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BIBLICAL CYCLOPEDIA.
A
"To God the Father, God the Word, God the Spirit, we pour forth most hiimoie and hearty supplications, that He, remembering the calamities of mankind and the pilgrimage of this our life in which we wear out days few and evil, would please to open to us new refreshments out of the fountains of His goodness for the alleviating of our miseries. This also we humbly and earnestly beg, that human things may not prejudice such as are divine; neither that from the unlocking of the gates of sense, and the kindling of a greater natural light, anything of incredulity or intellectual night may arise in our minds towards divine mysteries. But rather t'-iat by our mind thoroughly cleansed and purged from fancy and vanities, and yet subject, and perfectly given up to the Divine Oracles, there may be given up unto faith the things that are faith's. Amen." — LoRO Bacon.
■Mi
IN THE TIME OF
FiniI.IBHJiJ} tnr CtfAKLE :> OBmriK b 09 LOKDOX .
T-- A
BIBLICAL CYCLOPEDIA;
OR,
DICTIONARY
!''astern Antiquities, Geography, Natural History, Sacred Annals AND Biography, Theology, and Biblical Literature,
ILLUSTRATIVE OF
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS,
JOHN EADIE, D.D, LL.D.,
PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE AND EXEGESIS TO THE UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
Wi^/i Maps and Pictorial Illustrations
DRAWN FROM THE MOST AUTHENTIC SOURCES.
**The discoveries which in one age were confined to the studious and enlightened few, become, in the next, the established crted of the learned, and, in the third, form part of the elementary principles of education."
DUGALD STEWART.
Thirteenth Edition^ Revised Throughout and Enlarged.
no3
LONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & COMPANY, STATIONERS' HALL COUR T
1872.
PEEEACE-
PE First Edition of this book was published in 1848, and twenty-four thousand
fpies have been sold in the interval -more than a thousand 6very year. The
fork has been altered and re-touched from time to fime ; but bemg stereotyped,
thorough emendation and enlargement could le made. It was therefore
Jged necessary to submit it to a complete r6visal-correcting several errors,
viufT fresher geographical details, and retrenching not a little which had become
Iperfluous, in order to insert over 300 new articles, with numerous additiona
BOts So that this New Edition is not a mere re-issue ; for the changes, small
^d* great, are so num'crous and important that it might be almost called a
new production.
The Work retains its original character. It is strictly a Biblical Cyclopaedia onflning itself to the illustration of Scripture. The extraneous topics of B.bl.cal lateratare are only introduced so far as they bear directly upon the evidences, tructure, and interpretation of the Word of God. Information of this nature has leen copiously employed-not arranged, indeed, under separate heads, but tought forward as occasion served, to confirm or explain any observations
jdeon the style, allusions, and history of the sacred oracles.
The Work, both originally and in its present form, has been prepared On tho
bllowing general principles : — .,,.,. x <• i
J I Almost no word is introduced as flie subject of an article which is not found
in the canonical books of the common English translation of the Bible; and
lone passage at least is usually cited in which the word occurs. Of course
Buch words as Apocrtpka, Antelope, Apocalypse, Deluge, are excluded ; but
kU necessary information will be found under othet heads, such as Scb.PtCre ^ART Eevelation, Noah. Any other rule would bo too indefinite for practical Tppliiation; but we have made an exception in favour of two or three words,
such as Petra, for its Hebrew names, Sela and Joktheel, are not familiar to
ordinary readers.
II. Scarcely any word is introduced simply for the purpose of defining it, unless it has a peculiar Scriptural use or signification.
III. Whatever could be regarded as sectarian by any denomination of evangelical Christians is scrupulously excluded, especially in all that relates to ritual and government.
VI PKEFACE.
IV. The leading articles embrace each, as far as practicable, the various topic? that properly fall under it. For example, under the word Dwellings will be found tlie principal facts in relation to the structure of Eastern houses, as the court, roof, windows, doors, parlours, chamhers, &c., so that the article is in itself a concise history of the subject. The various topics are generally distinguished, however, by putting the principal words in italics, thus enabling the reader to select them at pleasure. So of the articles Arms, Book, Burial, Clothes, Christ, Feasts, Jesus, Hebrews, Measures and Weights, Sacrifices, Scripture, War, Wine, &c.
Our distinctive purpose has been to give a popular view of Biblical subjects upon an accurate and scientific basis, embodying the results, but usually dispensing Avith the forms, of learning and criticism. The diffusion of sacred knowledge, even though it be divested of those minutias and technical accompaniments which interest the scholar, and are the proofs of thorough skill and disciplined erudition, is yet a work which one may earnestly covet, for the Bible is essentially a People's Book. In unison with such a view, it is the main design of this Dictionary to give full and attractive Biblical knowledge to parents and teachers of youth — to afiord sound and necessary assistance to the ordinary readers of the Book of God.
Such being the principles on which it has been constructed, this Biblical Cyclo psedia does not come into direct competition with any Work bearing a similar title. It occupies an independent position, and contains many exegetical notes not to be found in any existing dictionary. Assistance has been sought from every available quarter; and the source has usually been named, whenever such a name may be supposed to add weight or authority to the quotation. Many excellent Dictionaries have been published; and we may refer to the able and erudite volumes of Calmet, Winer, Kitto, Herzog, Smith, Fairbairn, the quarto published by Cassell without the editors' names, and to the less learned and popular productions of Brown, Watson, Buck, Jones, Bastow, &c., and other compilers of theological and ecclesiastical Cyclopeedias.
Biblical science has not been stationary. Travellers are returning from the East laden with spoils. The lonely rock-hewn structures of Petra, the moun- tains and wadys of the Sinaitic peninsula and desert, the hoary monuments of Egypt, the great palaces of Babylon and Nineveh, of Persepolis and Shushan, are now presented to us in vivid form, confirmatory and illustrative of the facts and scenery of the Scriptures. But especially has Palestine itself been engaging earnest attention and research, for the land of promise has many mysterious associations and hallowed memories clinging to it. The patriarchs wandered in it; angels visited its chosen scenes; the voice of Divine prophecy was heard in its halls and rang through its valleys ; the daily sacrifice was offered in the court of that temple which glittered like a diadem on mount Moriah ; the priesthood of Aaron was mated with the throne of David ; while the more awful death of Calvary has knit the Holy Land to the wide world beyond and around it " in a perpetual covenant that shall not be forgotten." Amidst all the
rUEFACE. Vll
vicissitudes through which that country lias passed, from tlie days of Chedor- laomer to those of Ibrahim the conqueror, and though Assyria, Egypt, Babylon, Persia, Rome, and Turkey have trodden it under foot, it is "the glory of all lands." From our earliest years we are familiar with the cedars of Lebanon, the beauty of Carmel, the dews of Hermon, the rose of Sharon, and the clusters of Eshcol. The charm of household words belongs to the lake of Tiberias, where lingered so often the "blessed feet,"— to the Jordan, on which the great miracle was done at the invasion, and by the banks of which occurred a greater wonder when the Holy One was baptized,— to the sea so salt and so solitary as to be called the Dead Sea,— as also to the sultry desert, mth its strange rocks and sweeps of sand on which fell the daily rain of manna,— and to the hoary, rugged mountain that quaked and flamed when Jehovah came down and spoke' in thunder the words of the ten commandments. Throngs of pilgrims, under these fascinations, have gone to Palestine in all centuries, and many of them have published books on their return. These literary travellers began with the pilgrim of Bordeaux, who visited Palestine about a.d. 333? and he has had crowds of successors in every century. Not to speak of the geographical works of Reland, Bochart, Raumer, Mannert, Ritter, Munk, Schwartz, and Arnaudy we may refer on this subject to Maundrell, Shaw, Robinson, Stanley, Niebuhr, Burckhardt, Olin, Seetzen, Irby and Mangles, Lord Lindsay, Lamartine, Laborde,- Schubert, Wilson, Thomson, Porter, Bonar, Van de telde, De Saulcy, Lynch, Sepp, Osborn, Dixon, and the papers of Mr. Groves in " Smith's Dictionary ; " and to Tobler, Barclay, Pierotti, Williams, Thrupp, Lewin, Bartlett, Krafft, TTnruh, Rosen, De Voglid, and Fergusson, who have written specially about Jerusalem. The Palestine Exploration Society is working out its researches with great skill and astonishing success ; Tristram's admirable volume has given us new and welcome information on the Natural History of the Holy Land ; and a party of engineers are also leaving to survey the wilderness of Sinai. The rational study of language by tlie aid of comparative gram'mar has now superseded the eccentric etymologies of former days. The literary history and structure of the various books of Scripture may be freely treated, without the fetter of mere dogma and tradition. Materials are thus rapidly accumulating which are not to be confined to the libraries of the learned, but dispensed to the Christian world. There is now a thirst for substantial knowledge about the history of the Scriptures as well as their theological contents. Christians are desirous of the " strong meat which belongs to them that are of full age."
The First Edition had three columns in the page, but this has only two ; still, in consequence of the smallness of the type, this volume contains a very large quantity of matter— as much as would fill several octavos printed in the usual form. The Maps, originally constructed with characteristic accuracy and taste by Messrs. W. & A. K. Johnston of Edihburgh, have been revised and corrected by them for this edition. The Woodcuts have been taken from the most authentic sources ; and those of them relating to the antiquities of Egypt have been drawn by Mr. Bonomi, who has acquired high celebrity in this walk of art.
PKEFACE.
The cuts have been inserted, not for embellishment, but illustration. The value of such pictorial comments, taken from the paintings and sculptures still found on the tombs, temples, and palaces in the great valley of the Nile, and among the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, is now universally and gratefully recognized. The labours and discoveries of Young, Champollion, Eosellini, Wilkinson, Lepsius, Osburn, Bunsen, Gliddon, Osborn, Birch, and Brugsch ; and of Layard, Kerr Porter, Loftus, the Rawlinsons, Hincks, Oppert, and Norris, have been of singular utility on many points for the fuller understanding and confirmation of the sacred records.
In conclusion, the Work is commended to the blessing of Him by whose inspiration all Scripture has been given, and by the influences of whose Spirit we are enabled to " know the things that are freely given us of God."
G Thornville Tereace, Hillhead, Glasgow, October, 1S6S.
BIBLICAL CYCLOPAEDIA.
