinduu sounds aeeurately, sla-winy; that the jiower assigncil to these cha- racters had changed in the interval. Many other words now pronounced f and V, may he concluded from various sources to Ifave been formerly heard p, so that f is perhaps of comparatively recent aiipearance among Chinese sounds.
S The characters selected to represent the finals in tlie dictionary Kwang- yiui are tlie following: —
Fiisttoneelass. Jfi ^ ® J^I (^'"g- ^^^^'r^^ ^'"gi i^ng,) 5l 'JhJ <1 1j (•^ 1, ei,) ^ ,1ft: tp (ii, o,_u,) ^{0,)Ui ^^ M ^V] (aJa, 6i, fti,) g$ ^ (in, im,) 3(, )ik /C ^J| (iu"' ''". ^vun.) >/j( §i t'g (en, on, w6n,) llljlj^ |i| (an. wan^) /L f|l| (ien,) j^H W # 5c («, '^o, aii, iau,) ^^ yJi Miii (a, wa,) |>i lii jiong, 6ng,) $t l'|- rR_^ang, iang,) ftf ^ S (eng, ing, eng,) ^t i% ffl(u, eu, iuof^ (im,)4lil^ (im,) M f $ (iem.);^!^ fg (iam.) M /L (^^am. )
Fourth tone-class. M lH ^'^^ij (ol- iokoil: (ok,) ff (it,) f|q f'^f) 4^7 (ut. ut,) li t^J 5 -^ (wet, et,) ^ tIc (6t,) ^] ftf (at, iat,) M ^ (iet,) ^1 l-n'H a^ (iak, ak, aik,)fr |S 1];,^ (ik, ek,) |M (ip,) -P^ ^l (ai..) il l|ll!l (iep,) J'^ # 1^ (iap.) :$: (wap.)
In this arrangement, there is an approach to the order of the vowels iu the San.scrit alphabet. That order is a, a, i, i, u. I'l, e, ai, (5, au. The unaccent- ed n in a closed syllable corresponds to e as used in the present work. The vowel a is ])laced near 6 in the Chinese system doubtless because of the close connexion of those two vowels in Chinese! pronunciation. The order of the consonants used as finals is also nearly the same as in the Sanscrit alphabet, viz. ng, n, m, k, t, j).
The finals in the second and third tone-classes ])eing likf those of the first are not hero transcribed. In the common rhyming dictionaries now used for versification, the JJl ela.sses hen- found, are reduced to about half that number.
76 MASDAllIN OKAMMAH. I'ART I.
9 In all the national dictionaries, enibiju-in;^ in addition to those already mentioned, IE ^ -ll (^h(Mi,--tsi-t'un-,^ ^Tsi-hwei, Ift ^ M ^' P'ei-wen-ytin-tu, /^<f [\'|j ~f^ ^'(-K'ung-lii-tKi-tien, words are spelt according to the Fan-t'sieh method, with the initials and finals as here described. In these works, published since the growing up of the mandarin pronunciation, the traditional sounds of the characters are quoted from earlier books. To read the old pronunciation correctly the values of all the initials and finals need to be carefully ascertained. An attempted approximation to them is given in this chapter. It is derived from many sources, viz. from old tran- scriptions ol Sanscrit sounds in Chinese, and of Chinese sounds^in Japanese, Corean, and Cocliin- Chinese; also from the existing state of provincial dia- lects in China itself.
Phonetic Characters.
10 Among the details connected with the Chinese methods of writing sounds, there should be some reference to the phonetic characters. About 2,500 of the characters are ideographic. The remainder upwards of 20,000 are formed phonetically. Many of these are of recent invention. There are about 10,000 characters in the Shwoh-wen, a dictionary of the Han dynasty. Examination shews that certain laws guided the inventor of these symbols, and that at this remote period, after all the changes through which the lan- guage has passed during several thousand years, some of these laws are not beyond the reach of observation. Phonetic and ideographic characters are found mixed in the oldest remains of Chinese literature, and tradition ascribes them to one inventor >g jjv! T'sang-kieh, who lived before the time of Yau and Shun, in the reign of Hwang-ti, said to be b. c. 2600. But though there is no traditional evidence of any lengthened time elapsing between the formation of the two kinds of symbols, we may be allowed to assume it.