AAR
^FARON. The word means " enlightened," -^ if it be of Hebrew origin, and it is the same with the name Hardn, so common in the East. Aaron (Exod. vi. 20), the first high priest of the Jews, was the son of Amram, of the tribe of Levi. He was three years older than liis brother Moses, and being a more ready and fluent speaker, he was appointed by the Lord to assist ]\Ioses in guiding and controlling the Israelites in their journey from Egypt to Canaan. The important but subordinate rela- tion which Aaron sustained was thus expressed by the Lord to Moses,—" He shall be thy spokesman unto the people. He shall be to thee instead of a mouth, and thou shalt be to him instead of God " (Exod. iv. 16). " I have made thee a God to Pharaoh ; and Aaron, thy brother, shall be thy prophet " (Exod. vii. 1). Aaron married Ebsheba, the daughter of Amminadab, and had four sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. The two former were punished with death for a heinous sin, and the priesthood remained in the two survivors. (See Abihu.)
As most of the important events in the life of Aaron are intimately connected with his brother's history, they ^vill be reserved for that article. (See MosES.) Those in which Aaron was only or principally concerned, are briefly the following : —
Aaron, even before the emancipation, seems to have exercised no little influence among the people. Moses, after forty years' absence, was introduced by him to the Hebrew chiefs, and with his advice and assistance, the plan of future co-operation seems to have been adopted. At an early period after the departure of the children oi Israel from Egypt, Aaron and his Bons were set apart by God's direction, and •Nvith the most solemn ceremonies, to minister in the priest's office, which Aaron continued to ■fiU until his death.
Before his consecration, and while INIoses Was on the mount, receiving the law from God, the people became impatient at the prolonged libsence of their leader, and besought Aaron to make them idol-gods. He thereupon com- manded them to break off the golden earrings of their wives and children ; which being col- lected and brought to him, he made out of
AAR
them an idol in the shape of a calf, like one of the idols of Egypt. Before this image the people danced and shouted, saying, "These be thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of the land of Egypt." This act, and the aggravating circimastances connected %vith it (Exod. xxxii. 25), involved Aaron in great guilt. No sufficient apology can be made for his
vacillation at this crisis. His toleration of idol- worship may be ascribed, however, not to his approval of it, but to his want of that decision and force of character which belonged to his younger brother; or perhaps he may have found some means of self -vindication in the thought that the calf was only a symbolic representation of the Deity, and not his rival ; for when he had built an altar before it, his proclamation as to its worship was announced in these words, " To-morrow is a feast to Jehovah." His mind had not been elevated to the purer conceptions of the spirituality of the Godhead with, which Moses had been favoured, and the taint of Egyptian superstition had not been thoroughly eradicated. The calf or young bullock, formed and consecrated on this occa- sion, was evidently an intended imitation of the worship of the country which the Hebrew tribes had so recently left — was designed to represent the idol Apis or Mnevis, the prin- cipal object of Egyptian homage. The kind of worship which the Hebrews paid to the golden caH — for it is said of them, " They sat doAvn to eat and drink, and rose up to play " — is precisely the mode of celebration which Herodotus describes as being practised in Egj-pt at the feast of Apis. " Some of the women play on castanets, and the men on the flute ; all indulge in feasting ; when Apis appears, all the Egyptians manifest their joy by feasting" (Herodotusii. 60;iii. 27). (See Calf.) Aaron's own apology to his indignant brother, when challenged by him on his unexpected return to the camp, was — the perversity and headstrong determination of tlie people. They suffered severely for their foUy : tlu*ee thousand were slain. At a later period, Aaron, with liis sister Miriam, jealous of the higlier i>osition and influence of their brother, attempted to lower his reimtation by taunting him as to his marriage with & foreigner. Miriam Mas struck 1
AAR
vith leprosy; but, upon confession of his sin, Aaron was pardoned.
Bronzes of the god Apis.
Korah and others were offended with ISIoses and Aaron, and charged them with taking upon themselves authority which belonged as much to others as to them. The conspirators were persons of rank and influence, and the feeling of dissatisfaction and insubordination seems to have spread to some extent among the people. Moses expostulated with them, and especially with Korah; but his remon- strance was all in vain, and the next day the rebel and his companions were suddenly destroyed. (See Korah.)
Immediately after this fearful exhibition of the anger of God, and while we should suppose theterror of such judgments might still possess their minds, the people of Israel renewed their murmurings against Moses and Aaron (Num. xvi. 41). A dreadful plague having appeared suddenly in the midst of them, which threat- ened the tribes with utter and immediate destruction, Aaron, at the command of Moses, took a censer with incense, and ran quickly into the midst of the congregation, and stood between the living and the dead, until he had made an atonement for them, and the "plague was stayed" (Num. xvi. 44-50).^
A signal attestation was now granted to Aaron's official authority in the following man- ner : — Twelve rods or branches of the almond tree were taken, one for the head of each house, or tribe, of Israel; and upon the rod of the tribe of Levi was written the name of Aaron. The rods were laid together in a particular place in the tabernacle; and the next day, when Moses went into the tabernacle, the rod which had Aaron's name upon it "was budded, and brought forth buds, and bloomed blos- 2
AB
soms, and yielded almonds." This wonderful miracle was made knovsnti to the people by an exhibition of the rod; but it was impiediately taken back into the tabernacle, to be kept there for ever, "for a token against the rebels" (or the children of rebellion) (Num. xvii. 10). Some infer from this sacred deposition of the rod, that it retained afterwards its supernatural outgrowth of foliage, blossoms, and fruit.
When the supply of water was miraculously furnished in the desert of Zin, Aaron neglected to acknow- ledge the power of God, and for this was denied the privilege of entering into the promised land. In the fortieth year after he had left 'Egypt, he was commanded to go up with Moses his brother, and Eleazar his son, into mount Hor, in sight of all the congregation, that he might die there (Num. xx. 28). The place of Aaron's death is called Mosera, in Deut. X. 6 ; but the same spot is de- noted in both passages. (See HoR. ) The circumstances of Aaron's death are peculiarly interesting and impressive. On his way to the mount, his official robes were transferred to his son and successor in the priesthood, and he died on the top of the mount, aged one hundred and twenty-three years (Num. xxxiii. 39). When Moses and Eleazar came down, and the people saw that Aaron was dead, they mourned for him thirty days, " even all the house of Israel " (Num. XX. 29).
Aaron is called "the saint of the Lord" (Ps. cvi. 16). The idea that he assisted Moses in writing parts of the Pentateuch — an idea based on supposed differences of style — is both fanci- ful and unnecessary. With all the faults and defects of Aaron's character, we cannot but admire his ardent patriotism and warm en- deavours to promote the interests of his people, as well as his general deference to the authority of Moses, and his hearty labours in carrying out his measures, without jealousy or ostentation. AARONITES (1 Chr. xii. 27)— Levites of the family of Aaron : the priests who served the sanctuary. Eleazar, Aaron's son, was their chief (Num. iv. 16).
AB — the fifth month of the sacred, and the eleventh of the civil year among the Jews. The name seems not to have been used till after the return from Babylon. It began, according to some, with the new moon of Jxily, and according to others, with the new moon of August. It was a black month in the Jewish calendar. On its first day a fast was observed for the death of Aaron, and on its ninth another M^as held in memory of the divine edict which excluded so many that came out of Egypt from entering the promised land, and in memory, at the same time, of the over- throw of the first and second temple. (See Month.)
ABA
ABADDON (Rev. ix. 11) — tlie Hebrew name for the angel of the bottomless pit, and answering to the Greek name Apollyon. They both signify the destroyer.
ABxVNA (2 Ki. v. 12)— a river of Syria, near Damascus, supposed to be the Barada, or Chrysorrhoas. It rises in the Antilibanus, at a spot about 1,149 feet abiive the city, and twenty-three miles distant from it. Pharpar, the other stream, is now supposed to be the Awaj, which rises on mount Hermon, but does not come nearer Damascus than seven miles. The Abana, flowing into Damascus, supplies its numerous baths and cisterns; while its other branches water and fertilize the rural districts in the vicinity. The river continues its course till it empties itself into a small marshy lake, fifteen or twenty miles distant from the city.
Abana and Pharpar supplied abundance of water, and rendered the country around Da- mascus, though on the edge of a desert, one of the most beautiful and fertile spots in the world ; while the streams of Judea or Israel, with the exception of the Jordan, are nearly dry the greater jiart of the year, and, running in deep and rocky channels, give but partial fertility to the land through which they flow. This striking fact may well account for the question of Naaman — "Are not Abana and Pharpar, rivers of Damascus, better than all the waters of Israel ? " (Porter's Five Years in Damascus. London, 1855.) (See Damascus.)
ABARIM— /?a«s«r/cs ; used always with the definite article (Deut. xxxii. 49) — a general name given to a mountainous ridge, running from north to south, east of Jordan and on the northern border of Moab. Nebo was one of the conspicuous mountains in the chain, or on the portion of it called Pisgah. The modern mount Dhana is supposed to be a part of Abarim. Ije-abarim (Num. xxi. 11), meaning " heaps of Abarim," is another name for the same chain, or some portion of it.
ABBA (Rom. viii. 15). Abba, the emphatic Chaldee form of the Hebrew word ah, signif;^- ing father. The title, abba, was not allowed to be used by servants or slaves when addressing the head of the family — a circumstance which gives much force to the word in the passage cited. The full meaning of this term cannot be expressed in our language. It implies a high decree of love, confidence, and submission, as well as a most endeared and intimate connec- tion and fellowship (Mark xiv. 3G;'(jial. iv. 6). The word ah (meaning father) is mentioned as one of the first and simjilest words of infancy, as its sound is produced by the mere shutting of the lips (Isa. viii. 4).
ABEDNEGO — 5cr?'an« of Nego; perhaijs another form of Nebo (Dan. i. 7) — the Chaldee name given by an officer of the kin^; of Babylon to Azariah, one of the four youths of Judah taken captive from Jerusalem, and ordered by the king to be trained for his particular service. (See Damel.) It was customary for masters to give new names to their servants or captives, rhe other three were, Daniel (or Belteshazzar),
ABE
Hananiah (or Shadrach), and Mishael (or Me- shach).
Alter Daniel's promotion to be ruler over the whole province of Babylon, his three com- panions were, at his request, elevated to places of trust. Nebuchadnezzar the king saw tit to make a golden- image, the worship of which was to be a test of loyalty ; for at its dedica- tion with great pomp, he commanded that, at a certain signal, the people of all nations and languages should fall down and worship the image, and that those who refused should l)e cast into the midst of a burning furnace. In this act of idolatry, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego would not unite, though commanded by the king himself. They replied that they were not anxious to answer the king in this matter, as the God whom they loved and served was able to deliver them, to whatever extremitv tliey might be reduced. The king was filled with fury, and commanded the fur- nace to be heated sevenfold hotter than was usual; and "most mighty men" were em- ])loyed to bind them, and cast them into the flames. Perhaps the phrase, " most mighty men," used here, means the chief officers of the army, who were selected to make the punish- ment more imposing and exemplary. With all their garments on, they were cast into the furnace ; and so intense was the heat that the executioners themselves were destroyed by it. The king was present to witness the execution of the sentence; and, though the three men at first fell down bound in the midst of the flames, yet when he looked, expecting to see them destroyed, he beheld them loosed from their bonds, walking unhurt in the midst of the fire, and a fourth i^erson with them, whose form was " like the son of God." This was the king's language ; and whatever he might have intended by the term, "Son of God," the fourth person, to whom he refers, was probably an angel of God, sent for this purpose, as he was afterwards sent to shut the mouths of lions for the protection of his servant Daniel ; or it might have been the eternal and uncreated Son of God, appearing to protect and deliver his faithful servants in the time of their calamity (Matt, xxviii. 20).
Upon the call of the king from the mouth of the furnace, these three servants of the most high God came forth, in the presence of tj:e princes and rulers of the country ; and so com- pletely had they been protected by the mighty power in which they trusted, that not a hair was singed, the colour of their coats was not 'changed, nor was there even the smell of tire ui)on them.
The monarch, astonished at this evident interposition of the Ahnighty in their behalf, forthwith passed a decree, threatening to punish in the severest maimer any one who should speak against the God of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego ; " because (said he) there is no other god that can deliver after this sort ; " and the men were restored to their places in the province, (Dan. iii.) (See Nebuchadnezzar.)
AUtEir— vanity (Gen. iv. 2) — was the second 3
ABE
son of Adam and Eve. He was occupied as a keeper or feeder of sheep ; and in i)rocess of time brought of the firstlings of his flock, an offering unto the Lord. God was pleased to accept his offering, and to give him evidence of it (Heb. xi. 4). At the same time Cain brought of the fruit of the groimd an offering unto the Lord. But his oblation was rej ected. The superiority and excellence of Abel's sacrifice are ascribed by the apostle to his faith (Heb. xi. 4). Now faith implies a previous revelation, for it ' ' cometh by hearing, and hearing by the word of God." May there not have been some pre- vious command in reference to the rite of sacrifice, which Abel comjjlied with, and Cain disobeyed? They both brought the kind of offering which their respective occupations furnished them with ; yet, if we may believe in early revelations of mercy through the atonement of a coming Messiah, and in sacri- ficial types appointed to prefigure the blood of the Lamb of God, the inference is warrantable, that Cain offered only a thank-offering of fruits, expressed merely his naked oliligations to God as a creature; while Abel, conscious of his guilt, confessed his faith in the presentation of living victims, laid a sin-offering on the altar, and was accepted. If, with some, we render the clause in God's expostulation with Cain, " sin lieth at the door," by the words, " a sin- offering croucheth at the door " — that is, a sin- offering is easily procured— then the divine reproof points to the sin of Cain, and to its aggravation ; for though he was not a keeper of sheep, yet a victim whose blood might be shed as a symbolical propitiation could with- out any difficulty have been secured and presented. But perhaps the sim^ple clause may not bear this deeper theological meaning. The acceptance of Abel's sacrifice was probably manifested by the descent of fire from heaven, which kindled and consumed the oblation. Cain was enraged that his sacrifice was rejected; "his countenance fell;" the scowl of a fierce malignity lay on it. His works were also evil (1 John iii. 12) ; for, while his brother and he were in the field, he seized the opportunity to slay him. Thus the first death was a mur- der—a murder by the hand of a brother — l)erpetrated in connection with religious service.
Our Saviour distinguishes Abel by the title " righteous" (Matt, xxiii. 35). He is also one of the faithful "elders" mentioned in the epistle to the Hebrews (ch. xi.), and is justly culled the first martyr.
Blood op Abel (Heb. xii. 24). One opinion of the meaning of this passage is, that the blood of sprinkling, or the blood of Jesus Christ shed for the remission of sins, speaks better things than the blood of Abel, inasmuch as the latter speaks only of the malice and madness of the heart of man, and cried to God from the ground for vengeance on the murderer's head ; while the blood of Christ, which flowed freely for the guilty and ruined sinner, speaks peace and pardon to every penitent and believing soul (1 John i. 7). ]3ut the words are simply.
• better than Abel : 4
and Abel himseK is said
ABE
to speak in the 4th yerse. Abel spoke of a coming atonement, and his sacrifice fore- shadowed it. But Christ's blood speaks of a past and perfect propitiation, on which every one is invited to trust vnth. implicit confidence.
ABEL, GREAT stone op (1 Sam. vi. 18)— was in the field of Joshua of Beth-shemesh, where the ark of the Lord rested when it was returned by the Phifistines to Kirjath-jearim.
ABEL — a grassy place or meadow, found in connection with many names of places. Thus —
ABEL-BETH-MAACHAH (2 Ki. xv. 29) — a city in the northern district of the tribe of Naphtali, lying south-east of Cesarea- Philijipi, and north of the Huleh. To this place Sheba, the son of Bichri, fled and posted himself when pursued by Joab, general of the army of David. The citizens, however, who feared a siege if they harboured him, cut off his head, at the suggestion of a woman, and threw it over the wall to Joab (2 Sam. xx. 14-22). The city was afterwards captured twice ; first by Benhadad, and two centuries after by Tiglath-pileser (1 Ki. xv. 20; 2 Ki. xv. 29). Perhaps the phrase, "mother in Israel" (2 Sam. XX. 19), if it was designed to apply to the place at all, may denote its size and im- portance. Van de Velde and Thomson identify it with a ruin called Abel, on the side of a small stream.
ABEIj-GEUAMIM— meadow of vineyards— a village of the Ammonites, and still famed in later years for its abundant vintage (Judg. xi. 33).
ABEJj-M AIM — meadoio of the' waters (2 Chr. xvi. 4)— is called Abel-beth-Maachah (1 Ki. XV. 20), and appears to have been the same place.
ABEL-MEHOLAH— wmc^ow of the dance (Judg. vii. 22 ; 1 Ki. xix. 16)— a town in the northern part of the valley of the Jordan, mentioned in connection with Bethshean; dis- tinguished as the birthplace of Elisha, and as the refuge of the Midianites when pursued by Gideon,
ABEL-MIZEAIM (Gen, L 11)— explained to mean the mourning of the Egyptians. It was probably in the plains of Jericho, and is placed by ancient writers between that city and the river Jordan. The threshing-floor of Atad w^as here, and the name Abel-mizi-aim was derived from the circumstance, that here Joseph and his company halted seven days to mourn, as they were passing from Egyi)t to Canaan to bury Jacob (Gen. 1. 10, 11). If the term, '' beyond Jordan," used in describ- ing the place, refers to the situation of the sacred writer at the time of waiting, then, as he was on the east of the river, Abel-mizraim was " beyond," or on the west side. But the nar- rative seems to imply plainly that it was on the east of the Jordan.
ABEL-SHITTIM, or Siiittui— mead oio of acacias (Num. xxxiii. 49; xxv. 1) — a place on the east bank of the Jordan, in the plains of Moab, and the scene of the last encampment of Israel on that side of the river. According to Stanley, the acacias still mark with a lina
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of verdure the upper terraces of the Jordan valley (,S'irtai and Palestine, ]). 298). It was at this place, so close to the end of their journey- ings, that the i)i'oi)le of I.srael fell into the snares of the daughters of Moab, and committed the grossest idolatry, for which they v/ere visited with a plague which destroyed 24,000 of them. The s])ies whom Joshua sent to Jericho went from Shittim (Josh. ii. 1).
ABIA, COURSE OF (liuke i. 5). In 1 Chr. xxiv. we have an account of the divisions of the priests into twenty-four classes, courses, or orders, who ministered at the altar in rotation. The courses were distinguished by the name of the most prominent member of the family from which the course was taken. The eighth of these courses fell to the family of Abia, or Abijah ; and to this course belonged Zeclaariah, the father of John the Baptist.
ABIATHAR— /a«/ie?' of plenty (1 Sam. xxii. 20) — the tenth high priest of the Jews, and fourth in descent from Eli. Doeg, at the command of King Saul, fell upon the priests of the Lord at Nob, and slev/ them. Among the slain was Ahimelech. His son, Abiathar, escaped from the carnage, and taking with him the ephod, a distinctive and essential part of tlie sacerdotal vestments, fled to David at ' Keilah, and told him what Saul had done. l)avid received Abiathar, and protected him, and he afterwards became high priest, when his patron obtained the sovereignty of Judah. There M-ere two high priests at this time— Abiathar and Zadok (2 Sam. viii. 17) ; but it r is not easy to account for a double priesthood. In consequence of his supporting Adonijah in his pretensions to the throne of David, Solomon, upon becoming king, thrust Abiathar out of the priesthood (1 Ki. ii. 27), and con- ferred the office exclusively uj)on Zadok. Thus was fulfilled the word of (4od to Eli (1 Sam. ii. 31), for Abiathar was the last of the priests of the house of Ithamar, to which Eli belonged ; and Zadok, who succeeded him, was of the family of Eleazar ; and so the priest- 1 lood passed into its former channel. Abiathar, mentioned in Mark ii. 26, has been supposed by some to be the same with Ahimelech. Others have thought (though without much reason) that the evangelist refers to some public document, known as the "history of the days of Abiathar," in which the conduct of David and Ahimelech in the matter of the show- bread was recorded, and that the allusion was well understood by those who heard it. The most probable solution of the difficulty is, that as Abiathar was the son of Ahimelech, both officiated at the same time, and both received the title : the name of either was therefore used to designate that period.
ABIB — (freen car — the month of green ears ; the first month of the Hebrew sacred year. It was afterwards named Nisan, and probably began with the new moon of March ; some later ci'itics say, of April.
ABIEZER— /a</icr of help (Judg. viii. 2). The passage contains a highly figurative expres- sion. Gideon was of the family of Abiezer.
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The Ephraimites complained because th»y were not called upon to go out to battle again.st the Midianites. Gideon attempted to pacify them by a dextrous appeal to their vanity; representing his own victory, with a force «>f three hvmdred men, chiefly of the family of Abiezer, as of very little importance, in com- . parison with the capture of two of the princes of Midian, which the men of Ephraim had accomplished. Though the latter, in resjject to numbers, might be as the gleaning of the vineyard, yet, in the glory and importance of it, it was more than the whole vintage which the men of Abiezer had gathered.
ABIGAIL— /a^/icr of joy (1 Sam. xxv. 3)— the prudent and beautiful wife of the churlish and wicked Nabal. When her husband had exposed himself to the anger of David, by his rude and contemptuous treatment of his mes- sengers, Abigail hastened to meet him, while he was on his way with 400 men to revenge the insult. She presented to him a handsome gift, and managecfthe affair with so much prudence as to pacify David, and obtain his blessing. About ten days after her return, Nabal died, and she ultimately became David's wife.