11 A few examples will illustrate the phonetic writing, adopted in the carlv formation of Chinese characters.
( IIAI'IKK. ().
•lloM-.rir ( IIAUAITF.US.
/ (
Phonetics
Coinpnund.s.
±i ,fiin<: Is • 1 ' I "K. Ti I . p«n?r-
fnj slmnj:- :^^- .sliaiin: (/.li), |.-|^ 'shaii';, i^ 'i:lmi)<,', jjnj l-imj;,
'M
'i^
-^ ,ft'n
W .taiij::, ijl .t•all^^
t
.j^T ''ii- (vi'ii), jiX p'cn (l)Hi), //tl ,i>an, >;|i .pin.
^ l.ii- (vi'ii), ^it .p-cn (Ik-u), /;(! , ^|H,ku«n(m) ki-^^niuM .li,.„, || ,k'ian.
^^ .hicn. V Jf Ilium'.
M^ ,tsi(., ^ .t'so, -fl ,tso. ^^
ilf ,cliu, (iiP ,tu, m siiS -§- 'shu.
^ ko, ^ -ho, 1^^ '10.
j{il.c'hi,j-l^ tiS ^tii,t'a,|>lli.fo
|S^^sih(k),t§tMll[k].
^
_V^^ .Imu'ii ,c'ha.
'cli.' .. 'kwo.. ill ye. .-
^; yili (k)
i, !l!'[:>i-,
fali(t) |?5xpohrt],}^l.'oh[tJ.
¥ kiah (p) rPivahQ.jJ^ hiah [p].
12 Of characters thus used as phonetics, there are in Gallery's enumera- tion a tV'W more than a thousand. It appears therefore that after the inven- tors of the Chinese characters had determined on tin* more tlum 2,0tX) ideograj»lis wliicli the lan<^uaf;e contains, they approjiriated nearly half of tliem as symlxds of sound. Tlie sound assigned to them wa.s the name of the ohject of w hich they were- primarily chosen to be the ideograj)h. Probably therefore sufficient time intervened for the symbols first formed to bccomo well known, and suggest at a glance a certain sound. As already remarked liowever, there is no direct evidence of such an interval of time having existed. New characters wh«»n formed are always j)honetic.
13 It is found tliat the final consonant^ of the plumetic belongs generally to all the compounds that it helps to form. Taking the pronunciation of southern China as a starting point, the tinal whetber Ihj it n^:^, n, m, k, t, or ]t, in almost all cases is the same in compound characters as in their plionetics.
* In the seal characlor "tH -iti'l -fck have the same fonn.
78 MANl».\i;iN CUAMMAK. I'AKT r
This fact belongs to the first tbnnation of Chinese writing, and proves the existence of the whole of these final consonants at that time.
14 The same circumstance characterizes tlie vowels whether medial or linal. But it is only partially upen to observation, on account of the numer- ous changes that have taken place during the la]>se of thousands of years. Characters which once rhymed together, and tlierefore contain the same phonetic, have separated frequently, and now find their ]>lace under three, four or more different rhymes. Tlius among the i)receding examples -^ che has three values, and "HL ye no fewer than five. These mark clianges in the lano^uao-e, and it remains to accertain which is the oldest^ and which the newest form of the vowel, before an approximation can be made to tlie ]»ri- mitive sound.
1.5 While the medial and final letters of the sound attached to compound characters ao-ree witli those of their phonetics, the initial ulten differs. When the initial consonants are not the same, they are usually closely allied. Thus f and p, k and h, ch and ts, cli and sh are often the initials of words having the same phonetic. But there is no certain rule in regard to initials. It was apparently only in the final, that identity of sound was held to be requisite in forming phonetic characters.
IG The following are exam^des of phonetics with consonant finals.
kk T t :c:;^7'lIP^ t IE 4- ^h^^^^r^^
m f/ij 1 m a g
M a m it 1 M Iwi m H /i A^ •€ ^c ^t 1-J- cS IT; ^ ^ iTc ^i 4 H< :i:. ^i^m ^ M ff: * St i$ U M
^ ^ iV M i!i V) &^F^- ^ m-^
^
ciiArTEJ; /.
UN THK Alii: OF TIIK MANPAKIN I'UOSrNCIATIoN.
70
. 6 ''^i VC 'lA ^ '}]•- :''.• Jl !L! >kij '}^ § M ^fr jl? >]l) ^ ^ ,:^ ^ )#: ig ilji
1. -h ^ 3^ r^J li. di ' I' 0 r)i tA i^- :^ ^ ii M S
17 111 the i)rosent state of our ktiowledi^e, the original value of the vowel finals in the idionetic characters cannot readily bedeterniined. Vowels chanjxf much more easily and frequently than consonants do. We can only conject- ure that as in the case of the words ending in consonants, all characters hav- ing the same phonetic must have rhymed together.
Modern Alpliabetic Writiii'/.
IS In the native dictionaries of foreign languages, as in ^pg ^ f^ T^sing-wen-kien, the Chinese characters used to express sound represent single letters instead of syllables. Tluis the symbols p"J a J(^ " I • 71^ y I*"J a, stand for aniya, the Manchu word for 7/ear. This is al|ihabetic sjx'lling. The characters however are so printed as to suit the syllabic nature P'^'J ^ of Manchu writing. This kind of spelling is callrd "."p^ ^ 1_|_/Li ^1 "KH ,San-holi-t'sieh-,yin, or speU'uitj by the voUocatUni of three characters, from the frequent occurrence of triliteral syllables. — "^^vl "^'"^'"^ ^'^'' Mongolian word K'uitMui, cold, in thf work \}^ \^ tfli W\ ^ ]£ , «^ f^l'^lt with two triliteral .syllables. It
VM
<t) will be observed that the character which re])resents n in the lirst example, contiiins in its sound the vowel i, the same that belongs to the next .symbol ^7^. So in all other cases.
It does not appear that this mode of spelling has ever been used to repre- sent the variations in sound of Chinese diahrts.
ciiArrin: \ii.
On tuk Age of tuk Mandaiux 1'koni;stiati()n.
1 Clieu-teh-t'sing J\
l*i» ipj •'' ''"■ ^ii*'" tlyuiujty (c»^'nlury XHI)
80 M.\\I>.\K1N liKAMMAi:. I'AKT I,
Is mentioned as the first writer who, Ity noticing tlie separation of the old first tone class into two, was led to speak of five tones/-' The first des- cription of tlie distribution i»f the short tone-class among the other four is also attributed to him.-j- He was a native of frtj >C Kau-ngan. Several cities liave borne ihat naiiu'. It is uncertain which is meant. From the- dictionary compiled by tliis autlior. Ohung-yuen-yin-yiin, a name wliich jioints to Ho- nan(^r ij>^ ^^'^ ^^i^- phice of his residence, the mandarin pronunciation as spoken in liis province 600 years ago, can be known with great accuracy. He retains the final vi of the old tables, and of the southern dialects in the jirescnt day. Thus ^L^ ,sim, ]% .lim, f^J .nam, are distinguished from ^,/f .sin,
P^ .lin, HH .nan. There is no trace of the finals k, t, p. in the short-tune, the words that formerly had them, being tliere pronounced with vowel finals
oi" long quantities.
2 Words with the initials, g, d, b, v, dj, dz, z, zh, and a weak a.sj)irate,
in the old tables, (i. e. words in the lower tone with the initials, k, t, p, ch, ts, &c. aspirated or not, in the southera dialects,) keep that form in this dictionar}-, always in the fifth tone, and frequently in the others. The con- sonants k, t, p, ch, ts, are also very commonly the initials of these words in the third and fourth tones. Thus 3Ej yS, ping' agree accm-ately with t|A| ping', in all respects, according to this author, though they differ in central and southern China. Ting'^ formerly pronounced with d is Amtten ding' or ting'. In modern mandarin, the asj)irated form is uniformly found in the fifth tone-class, and omitted in the others [second, third and fourth].