Also a sister of David, and mother of Amasa by Jether an Ishmaelite (1 Chr. ii. 17).
ABIHU — my father, He (Exod. xxviii. 1) — one of the sons of Aaron, who, with his brothers, Nadab, Eleazar, and Ithamar, were separated or set apart by God to the office of the priesthood. Soon after they entered on their sacred duties, Nadab and Abihu were guilty of a violation of God's commands respecting the manner of offering incense, and were in^ntly consumed (Lev. x. 1, 2). This event happened in the wilderness of Sinai. The nature of their offence is very obvious; they tised strange, or common fire, instead of the fire v/hich they were required to xise, which was fire taken from off the altar of burnt offerings The supposi- tion is probable that they were drawn into this presumptuous sin by the too free use of wine. Such an inference is warranted by the solemn command issued in connection with their sin and fate — viz. , that the officiating priest was to drink neither wine nor strong drink when he went into the tabernacle of the congi^gation^,
ABIJAH— ?n?//a«/;c?-, Jah. 1. (1 Ki. xiv. 1) A son of Jeroboam, who died under interesting circumstances in early life. In the midst of a corrupt family and court, his young heart was filled with i)iou3 principles; and his death, according to the prophet's prediction, produced a general mourning, (See Jeroboam.)
2. (2 Chr. xiii. 1) Abijah, or ABIJAM, the son of Rehoboam and Michaiah, succeeded his father as king of Judah, about B.C. 9G8. He made war against Jeroboam, king of Israel, and defeated him, with a loss of 500,000 men. These very large numbers are corruptions that happen in the copying and timnsmission of MSS. — 50,000 was ju-obably the true and original' reading. He began to reign in the eighteenth year of Jeroboam, and was succeeded by his son Asa, in the twentieth year of Jeroboam, so that he reigned only a part of three years. 5
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There is p.n apparent contradiction in respect to the parentage of this person, as it is given in 1 Ki. XV. 2 and 2 Chr. xiii. 2, which may be explained as follows : — Abishalom is the same with Absalom (2 Chi\ xi. 21). The term daughter is given indifferently in the Bible, not only to one's own child, but to a niece, granddaughter, or great-granddaughter. Ee- hoboam had already taken two wives from the family of David (2 Chr. xi. 18), and of course would find no difficulty in taking a third wife from the same family, in the line of Absalom. Maachah and Michaiah are thus the same person — the daughter of Uriel, and the grand- daughter of Absalcm.
ABILENE (Luke iii. 1) — a province or tetrarchy of Syria, so called from its capital town Abila, of which Lysanias was tetrarch in the time of John the Baptist.
Abila, now called Suk Wady Barada, lies in the picturesque gorge through which the Bar- ada rushes down to the plains of Damascus. It was called in later times Abila of Lysanias, to distinguish it from Abila of Persea. But the Lysanias in Luke is not to be confounded with an earlier governor of the same name in the days of Cleopatra, by whom he was put to death.
ABIMEUZCK— father of the king. 1. (Gen. XX. 2, and xxvi. 1) Was king of Gerar, and being deceived by Abraham, he sent and took Sarah to be his wife. God warned him, however, in a dream, of Sarah's relation to Abraham, and thus withheld him from the commission of sin, because he did it in ignor- ance (Gen. XX. 6). Abimelech, having rebuked Abraham, restored Sarah to him with many gifts, and offered him a dwelling-place in any part of the land. God afterwards remitted the punishment of the family of Abimelech. At a subsequent period, Abimelech (or rather bis successor of the same name, for the term Abi- melech seems to have been not a proper name, but a royal Philistine designation) was deceived in like manner by Isaac, respecting his wife Pebekah, while they dwelt in Gerar, during a time of famine in Canaan. The property of Isaac during his sojourn among the Philistines was unwonted and great, and himself and the sovereign of the couptry renewed the covenant originally made between their fathers.
2. ( Judg. viii. 31) A son of Gideon, who, after the death of his father, persuaded the men of Shechem to make him king (Judg. ix. 18). He afterwards put to death seventy of his brothers who dwelt in his father's house at Ophrah, leaving only Jotham the youngest alive. It was on this trjdng occasion that Jotham employed the famous satirical parable of the trees choosing a king. At length the subjects of Abimelech revolted; arid in the course of the subsequent warfare he met with several defeats, and was at last mortally wounded by a piece of a millstone thrown ui)on his head by a woman from the top of a tower in Thebez. That it might not be said a woman slew him, he called to his armour- bearer to stab him with his sword, and thus he died (Judg. i:f. 54-5i'). G
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ABINAD AB —/a«/icr of willinghood. 1. (1 Sam xvi. 8) One of the eight sons of Jesse, and one of the three of his sons who followed Saul in battle.
2. (1 Sam. xxxi. 2) One of Saul's sons who was slain at the battle of Gilboa.
3. (1 Sam. vii. 1, and 1 Chr. xiii. 7) A Levite of Kirjath-jearim, with whom the ark of the Lord was deposited when it was brought back from the Philistines.
4. (1 Ki. iv. 11) One of the twelve officers appointed by Solomon to provide alternately, month by month, food for the king and his household.
ABIU AM —father of height. 1. (Num. xvi. 1) One of the sons of EHab, the Reuben- ite, who were destroyed with Korah for a conspiracy against Moses. (See Korah.)
2. The first-born of Hiel, the Bethelite. (See Jericho.)
ABISHAG— /a^Aer of error (1 Ki. i. 15)— a fair woman of Shunem, in the tribe of Issachar, who was selected by the servants of David to minister to him in his old age, and to cherish him. After David's death, and the ascension of Solomon to the throne, Adonijah desired Abishag in marriage; but Solomon per- ceived his policy (see Adonijah), and caused him to be put to death (1 Ki. ii. 25). Such a connection as Adonijah sought with one of the royal harem, was either a proclamation of his right to the throne, or an intended means of defending his title to it at some future period.
ABI8KAI— father of gifts (2 Sam. ii. 18)— a son of Zeruiah. He was a nephew of David, and among the chief of his mighty men. He ~ accompanied David to the camp of Saul, and counselled him to take Saul's life. Abishai, with Joab his brother, attacked and defeated the Syrians and the children of Ammon, (2 Sam. X. ) David appointed him, in conjunction with Joab and Ittai, to the command of the people when they went forth to battle against Israel in the wood of Ephraim (2 Sam. xviii. 2). Abishai afterwards rescued David from the giant Philistine Ishbi-benob, whom he smote and killed (2 Sam. xxi. 16, 17). He was also chief of the three heroes who, with such intre- pidity, procured David a draught of water from the well of his native village. The victory over the Edomites in the vaUey of Salt, which is ascribed to David, 2 Sam. viii. 13, is ascribed to Abishai, 1 Chr. xviii. 12. Probably Abishai actually obtained the victory; but the victory of one of his officers might be spoken of as David's achievement. Abishai was associated with Joab in the assassination of Abner (2 Sam. iii. 30).
ABISHALOM. (SeeABUAM.)
ABJECTS (Ps. XXXV. 15) — an old term, signifying low, base persons ; thus, in Shake- speare— "We are the queen's abjects, and must obey."
AB'^l^R -father of light (1 Sam. xiv. 50)— the son of Ner, was a near relation of Saul, and a faithful and distinguished general of h\i armies. We first hear of him, particulai'ly, as the captain of the host, of whom Saul inquired
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concerning the stripling David, whose victory over Goliath had excited his astonishment; and after a little time Abner introduced ]3jivid to Haul, with the head of the giant Philistine in his hand. It was througli the want of vigilance in Abner that Saul's life was placed in David's power in the wilderness of Ziph, (1 Sam. XXVI, ) (See David, Saul.)
After David was ant)inted king of Judah, Abneriirocuredtheap]>ointmentof Ish-bosheth, Saul's son, as king of Israel ; and in process of 'time the army of David, under Joab, and the army of Israel, under Abner, arrayed them- selves on either side of the pool of Gibeon. Wliile occupying this position, twelve men of each army met and fought desperately. This contest was followed by a general battle which resulted in Abner's defeat. He fled, but was pui'sued by Asahel, who "was light of foot as a wild roe." During the heat of pursuit, Abner counselled him to desist, and threatened to turn upon him and slay him if he did not ; but Asahel refused to turn aside, and Abner "with the hinder end of his spear" smote him so that he died. Joab and Abishai were also engaged in the pursuit; but at Abner's entreaty they desisted and returned.
As David's strength increased, the house of ' Saul, though faithfully served by Abner, became gradually weaker, till at length Ish- bosheth charged Abner with an offence against Saul's family. The offence was taking to him one of Saul's harem, an act, on the part of a subject, that in those days wore a suspicious and treascmable aspect. He was exceedingly irritated by the charge, and immediately for- sook the interests of Saul's house, and espoused the cause of David. David received him cor- dially, and sent him away in peace to per- suade Israel to submit to the new government. While he was gone on this errand, Joab returned; and hearing what had been done, he went to the king, and warned him against Abner as a spy and traitor. Soon after, and without David's knowledge, Joab sent for Abner ; and when he arrived, took him aside I>rivately, and murdered him, in revenge for the death of his brother Asahel ; ' ' and they buried him in Hebron." The estimation in which he was held by the king and people appears from the sacred history. The king wept and refused his food, and all the people wept; "and the king said unto his servants. Know ye not that there is a prince and a great man fallen this day in Israel ? " (2 Sam. iii. 38. )
ABOMINABLE, ABOMINATION. L (Gen. xlvi. 34) An abomination, or an abomin- able thing, is a thing hateful or detestable, as the emi)l()yment or calUng of shepherds was to the Egyptians. This aversion of the Egyptians to shepherds did not arise from horror at the occupation itself, though the sheep was held in small estimation both for food and for sacrifice. A band of Nomades, the terrible Hyksos, had invaded Egviit, and during the period of their tyranny had exercised great cruelties. The re- membrance of such wrongs seems to have made the very name of Nomade, or wandering shep-
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herd, hateful to them. 2. (Lev. xi. 13, and Dent, xxiii. 18) Under the Mosaic law those animals and acts are called abtmiinable, the use or doing of which was prohibited. 3. (Jer. xliv. 4, 2 Ki. xxiii. 13, and Isa. Ixvi, 3) Idolatry of every kind is esi)ecially denoted by this term.
The ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION (Matt.
xxiv. 15, and Dan. ix. 27, and xii. 11) probably refers to the ensigns or bannera of the Roman army, \vith the idolatrous, and therefore abominable, images upon them, as in tlio annexed cut, the approach of which would warn the city of it3 desolation. When the city should be besieged, and these idolatrous standards should be seen "in the holy place," or in the vicinity of the holy city, thus threatening a com- plete conquest and speedy destruction, it would be the time for the men of Judea to flee to places of refuge to save them- selves from tribula- tion and death. But the abomination, ac- cording to others, was the profane sins of the zealots who had command of the temple. ABRAM, ABRAHAM -father of elevation, father of multitude (Gen. xi. 27) — was the son of Terah, and tenth in descent from Shem in the line of Heber, and was bom at Ur of Chal- dea. (See Ur.) While he was dwelling in his father's house at TJr, God directed him to leave his country and kindred, and go to a land which shovdd be shown him ; promising, at the same time, to make of him a great nation, and to bless him, and to make his name great, and that in him all the families of the earth should be blessed. Obedient to the heavenly calling, Abi*am took Sarai his wife, and with Terah his father, and other members of the family, left Ur to remove to Canaan, and stopped at Haran. (See Haran. ) It is supposed by some that, while they dwelt in Ur, Abram fell into the idolatrous practices which prevailed around him, for Terah and his family served other gods (Josh, xxiv. 2) ; but in the absence of all evidence on this point, the contrary may surely be inferred from the readiness with which he obeyed God, and the faith he manifested in a manner so exemplary and rare. Many of the traditional and mythological theories as to Abram's early life and character have been evidently b(>rroAved from the word Ur, the place of his nativity, a term which signifies lifjht or fire. The phrase, "Abram the Hebrew" (Gen. xiv. 13), may mean simply, "Abram the emigrant." While the emigraijts were dwelling at Haran, in Mesopotamia, Terah died. Al)ram, who was then seventy-five yeai*s old, pursued his journey to Canaan; and having reached Sichem,
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one of the oldest cities of Palestine (see She- chem), and pitched his tent under the terebinth of Moreh, the Lord appeared to him, and repeated his promise to give him that land.
The first call which Abram obeyed when he left his fatherland, as related by Stephen before the Jewish council, was indefinite in its nature. It merely summoned him to emigrate; and "he went out, not knowing whither he went." The second which he seems to have received (Gen. xiii.) was more precise, and pointed to Canaan as destined to be his in- heritance and that of his numerous progeny — yet he was at this period childless. While he was encamped between Bethel and Ai, a grievous famine visited the country, and Abram was obliged to go into Egypt. Fear- ful that Sarai's beauty might attract the notice of the Egyptians, and that, if they suijposed her to be his wife, they would kill him to secure her, he proposed that she should pass for his sister. It happened as he expected. The servants of Pharaoh, the king of Egypt, com- mended her beauty so miich, that he sent for her, and took her into his house, and loaded Abram with tokens of his favour; but the Lord punished him severely, so that he sent away Abram and his wife, and all that he had.
Having become very rich in cattle, silver, and gold, he returned from Egypt to Canaan. Lot, his nephew, had been with him, and shared his prosperity ; and it happened that his ser- vants fell into some strife ^vith the servants of Abram. As it was evident that their property was too great for them to dwell together, Abram, though in every respect entitled to deference, generously proposed to his nephew to avoid controversy by an amicable separation. He offered Lot his choice of the territory, on the right or left, as it pleased him — a rare illustration of meekness and condescension. Lot chose to remove to the eastward, and occupy that part of the fertile plain of Jordan where Sodom and Gomorrah stood. Thus Abram was gradually and finally severed from aU his kindred, and prepared for the enjoyment of the great promise. Then the Lord appeared again to Abram, and renewed the promise of the land of Canaan as his inheritance, in the most explicit manner. He then removed his tent to the plain or oak-grove of Mamre in Hebron. In an invasion of the cities of the plain by several of the kings of the Euphratean countries, Sodom was taken, and Lot and his family carried captive. When Abram received intelligence of it, he armed his trained servants, bom in his house (318 in number), pur- sued the kings, attacked them by night, defeated them, and brought Lot, his family, and their substance back to Sodom ; restoring to liberty the captives who had been taken, with all their property, of which he generously refused to take any part as the reward of his services or as the spoils of victory. The customs and laws of war prevalent in the East, even to the present day, entitled Abram to the spoils, for lie had won them back; yet, with a disinterested generosity, in keeping with his entu-e chara-cter, 6
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he would not retain them: only, as on his return he was met by Melchisedek, king of Salem, and priest of the most high God, who bestowed on him the sacerdotal benediction, he gave him a tenth "of all;" not of all he possessed, but of the booty acquired in this successful expedition. (See Melchisedek.)
Two or three years after this the Lord ap- peared again to Abram in a vision, repeated to him the promises, accompanied them with a most gracious declaration of his favour, and contracted with him a formal covenant. He appointed a certain sacrifice for him to offer, and towards night caused a "deep sleep" to fall upon him, attended by a " horror of great darkness," during which there were revealed to him some of the most important events in his future history, and in that of his posterity, which were all accomplished in due time, and ^vith wonderful exactness. The revelation related — 1. To the captivity of Israel by the Egyptians, and their severe and protracted bondage; 2. To the judgments which Egypt should suffer because of their oppression of God's chosen people, and the circumstances under which they should leave Egypt ; 3. To Abram's death and burial ; and, 4. To the return of his posterity to the promised land. The victims of this sacrifice were severed, as usual in covenant sacrifices, that the contract- ing parties might pass between them. Thus the " smoking furnace and burning lamp " — that is, the Shechinah, or sjmibols of the divine presence — passed between them, in token that God was on his part contracting the covenant, — pledging himself to implement his promise, and bestow the stipulated blessings (Jer. xxxiv. 18). Thus, at that period, and by such impres- sive ceremonies, the covenant respecting the land of promise was renewed, and confirmed with the strongest expressions of divine favour. Sarai, however, was childless; and thinking to secure the fulfilment of the promise in her own way, she proposed to Abram that Hagar, an Egyptian woman living with them, should be his secondary wife, so that any issue by such a connection might be reckoned her own. Accordingly, by Hagar, Abram had a son named Ishmael, who, for a certain period, was recognized as his heir.
At ninety-nine years of age he was favoured with another most remarkable vision. The Al- mighty was revealed to him in such a manner that he was filled with awe and fell upon his face, and we are told that " God talked with him." The promise respecting the great in- crease of his postei-ity, and their character and relation to God, as well as respecting the possession of Canaan, was repeated in the most solemn and explicit terms; his name was changed from Abram {a high father) to Abra- ham (father of a great multitude), and the circumcision of every male chikl, at eight days old, was established as a token of the covenant between him and God. (See Circumcision.) At the same time the name of Sarai [my princess) was changed to Sarah (the princess), and a promise ways given to Abraham that Sarah
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should have a son, aijd be the mother of nations and kings. It seemed so entirely out of the course of nature that they should become parents at their advanced age, that Abraham, filled with reverence and joyful gratitude, fell upon his face, and said in his heart, " Shall a child be born imto him that is a lumdred years old ? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear?"
Abraham, finding that the blessings of the covenant were to be bestowed on his future offspring, immediately thought of Ishmael, in whom he had probably before supposed the promises were to be fulfilled, and he uttered the solemn and affecting prayer, " O that Ishmael might live before thee ! " God heard him, and almost while he was yet speaking, answered him by making known to him his great purposes respecting Ishmael (Gen. xvii. 20, and XXV. 16). As soon as the vision had closed, Abraham hastened to obey the divine command, and ^vith Ishmael his son, and all the men of his house, was circumcised on the self-same day. He was not long without another divine communication. As he sat in the door of his tent in the heat of the day, three- men approached him. He received them with all the courtesy and hospitality which distinguished eastern manners, and after they had refreshed themselves they inquired of him respecting Sarah, and repeated the promise respecting the birth of her son. It was on this occasion, or in connection with these circumstances, that a divine testimony was given to the elevated character of Abraham (Gen. xviii. 19). It was because of his faith, which brought him into friendship with God, that he was favoured with a revela- ti(m of God's purposes respecting the devoted cities of the plain, and with an opportunity to plead for them ; and it was for Abraham's sake, and probably in answer to his prayers, that Lot and his family were rescued from the sudden destruction which came upon Sodom. After this, and probably influenced by the awful judgments inflicted on the wicked cities of the vale, Abraham removed to Gerar, and here he made a second attempt to have Sarah taken for his sister. (See Abimelech.) _ Here, also, the prediction was fulfilled respecting the birth of a son. Sarah bore a son whom he called Isaac, and who was duly circumcised on the eighth day.
Abraham was much tried by an unhappy occurrence in which Hagar and Ishmael were jmncipally concerned ; for Ishmael, in con- sequence of Isaac's birth, had lost his former status and prospects, and his mother and him- self began to cherish feelings of jealousy and hatred toward the favourite child and his mother. God supported Abraham by an ex-
E licit promise, that in Isaac his seed should e called (Gen. xxi. 10-13; Gal. iv. 22-31). Abraham so obviously had the favour and blessing of God in all that he did, that Abi- melech the king jiroposed to make with him a covenant of perpetual friendship ; and a matter of wrong about a well, of which Abimelech's
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servants had violently deprived Abraham, was thus happily adjusted. This transaction waa at a place which was thereafter called Beersheba — the well of the oath, or tlie well of swearing (Gen. xxi. 23-31).
We now come to one of the most impressive and most awful passages in the patriur.h'.s history. God was about to try him, that hu njight exhibit to the world, in all following time, an illustrious example of the power of faith. He was commanded to take his son— his only son Isaac, whom he loved, and in whom all the promises of God were to be ac- complished— and to offer him up for a burnt offering upon a distant mountain. Without an inquiry or a murmuring word, and with a promptness which showed the most entire submission, Abraham obeyed the mysteriou.s command. A journey of three days was ac- complished, and perhaps the length of this journey — three days of calm reflection and affectionate complacency in the company of the darling victim — was the severest element of the trial. Every preparation for the offering was made, and the knife was in his hand which was uplifted to slay his son, when his purpose was arrested by a voice from heaven requiring him to spare the lad, inasmuch as the proof of the father's faith and obedience was full. In the neighbouring thicket a ram was provided, which he took and offered up ; and after having been favoured with special tokens of the divine approbation, he returned with his son to Beersheba. The controversy about the scene of the offering of Isaac will be found under Moriah. In commemoration of it, he gave to the place the name Jehovah-jireh {the Lord will see or provide), intimating a general truth respecting the divine faithfulness and care ; and in prophetical allusion, as some suppose, to the great sacrifice which, in fuhiess of time, was to be offered upon that same spot for the sins of men (Gen. xxii. 14).