3 The singular law of distribution of words in the juh-sheng or short tone among the others has already been mentioned. Words with the initials, k, t, p, f. ch, ts, s, sh, take the second tone; those having, according to the old tables, g, d, b, v, dj, dz, z, zh, take the fifth; and the rest embracing words in 1, m, n, r, y, j [ni], find their place in the third tone.
4 A few circumstantial difterences in the soiuid of many words in an, i, and some other finals as now pronounced, also then existed, for which see the chapter on finals. Variations in the initials arc very few, see above.
* Li-xhi-yin-kien. vol. 1, page 8. t Preface to Chnncr-i'heu-t'siucn-yxin.
cnAPTKu 7. ON Tin: A(;n of tiif, mandauis rnovi n'CIAtion'. 81
5 This analysis, wliich tlic w.nk of Clu'ii-tch-fsiiig eijal»k*s u.s tn make of the j)iuiiunciatii»n of his time, shews that the nuiiuhuin iliahcf -was then in course of t'onnation. The existence of the oUl soft initials and ot' tii-- final m, important features of the oKK'r dialect, and used as has been seen at the court of the i\[ongol emperors, forliid the suppositinn that the mandarin dialect was then fully formed. l*art of the periud which the Miii;^^ dvnastv occu])ied, a. d. 1368 to 1G44 must be included therefore in the time during which we conclude that the consolidation of this dialect was comj)leted. In the ilictionary Wu-faug-yuen-yin written at the end of that dynasty, the dis- tinction of in and n as finals is entirely lost, as it is also in K'ano--hi's second set of tabulated finals, -^' \\\,% 'teng yini', published a few years later.
G The manner in which the /v /^ juh-sheng is represented in these two authorities reiiuircs some notice. Words with this tone are given with lono- vowels, but instead of being read as long-tone words, they are still counted as being in the short-tone. E. g. in Wu-fang-yuen-yin^, [iy; IJ|(, etc. at Nanking read meh, are placed under the rhyme ai, according to the usa^-e of the ni)rthtrn provinces where these words are frequently read mai. Words sudi as ^, ::^', ^,and many others have assigned to them two or three pronunciations. Hioh, job, toh, are regarded as their correct spelling; but they are also written hieu, hiau; jeu, jau; teu, tau. Words such as ^rj k-idi, ~h- uh, j|t liih, TlflLf^uh, ji^'v uli, y\ uh, are written in this one mode exclusively.
7 In K'ang-his tables, words such as 3^J k'eh, |^ teh. 4b V^^h Ml heh, arr written not only in that mode, hut k'ei, tei, poi, hei, yet without being dis{tlaced from the short tone. The characters ||-, ]^i, ^^^, arc writ- ten tsoh, oh, loh,; twiu, an, lau; and tseu, eu, Im. Tin characters ^. iJ/JI? ^jS, ^^' ^, art' written yoh, kioh, yob, lioh. hioh; also van, kian. van, liau, hiau, and yiu, kieu, yen, lieu, hitu. Tlu- characters ji^jUl. are written yuh, kMuh. or nh, kMih. The characters J^' i^*'0,Jire given as ko, k'oh, poh, or keh, k'eh, peh. Thecharactefh ^jX* I I' |-] . are written c'hih, shih, jih; and -^ is shwai.
S All these words are retained in the short tone, while they lake the long-
62 MAXDAUIN .illAMMAR. I'AKT f.
theued pionunoiation of the northern provinces. The coini^ilers of these tables were unwilling to recognize the northern dialect as the standard of sound, but they wished to introduce as much of it as they could do, without alter- ing the tone-system sanctioned by the old dictionaries.
i> Tlie emperor Plung-wu who founded the Ming d}Tiasty, and reigned from A.D. 13G8 to 1398, had the sounds of the language re-arranged, and pub- lished under the title ^|5v lt\ .ill tjM .Hung-'wu-cheng'-yiin-. He resided at Nanking, and the existence of the short tone in the tables contained in this work need not therefore surprise us. In that city it still exists, though with- out the tliree final consonants k, t, p, which are preserved in these tables. The hia-p'ing or fifth tone is wanting, and the soft initials are found through
all the four tone-classes. The only difference from the older dictionaries is in the vowels, which approximate to their state in modern mandarin. Tn regard to consonants initial or final, there is no variation. The pronunciation therefore in the court at Nanking in the fourteenth century cannot be regarded as the same dialect with modem mandarin.
10 The TsT-hwei -^ ^c, published in southern Kiang-nan early in the seventeenth century, contains new tables of sounds, but says nothing on the mandarin dialect. Amone^ the old final consonants, the onlv one that it shows to have been at all disturbed is t. That letter is omitted after the vowel i; thus "0 is pronounced t'sih, not t'sit. This work also aids in ex-
plaining some difficulties in the Mongolian inscription. Thus ^^, "~| ?
written in that inscription djung, dji. in mandarin are jironounced t'suug shi. They are spelled as in the inscription by the compiler of the Tsi-hwei, and were correlate to ch, not to ts and sh. So also -^now pronounced shV, was formerly as the /P4 yp^ 'Kwang-yu* states read dji, and so it is written in the inscription alluded to. The opposite process has taken place in many words, t" beinff prefixed to s and sh in the fifth tone; e. g. jj^' rb ' ^^^' read
pfr: -",1:3
in the ^^ pj^ ziang, zhang, as correlate to s, sh, but in mandarin they are t'siang, c'hang.
1 1 These circumstances taken together, point out a period extending from about A. D. 1000 to 1500, as that which \*'itnes8ed the formation of the mo- dem mandarin prnannriati<''n.
CHAI'TKU / ON Tin; A'lK Of TUK MANPAlMN I'KON'USTIATION. 83
12 It'tlie loss of the true souiulol'k, and li, hcture thf vowels i, ii, bo considereil an CBSoutial chrtiacteristic of the maiulariii dialeet, tlie time of its formation must be extended to the eighteenth century. For in the sjielbiu'of Manchu sounds with Chinese characters in works tlien compiled, svUables such as ki, kii, are not read with a sibilant inliial, but with the hard sound k. Ann>n;^ writers on mandarin oidy those of the ])rosent century, so far as I luive seen, mention this change in the value of k and li. Perhajjs however, a lean- ing to autiiority may have so far influenced the transcribers of Illanchu sounds, and writers native and foreign on the kwan-hwa, as to lead them not to dejjart from the i)ronunciation as settled by previous authors.
13 The kwan-hwa appears destined to extend more widely through the country. The flnal m now reaches no farther north than the Yan<^-tsi- kiang. A triangle whose vertex is the Po-yang lake in Kiang-si, and having one of its base angles in Kwang-si, and the other midway up the coast of Fnh-kien embraces probably the whole region where it is used. The final k still preserved in parts of Kiang-nan is pronounced with an indistinctness, which seems to indicate its approaching disappearance. The same is true of the initials b, g, d, v, dz, and z, in that region. They are often heard near- ly like the corresponding hard letters k, t, p, ts, s, &c. towards which, they are tending.
14 Among the words spelt with m final by Cheu-teh-t'sing, several are omitted having the initials, p, p^ f. For example [\^ 'pMenjl^ p'ifn^/\j .fi\n, ^ fan',3L ^'^'iSiLi ^'^"''PIPI 'p'i°j »J^ ^P^^lt by this author with n, are in the oUler dictionaries pronounced with m. This shews that words in f and p, were the first to throw off the final m, as they have also done in the southern Fuh-kien and Canton dialeets. A reference toGoddard'sTie-chiu Vocabulary will .'•hew that the Tie-chiu dialeet is in this one respect older than either, for it retains m after f, as in q]^^ fan spelt hwam', though not after p', pp e. g. ix'ing written pMii. In Medhurst's Corean V'ocabulajy these words are spelt with m, shewing that the j)rimunciation of that work must be earlier than the 13rh centurv.