At the age of one hundred and twenty-seven years Sarah died, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah, in the field of Ephron, near Hebron, for a family burial-place, and there buried his mfe.
Isaac had now arrived at mature age, and Abraham called one of his servants, probably Eliezer (Gen. xv. 2), and made him swear that he would obtain a "wife for Isaac, not among the Canaanites {where they then dwelt, and who were to be cut off according to the revealed IJurpose of God), but in Abraham's native country, and from among his own kindred. This enterprise terminated successfully, and every desire of the patriarch respecting Isaac s marriage was realized. (See Eliezer.)
Abraham married a second time, and had several sons. As Abraham was very old ere Sarah died, and as his sons were of such age before his own death, that they were dismissed with requisite portions in order to found new colonies, it is not improbable that Keturah had ])een a secondary wife to the patriarch before Sarah's death, but after that event, raised to i^roper rank and dignity by marriage. Their
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children might be born before the decease of Sarah. Abraham, however, made Isaac his sole heir, having in his lifetime distributed gifts among the other children, who were now dispersed ; and at the great age of one hundred and seventy-five years, he died in peace, and was buried by Isaac and Ishmael at Hebron in the same sepulchre with Sarah. (See Hebron. ) The character of Abraham is one of the most wonderful and interesting recorded in Scripture. His property was immense. He was a prince in the land, and was bold and skilled in warlike stratagem. His retinue must have been numerous, w^hen he had 318 home- born slaves able to carry arms. He evidently commanded the respect of the Aborigines Avith whom he sojourned. Yet so really was he a stranger and pilgrim, that he needed to buy a burial-place in the land which God had given him. Distinguished by his unsullied integrity, noble generosity, and princely hospitality, he is yet more honoured in the simplicity and earnestness of his faith, a faith that obeyed without hesitation and followed without delay, that shrunk not from arduous duty and recoiled not from a trial the most fearful that had ever been imposed on humanity. Abraham was called "the friend of God," and he still has the same name over all the East — el-Khalil.
Abraham's Bosom. , (See Bosom).
ABSALOM— /a«;iero/j3mce (2 Sam. iii. 3)— was a son of David, b^^ Maacah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur. He was remarkable for his beauty, and for his hair, which is said to have weighed 200 shekels when cut off,— not "every year," as our version has it, but as the Hebrew formula merely implies, at stated times. As to the precise meaning of this w^eight, however, there has been much specula- tion. It is supposed that the shekel by which its weight is expressed means a lighter weight, by one third or one half, than the common shekel. Others suppose that the value, and not the weight, is denoted; and others, still, contend that what with gold-dust and powder, which were both profusely used in di-essing the hair, the weight (supposing weight to be meant, and the common shekel to be used) is not at all incredible, being, according to Michaehs, not quite three pounds Troy weight, though it may be sufficiently remarka])le to be noticed by the historian.
Absalom had a fair sister whose name was Tamar ; and Amnon his half-brother having injured her, Absalom was revenged by taking Amnon's life at a feast to which he had invited him (2 Sam. xiii. 29). In a family where there are several mothers, the children by one mother feel a peculiar bond of connection. Absalom, according to usage, as well as prompted by affection, espoused the cause of his own full sister, and slew her ravisher. Immediately after this he fled to the house of Talmai, his mother's father, at Geshur. Joab, in order to secure Absalom's return and restoration to his father's favour, employed a woman of Tekoa to appear before David, and feign a case similar, in its leading cii'cumstances, 10
ABS
to the situation of Absalom, and having ob- tained his decision, to apply the principle to the real case. After a favourable decision was obtained in the feigned case, the woman began to plead for Absalom's return. The king im- mediately suspected Joab's concern in the plot, and the woman confessed that it was wholly planned by him. David therefore directed Joab to go to Geshur, and bring Absalom back to Jerusalem, after an absence of three years ; but his father would not receive him into favour, nor admit him to his presence ; nor did he see his face for two j^ears more. Wearied ^vith his banishment, Absalom often attempted to obtain an interview with Joab ; but for some cause Joab was not disposed to go to him. To compel him to come, Absalom resorted to the singular expedient of directing his servants to set fire to Joab's fields. Joab immediately came to Absalom; was persuaded to plead with the king in his behalf, and succeeded in his effort, so that Absalom was received into full favour.
But with a proud and wicked heart, he coiild not cease to do evil. His father's throne became the object of his ambition, and he procured chariots and horsemen, and other appendages of rank and royalty ; and stood in the pubUc places courting the favour of the people by the meanest arts ; persuading them that their rights were not regarded by the government, and that it would be for their interest to elevate him to power, so that equal justice might be administered to all. By these and other means Absalom ' ' stole the hearts " of the men of Israel. He might also regard himself as the rightful heir to the throne, as being the only son of David whose mother was of royal blood. And his assassination of his elder brother might spring from other motives than the mere desire to avenge a sister's disgrace. Solomon was at this time in early youth, and his destined succession to the kingdom may not have been known. The reason of this unnatural rebellion thus becomes somewhat apparent. Perhaps, too, Absalom, from his handsome person and other qualities, was David's favourite son, nursed and fondled as the heir-apparent. The great tribe of Judah had also become disaffected to David, its old favourite, though it is difficult to assign the reason of the change. In pursuing his wicked and traitorous design, and with a pretended regard to filial duty, he asked his father's permission to go to Hebron, and pay a vow which he said he had made. The unsus- pecting king consented; and Absalom imme- diately sent men throughout the country, who were, at a given signal, to proclaim him king in Hebron. He also took 200 men %vith him from Jerusalem, though they did not know his plan ; and then sent for Ahithophel, who was David's counsellor, that he might have his advice and assistance. Ahithoi^hers fii'st coun- sel to the rebel was to take public possession of the royal harem, thus ratifying so far his succession to the throne, and inducing his partizans to commit themselves to his faction without reserve, since such an act made recoii-
ABS ciliation impossible in the future. Absalom's party increased rapidly, intelligence of the conspiracy was communicated to the king, and so alarmed him that he fled from the city. At length David persuaded Hushai to go to Absalom, who had now come back to Jeru- salem with his party, and to become his ser- vant ; and when opportunity occurred, to give such counsel as should defeat Ahithophers
I plans, .and bring confusion and discomfiture
I upon Absalom. By a train of singular pro-
vuh^ntial interpositions (an account of which
' ' ii-s rather to the life of David than to
article) Absalom's ruin was hastened.
.ie David's men went out to battle with
the revolted party, he gave them special charge
' respecting Absalom, and commanded them to deal gently with him for his father's sake. The two par+ies met in the wood of Ephraim, and the battle was severe and bloody. Ab- salom rode upon a mule ; and in passing under the thick boughs of an oak, he was caught by his head in the fork or angle of two branches,
I and the mule passed onward, leaving him sus- p;^nded in the air. Joab, being informed of it, took three darts and thrust them through the heart of Absalom, while he was yet alive in the midst of the oak ; and they took his body and cast it into a pit in the wood, and covered it with stones.
ABSALo>r, PILLAR OF. (Sce Pillar, Jeru- salem.) The pe- culiar monument (a sketch of which is seen in the ad- joining cut) which bears this name, is proved by various circumstances to be of compara- tively modem ori- gin. It is chiefly hewn out of the rock, and is a con- sx)icuous object in
m our version some- viii. 31), and uniformly
Pillar.
ABYSS — rendered times Deep (Luke
BoTTOXfLESs Pit, in the book of Revelation, It signifies a deep without bottom, or a very deep pit— referring often to that vast body of water which in Jewish opinion was laid up in some cavernous receptacle within the eai'th. It refers sometimes to the dark sepulchres of the East, which, hewn out in the rock, and descending far beneath the surface, formed a kind of under-world (Rom. x. 7). In the Apocalypse, it symbolizes the abode and the doom of those powers which are hostile to Christ and his Church.
AC CAD (Gen. x. 10) — a city in Shinar, built by Nimrod. Its site is unknown, some contending for Nisibis, and others for Akker-
ACE
kuf, where there is a remarkable ruin called Tel-Nimrud. Aklcad is read by Rawlinson as the name of an early Ilamite race who ruled in ]iabylonia ; and in one of Sargona inscrii)tions the same name is given to the Armenian mountains.
ACCESS — introduction into the presence of a superior. Used in the New Testament of the peculiar relation which believers bear to God, and of the blessings resulting from it. In Rom. V. 2 it signifies our entrance into a state of friendship with God ; and in Eph. iii. 12; ii. 18, it denotes that free intercourse which we enjoy with God in the exeireise of prayer.
ACCHO (Judg. i. 31)— now Acca or Acre, or, from its connection with the knights of St. John, St. Jean d'Acre, or Ptolemais (so called after the first Ptolemy, king of Egypt, into whose hands it fell about one hundred years before Christ), was a seaport town, on the bay of Acre, over against mount Carmel and about thirty miles scRith of Tyre. It was in the territory assigned to the tribe of Asher, and one of the cities from whicli they were unable to expel the Canaanites; and it is even now considered the strongest place in Palestine. It is mentioned in Acts xxi. 7. Its popiilation is 5,000, and it has a strong garrison. The ruinous remains of this ancient city are very numerous, and are now used in the erection of jiew buildings, and all appearances of an- cient grandeur are fading away. It %yas a famous place during the crusades, and it has been noted in modern times for the successful resistance it made, under Sir Sidney Smith, to the French army in 1799. In 1832 the place was under the dominion of the pacha of Egypt. In that year Ibrahim besieged it for six months ; and in 1840 it suffered a severe bombardment from the English fleet. The plain of Acre is one of the richest in Palestine.
ACCURSED, CURSED (Josh. vi. 17)— devoted to destruction (1 Cor. xii. 3; Gal. i. 8, 9). In Rom. ix. 3 the apostle says,. "I could wish that myself were accursed from Christ." The translation is correct. He is not referring to what he had felt in his uncon- verted state, but to what he now felt "for his brethren, his kinsmen according to the flesh." The imperfect tense .employed by him means, " I could wishj were it possible," showing the intensitj'- of his love and sorrow for them. (See Anathema.)
ACELDAMA— /?eW of blood (Acts i. 19)— a field for the burial of strangers, which the chief priests bought vnth the money returned by Judas, as the price of the Saviour's blood (Matt, xxvii. 6-8). Hence its name, Accl- dama, or field of blood. It was just without the wall of Jerusalem, south of mount Zion, and was originally called the potter's field, because it furnished a sort of clay suitable for potter's ware. Aceldama, as late as the seven- teenth century, was used as a burying-placo by the Armenian Christians in Jerusalem. But, according to Robinson, it has long been abandoned for sepulchral purposes. It ia not
ACH
fenced in, and the charnel-house, now a ruin, is all that remains to point out the site.