84 MANDAHIN CillAMMAK FART I.
CHAPTER VIII. On the Parent stem of the 3Iandauin and other modern dialects.
1 Old langucuje. As Latin which was once spoken over all western Europe, became the mother of several modern languages, so the dialects of modem China may be supposed to have giown out of an older colloquial language spreading over the whole countiy. Differences of dialects were noticed indeed as early as the Han dynasty, and a work of that time still extant, yj ^ ,fang .yen records many examples of such variations. But it speaks of words only, saying nothing on sounds. There is no information in the common books on sounds of any local differences in pronunciation, till after the T'ang dynasty. They must have existed to some extent, but they are probably be- yond the reach of inquiry. In the absence of such information, there is room for the hypothesis that in the first centuries of the Christian era. a common dialect was spoken throughout China A\'ith trifling local differences.
2 Old system of sounds. It was a system of monosyllables, not existing in its complete form in any dialect, but capable of restoration by selecting frao-ments from each. Its alphabetic elements were briefly, such as, —
1. Initials.
Hard mutes and sibilants, k, t, p, ch, f, ts, s, sh, h.
Asph-ated do. ._.k', t', p', ch', ts^
Soft mutes and sibilants, _ _-. g, d, b, dj, v, dz, z, j, h.
Nasals and Unguals, ng, n, m, ni, 1.
Vowels and semivowels, , i, e, a, o, u, w, y.
2. Finals.
Nasals and mutes, ng, n, m, k, t, p.
Vowels, i, e, a, o, u.
3. Medials. Various vowels and diphthongs.
4. Tones. Four in number, viz. p'ing, shang, k'ii, juh.
This is also the system of the Indo-Chinese languages, which are of com- mon origin with the Chinese; except that the number of their tones difters, there being six in Cochin-Chinese, and throe in Siamese.
CnAPTER 8. ON THE PAREXT STEM OF THE MODERN mALECTS. 85
3 A comparison of tliis ancient pronunciation with several nioilern dia- lects \vi\\ now be made, so far as seems necessary to exj)lain tlicir origin, and to sliew what portions of tliem belonf:^ to the old language of the country, and what are of local growth.
(a.) Northern provificcs. Here the greatest changes have taken ])lace, eight initial and one final consonant having been exchanged for others, three finals lost, one tone exchanged for others, and a new tone formed. Tliat the systcnn just detailed prevailed here can be shewn uidisputiibly from the cir- cumstance, that it was at Lo-yang in Ilo-nan, and C'liang-ngan in 'Shan-si, that the court resided, when the Buddhist books were translated. It is th(.'ir dialects that would form the standard from which the Jai)anese transcriptions and many of the dictionaries containing the old Chinese pronunciation were successively made. That the Japanese transcriptions, wliich furnisii tiie most distinct proof of the existence of the finals, k, t, j), in a multitude of Chinese words, were taken from the northern and not any southern dialect, is certain from the fact that the second of them is called the Go-won ^)g ^ from the Tartar dynasty of that name wliicli nded in northern China, a. d. 387 to 557, and had its capital at Lo-yang.
The alterations made by successive Buddhist translatoi-s, in the transcrip- tion of Sanscrit sounds from a. d. 70 to a. d. 650 are an accurate index to the changes then slowly proceeding in the language of north China.