ACHAIA (Acts xviii. 12; Eom. xvi. 5; 2 Cor. xi. 10). In the most comjirehensive use, this term was applied to all the region lying south of Thessaly and Macedonia as far as the Morea. The geographical phrase Achaia and Macedonia means the whole of G-reece: but in a limited use Achaia embraced only the district between Macedonia and the Pelo- ponnesus, of which Corinth was the capital. (See CoRiNTri. ) This was its signification under the Romans ; and in the New Testament it is only applied to this smaller tract of country.
ACHAN, or ACHAR (Josh., vii. 18)— a "son of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah, who secretly t'.^'^lc and concealed several valuable articles from among the spoils of Jericho, in direct violation of the divine command (Josh. vi. 17, 18). Tor this sin judgment came upon the whole camp of Israel. (See Joshua.). By a p.ocess which God appointed, Achan's guilt was discovered, and he was taken into a valley north of Jericho, thence called the valley of Achor, and was there stoned to death. (See Achor.)
ACHISH (1 Sam. xxi. 10)— a king of Gath, to whom David fled, and with whom he after- wards formed an alliance through fear of Saul.
ACHMETHA (Ezra vi. 2)— the Ecbatana of ancient Media, and the place where the records of the kingdom were preserved. The l^lace is occupied, as it is supi^osed, by the modern city Hamadan, in Persia. It was sur- rounded by seven walls, and at one period was considered the strongest and most beautiful city of the East, except Nineveh and Babylon. (See Media.)
ACHOR, VALLEY ov— distress (Hos. ii. 15) — a place in the vicinity of Jericho, where Achan was stoned for an offence which brought trouble upon the whole camp. (See Achan.) The figurative use of the word in the passage cited is susceptible of divers interpretations. The most common is, that as the valley of Achor was the place of great distress and trouble to Israel, on their first entrance into Canaan, it would become a place of hope and joy on their return from the captivity which they were then (,'nduring. This opinion is perhaps confirmed by Isa. Ixv. 10.
ACHSHAPH (Josh. xii. 20)— a city con- quered by Joshua, and afterwards assigned to the tribe of Asher. It was not far from Accho (Josh. xix. 25).
ACHZIB. 1. (Josh. xix. 29) A city of Asher (Judg. i. 31), called also Ecdippa, and now es-Zib. It is near the sea-coast, ten or twelve miles north of Ptolemais, and has been visited of late years and described by various travellers. 2. (Josh. xv. 44, and Mic. i, 14) A town in the low country of Judah.
ACRE (1 Sam. xiv. 14). In the passage cited, it is supposed to be used proverbiallj'' for a very small space. The Roman acre con- sisted of 3,200 square yards, and the Egyptian aroura of 3,(5138 and seven-eighths.
ACTS. The fifth book in the order of the 12
ACT
New Testament is called " The Acts of the Apostles," and is commcmly referred to as The Acts, and sometimes Acts — without the article. It contains the history of the Christian church during the interesting period which elapsed from the ascension of our Saviour to the im- prisonment of Paul at Rome — a period of about thirty years. It gives a minute account of the descent of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pente- cost ; the manner and success of the preaching of the apostles ; and the gathering and estab- lishing of Christian churches by them, both among Jews and Gentiles ; the conversion of Paul, and the travels and labours of himself and his companions ; the trials and sufferings they endured in propagating the Gospel, and the signs and wonders which were wrought in attestation of their authority. This book is particularly valuable as containing a vast body of evidence of the divine power and mission of Jesus Christ, and of his grace and faithfulness ; by which the religion he taught was established and widely fjropagated, and the salvation offered by his Gospel was most clearly and gloriously illustrated.
This book is called by some of the oldest WTiters the Gospel of the Holy Ghost, and the Gospel of our Saviour's resurrection. It consists of two leading divisions ; the first embraces the history of the Judaic-christian church up to the period when the Gospel was preached to the Gentiles. The second section records the mission of Peter to Cornelius, the conversion of Paul, and his labours and travels in founding and building up the Gentile Christian chiirch. It is evident that the title. Acts of the Apostles, though a very old one, is scarcely appropriate ; for the book describes not the deeds of the whole apostles, nor even gives an entire biography of any one of them. It details some deeds of Peter by himself, and of him in company with John; and though it be principally occupied •with the career of Paul, it does not give any account either of his last days or of his martyr- dom. Of the maj ority of the apostles, it gives no information. It is not, therefore, to be viewed as a regular history, but only as a series of detached memoirs, necessary to give Theophilus such knowledge as might enlighten his mind and sustain his Christian profession. There is no doubt that Luke, the writer of the third Gospel, was also the author of the Acts. Both treatises are dedicated to the same individual. The Acts are a sequel to the gospels. The gospels exhibit the new religion in the person and life of its Founder on earth : the treatise appended as the "Acts of the Ai)Ostles" portrays his life and government in heaven; shows the same religion in its early establish- ment and subsequent extension; describes how it has in it no national limits and no geo- graphical barrier, but is meant for mankind, without distinction of colour or country ; how the universal sovereignty of its exalted Author, the outpouring of his Spirit, and tlie vital power of his truth secured its early success, and ^vill, in spite of all opposition, effect its idtimate triumph throughout the world. Luke
ADA
was for a considerable period the companion of the apostle I'aul ; and this treatise was prob- ably composed at Rome— perhaps about a.d. 03 His style is purer Greek than the other books of the New Testament, and is at the same time fresh, simpk, and graphic. A very -reat number of spurious " Acts" have l)een m circulation, such as Acts of Christ, of 1 eter, of Paul, of Pilate, &c. (See Luke.)
ADAM (Gen. ii. 19)— the great ancestor of the human family. On the sixth and last tlay of the work of creation man was made oj the dust of the ground, yet in God's mriage and after his likeness. The Lord God breathed into his nostrils the breatli of life, and caused him to become a living soul. He also gave him dominion over the fish of the sea, and the fowls of the air, and every living thing that naoyes upon the earth. The complete domimon which was given to him is expressed m a variety of forms (Gen. i. 26-30 ; n. 16-20) ihe ori-in of the name Adam is suggested by the history. The first man was called Adam, as he was made from AdamaJi— the ground. And in truth, the various chemical elements which exist in the human body form a very large proportion of the materials composmg the soil. Ikit vital energy was imparted to this corporeal organization from a higher source. His Maker " breathed into his nostrils the breath of hte. Nothing can be more interesting than the history of man's creation. The fabric of this beautiful M'orld was finished; the firmament was established; the mountains were fixed upon their deep foundations, and to seas and oceans were assigned the bounds which they should not pass ; the heavens were stretched out like a curtain, and the sun, moon, and stars a])pointed to their courses ; the earth was adorned with grass, and herbs, and trees suited for the comfort and sustenance of the living creatures, cattle, and 'creeping things that had just commenced their existence upon its surface, and all had been pronounced good by the infinite Creator himself. r j. •
To enjoy this glorious revelation of divme power, wisdom, and goodness— to have do- minion over this vast multitude of living crea- tures—and, more than all, to be the happy subject of God's government, bearing his image and likeness, and having communion with him, as the former of his body and the father of his spirit, MAN WAS FORMED ; not born, but created —not in feeble, helpless infancy, but in the maturity of his physical and intellectual na- ture; not a sinful, diseased, dying creature, but in the image and after the likeness of the perfectly holy and eternal Creator.
. . . . " A creature who, not prone
And brute as other creatures, but endued
With sanctity of reason, might erect his stature—
And upright, with front serene,
Govern the rest, self-knowing; and from thence
Magnanimous to correspond with heaven."
It is difficult for us to form an adequate conception of the intellectual condition of Adam before he reaped the results of ex- perience and observation. Yet God must have
ADA imparted to him all requisite knowledge, and given him a sufficient stock of vocables to ex- press his wants and desires, Avith an instinctive power to use others as they were needed. Hia mind was filled with divine illumination, and his heart with holy emotion. The teaching of God prechided error, and embraced all that was indispensable to life and happiness.
A garden or paradise, in the district called Eden, was planted by the hand of God for the residence of Adam. Every tree that was pleasant to the sight, or good for food, grew there. And it was refreshed and fertilized l>y a river that flowed through the niidst of it. This garden was committed to his care, to dress it and to keep it, and of every tree but one he was allowed to eat. There grew m ic the tree of life— a tree, the participation of the fruit of which was symbolically connected \\-ith Adam's abode in innocence and immortahty ; but of the other tree, the tree of knowledge of good and evil, he was forbidden to eat, under the penalty of death. The name of this tree was derived from the awful results of eating of it. As soon as he was fixed in this hapi^y abode, God brought to him the beasts of the field and the fowls of the air which he had created, "and Adam gave them names; and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof." (See Eden.)
But it was not good that man should be alone, and his Creator formed a companion for him ; bone of his bone, and flesh of his flesh ;— a help meet for him— that is, as a friend and associate fitted to aid and comfort him, and, like him, pure and immortal. They were per- fectly happy in each other, and in the favour and communion of God —
" Reaping immortal fruits of joy and love- Uninterrupted joy, imrivalled love- in blissful solitude." We are not informed how long they continued in this pure and happy state, but we know they lost it. Adam disobeyed the simple and reasonable command of God. At the sugges- tion of Eve, his wife, who had been herself tempted by the serpent to eat, he partook with her of the fruit of the only forbidden tree, and thus they incurred the displeasure of their Maker and the penalty of his just law.
This prohibition was positive in its nature. The only origin of the duty to abstain was the simple expressed vnW of God, and la^ not in the r^ature of the command itself. Iherefore it became a very fit test of obedience ; and the violation of it proved that respect for God's will had ceased to reign in the hearts of the transgressors. The first indication of guilt was the consciousness of shame; and the next a vain attempt to hide themselves from the presence of Him whose eyes are in every place, "beholding the evil and the good." Without delay, each of the parties to the fatal trans- action received a dreadful doom. (See Ser- pent, Eve.) As for man, the ground was cursed for his sake, and he was condemned to eat bread in the sweat of his face till he should return to the dust of which he was formed, or 13
ADA
enffer the death to which he was now sen- tenced. Not only should his body decay and l)erish, but the death to which he was thus doomed included separation from the favour of God, and condemnation to endless sorrow and suffering. Thus, by one man, "sin entered into the world, and death by sin." Their nakedness, which was now their shame, being covered, they were both driven from their happy home in Eden, never to return ; and, in the hardship of toil and labour, and in the sorrow and sufferings of childbirth, they began at once, respectively, to feel the woes in which their transgression had involved them.
llesearches in physiology, ethnography, and comparative philology prove conclusively that men have sprung from one pair. Varieties of form, colour, and language are produced by numerous causes and circumstances. Man is but one species, essentially one, though ex- ternally modified. Many things make it prob- able that man ha§ been longer on the earth than the common chronology would allow. But the premises are still insufficient to war- rant that assertion of a very high antiquity which many would draw from them. The Bible does not profess to settle the point. (See Creation.)