(b.) K'uing-nan and Cheh-hianrj. Along the southern bank of the Yang- tsi-kiang and a little to the north of it, the old initials are all preserved, as as also through Cheh-kiang to Fuh-kien. Among the finals m is exchanged for n; t, p are lost, and also k exce])t in some country districts. Tlui tones are four upper and four lower, and they often difi\'r in infiexion as well as elevation, so that they may Ije counted as being from four to eight in numlxr. The hard consonants and aspirates take the upper scries, the soft consonants and nasals the l<jwer. The vowels are common to lK)th scries. Probal»ly in the time of the old system of four tones, the same distributions of initial con- sonants into an upjwr and lower series prevailed, for it is dilfieult to see how othenvise words such ius VX. i ,wang, .wang could Ixi distinguished. Both
Si'i MASDAf'.IN l.KAMMAR. TART I
taking the first tone, the difiference must have bjv'n marked by a change in tlio pitch of tlie voice, as nov/ in Kiang-nan and Cheli-kiang.
Some wonis have two forms, one used collo luially, aa I on? appropriated to reading. The former is the older pronunciation, and the latter more near to mandarin.
The cities of Su-cheu, Haug-cheu, Niiigpo and Wen-cheu with the sur- rounding country may be considered as having one dialect, sp jken probably b}' thirty millions of people.
Local dictionaries for these dialects are not in use. Th3 old dictionaries, radical and tonic, answer every purpose, because the tones and initials sub- stantially agree. I have met with only one local dictionary belonging pro- perly to this system, compiled at Ning-kwoh-fu south west of Nanking. It is called Q jg^ _|£l pH]. It has four tones with two series of initials. In the lower series, j, dz and z are much confounded, h disappears before w, n of- ten precedes i, and w is often v. The finals n, ng, coincide before i, while m, k, t, }), are all wanting.
The city of Hwei-cheu has a dialect of its own. The soft initial consonants are exchanged for hard and aspirated ones. The finals n and ng, are in many words entirely omitted in the colloquial form of speech,"' though retained in reading. The other consonant finals none of them occur. For peculiarities in tones in this dialect, see the chapter on tones.
(c.) Kiatuj-si. At Fu-cheu-fu in the eastern part of this province, the soft initials have all been replaced by aspirates. Of the six final consonants only k is wanting. The tones are seven, and are irregular in pitch.
At Nan-k'an<jr-fu on the east of the Po-vanjc lake, the old initials are retaftied, and of the finals only k and t are wanting. The tones are fom-, in two series of a regular elevation. At the provincial capital Nan-c'hang, the hard and asj)irate initials are used in the lower series of tones irregularly.
(d.) Hu.-nan. In many parts of this province, the soft initials still lin- ger,t but ill the city of C'hang-sha, the spoken dialect has the five tones of
* Thus l^'Fr*'/! ' I*, -ire identical in .sound with .51;/|si, and^^cj i'J)«ith^^- t'si. t 1 noticed them in conversing with natives of the following places. — Ngan-hwa^C lu i"
LHAPTKU J<. ON" Tin: I'AIvKN'T STEM OF TIIH MODKIIN DIALECTS. S?
mandarin, and the aspirated and other initials distributed in the same manner, (e.) Candm. The llaklc.i dialect J^ '^<. u\ \ «poken in many parts of Kwang-tnni; and Kwang-.si, is that used by dewcendant.^ ol'emijijants from Kia-ying-cheu, who in the reign of K-ang-hi left tlieir homes, proceeded westward, and to.jk up their abode in many country districts, where thay now form about one third of the ])opulation. The soft initialt" arc in tliis dialect displaced by aspirates, or which is the .same thing, all words iu the lower tones that can take an as})irato do so. Y is replaced by zh [j]. Of the tinals k is displaced by t. The tones are six, the second and third being the same with the sixth and seventh. The Hakka dialect differa veiy little from that of Kia-ying-eheu itself In the dialect of Canton or Pen-ti $> J Ji dialect, the soft initials are displaced by hard or aspirated consonants irreg- ularly. The six final consonants are all in use. The tones are eight and are regular in elevation; i. e. they correspond as actually enunciated, so far as their highness or lownesa is concerned, with the names they bear. There is a circumstance in which the tones of words in this dialect agree better with the ancient system than with that