The history of Adam closes abruptly. At the age of one hundred and thirty he had a son whom he called Seth, and who was bom in his o%\-n likeness and after his own image (no longer in the likeness and after the image of God). He lived 800 years after the birth of Seth, making the whole term of his life 930 years.
Adam, says the apostle, " is a type or figure of him that was to come," that is, Christ. The one, as our reiJresentative, forfeited our happi- ness; by the other, holding a similar relation to us, j)aradise is regained. Intimations of coming mercy by a woman-born Emancipator were blended with the very curse which the Divine Being pronounced on our fallen pro- genitors. (See Man, Christ.)
ADAMANT (Ezek. iii. 9)— one of the hardest and most costly of precious stones. The original is elsewhere translated diamond. It is employed as an emblem of the heart of the wicked (Zech. vii. 12). Some suppose it was used as emery for cutting and polishing other hard stones and crystals. (See Di AiroND. )
ADAR — the sixth month of the civil, and the twelfth of the sacred Hebrewyear. In it occurred the famed feast of Purim. It cor- responded to portions of February and Llarch. When the year was an intercalary one, this month occurred twice, and Purim was likewise twice observed, and observed the second time with i)eculiar magnificence.
ADDER (Gen. xlix. 17)— a venomous ser- pent whose poison is very subtile, and almost instantly fatal. The word translated adder in various passages of the Bible, does not always mean what the English word denotes, and is absurdly rendered coclcatrice (Isa. xi. 8; xiv. 29; lix. r>; Jer. viii. 17). In Gen. xlix. 17, the original word denotes a serpent of the viper 14
ADO
kind, the cerastes, which is of the colour of sand, which lurks in the tracks of the wheels, and bites the unwary traveller or his beast. In Ps. Iviii. 4,. and xci. 13, the word translated adder is supposed to mean an asp. In Ps. cxL 3 a jjeculiar term is used, and is derived from the folded form of the serpent (Rom. iii. 13). "Adder" represents four different Hebrew names.
The psalmist remarks of some kind of adder, that he is not moved or affected by sounds which fascinate other serpents ; and some sup- pose that the most venomous of the adder species is naturally meant. Other kinds of serpents are often charmed and tamed. The exhibition is frequently made by jugglers in India and in Egypt. Hence this allusion in Ps. Iviii. 4. (See Asp, Charm.)
ADJURE. 1. (Josh. vi. 26) To bind under a curse. 2. (JNIatt. xxvi. G3) Solemnly to require a declaration of the truth at the peril of God's displeasure. Such is considered the language of the high priest, " I adjure thee," &c., or, "I put thee to thy oath," when the Saviour replied to the inquiry to which he had before been silent (Matt. xxvi. 63. Compare 1 Sam. xiv. 24, dS, and 1 Ki. xxii. 16, with Josh. vi. 26).
ADMAH (Deut. xxix. 23)— one of the five cities of the plain or vale of Siddim, which were miraculously destroyed by fire, because of their great wickedness. Some infer from Isa. XV. 9, the last clause of which is translated by the Septuagint, and upon the remnant of Adama, that Admah was not entirely destroyed; but the word is rightly rendered in the Enghsh version.
ADONI-BEZEK-iorc? of Bezek (Judg. i. 5) — lord or king of Bezek. He fled from the armies of Judah, but was caught, and disabled by having his thumbs and great toes cut off, so that he could neither fight nor fly. He was then carried to Jerusalem, where he died. He seems to have regarded the maiming he suffered as a just requital of his own cruelty, he having mutilated seventy kings or chieftains in the same inhuman manner.
ADO'NIJ AK—Jehorah is my Lord (2 Sam. iii. 4) — David's fourth son. He Avas bom at Hebron, and after the death of his brothers Ammon and Absalom, he made pretensions to the throne of his father, as his eldest surviving son. He prepared himself with horses and chariots, and other marks of royalty, and took counsel with Joab and Abiathar, the head of the army and the head of the church, how he could best accomplish his purpose.
Bathsheba, fearing that her son's title to the thronemightbedisturbed.innnediatolyinfonned the king of the revolt; and Nathan, the prophet, confirming her statement of the matter, David gave her the strongest assurances that her son should reign after him ; and he caused Solomon to be actually anointed and proclaimed king with great shoutings (1 Ki. i. 39). Adonijah was just ending a feast when he heard the noise of the ovation, and Jonathan came in and told him all that had taken place. His
ADO
guests fled precipitately, and Adonijah himself ran and caui^ht hold oi the horns of the altar, as a place of safety from violence.
After David's death, Adonijah persuaded Bathsheba to ask Solomon her son, who was now on the throne, to give him Abishag for his wife. Solomon saw at once through the policy of Adonijah and his self-interested advisers. He knew that he might as well have asked for the kingdom at once as ask for one of the king's harem; for then, being the elder brother, he could make a plausible claim to the throne at the first favourable juncture; which would directly contravene the express appointment of God made known to David, and probably to his family also (1 Chr. xxviii. 5). He was ac- cordingly put to death by the hand of Benaiah. (See Abisiiag.)
ADONIEAM. (See Adoram.)
ADONI-ZEDEK— ^oj-rf of justice (Josh. x. 1) — king of Jerusalem at the time the country was entered by the Israelites. Hearing of Joshua's victories over Ai and Jericho, and finding that the inhabitants of Gibeon (one of the most important cities of the kingdom) had made a league with him, he called four other kings of the Ammonites to his aid, and laid siege to Gibeon with a view to destroy it, be- cause it had made peace with Joshua and the children of Israel. But the Lord was against them, and -with the edge of the sword, and by a violent hailstorm which overtook them, thej'- were completely overthrown and destroyed. The ^^ctory was attended with what is gener- ally supposed to have been a signal miracle. (See Joshua.)
Adoni-zedek, with his allies, fled and con- cealed themselves in a cave at Makkedah. They were soon discovered, however, and were confined and watched, until the last of their adherents was either cut off or driven into some fortress. They were then called out of the cave, and brought before Joshua. In the pres- ence of the men of Israel, who were siunmoned for the purpose, Joshua required the captains of his army to put their feet upon the necks of the captive kings, declaring, at the same time, that such would be the doom of all the enemies of Israel. He then caused them to be slain, and to be hanged on separate trees until the evening, and then their bodies were taken down and cast into the cave in which they had concealed themselves (Josh, x, 27).
ADOPTION (Gal. iv. 5) is an act by which one is received into a man's family as his own child, and becomes entitled to the peculiar privileges of that connection, as fnlly and completely as a child by birth (Exod. ii. 10; Esth. ii. 7). Females oiten adopted offspring when they had no child of their own, by giving their slave as a concubine to their husband. The issue of such a connection was reckoned their own. Thus did Sarah and Rachel. Again, a father, having an only daughter, might marry her to a manumitted slave, and the offspring was accounted to the grandfather as his chil- dren. Instances of such occur in Scripture. But this was not adoption x^roper. The jirao-
ADU
tice of adoption was regulated by law under the Greeks and Komans.
In the figurative use of the tenn by the sacred writers, it implies that filial relation which we sustain to God, when, by his grace, we are converted from sin to holiness. The spirit of adoption is received, and we are made children (or sons), '"heirs of God, and joint- heirs with Christ."
ADORAM. 1. (2 Sam. xx. 24) An officer of the tribute under David.
2. An officer of Rehoboam's treasury (per- haps the son of the former), who was stoned to death by the people of Israel who followed Jeroboam (1 Ki. xii. 18). Some suppose him to have been the same with Adoniram (1 Ki. V. 14), who was over the levies in Solomon's reign, and that the people were so indignant at the oppression they suffered through his agency that they took this method of re- venge.
ADRAMMELECII. 1. (Isa. xxxvii. 3<^) A son of Sennacherib, king of Assj-ria. He and his brother Sharezer killed their father while he was in the act of idolatry. Their motive for this parricidal act is not known. They both fled to Armenia, and Esar-haddon succeeded to the crown.
2. (2 Ki. xvii. 31) An idol-god of Sephar- vaim, supposed to represent the eun, while another idol, called Anammelech, represented the moon. Sacrifices of living children were made to these idols.
ADRAMYTTIUM (Acts xxvii. 2)— a sea- port of Mysia, opposite the island of Lesbos, in the north-western part of Asia Minor. It is still known by the modem name of Adra- myti, and lies about 60 or 80 miles north of SmjT-na. It was in a ship belonging to this port that Paul embarked when he was about to gO from Cesarea to Rome as a prisoner.
ADRIA (Acts xxvii. 27) is the gulf which lies between Italy on one side, and the coast of Dalmatia on the other, and now called the Gulf of Venice. In the apostle's time it is supposed to have denoted the whole breadth of the Mediterranean sea, from Crete to Sicily. (See Melita.)
ADRIEL. (See ME&ab.)
ADULLAM (Josh. xv. 35) — an ancient city that lay in the Shephelah or lowlands of Judah. The king of the place was slain by Joshua. It was fortified by Rehoboam, and probably on account of its strength was called the glory of Israel (Mic. i. 15). It is thought by some that near to this city was the cave where David secreted himself when he fled from Achish. The limestone rocks of the locality are fuU of caverns, many of them of large size. One of them is described as un- even, intricate, and so very capacious that 400 men might conceal themselves in the sides of the cave, as David's men did, and escape observati(tn (1 Sam. xxii. 1). But according to monkish tradition, the cave of Adullam lay in a dift'erent direction, was contiguous to the land of !Moab, and situated among the rocky fastnesses which abound toward the Dead Sea. lii
ADU
One such cavern, not far from Bethlehem, David's birthplace, has been described by Irby and Mangles.
ADULTERY (Jer. iii. 9; Matt. v. 28)— a crime expressly prohibited by the seventh commandment, and always obnoxious to severe penalties, both by divine and human laws. In Jewish law adultery was. only or principally the infidelity of a w^ife. Such also is the idea of this sin in all countries where polygamy and concubinage are tolerated. Intercourse between a married man and an unmarried woman is only on his part a breach of the law of chastity. The Roman law is similar in enforcing what constitutes the crime. Only a married female could be guilty of it, and the partner of her guilt might be married or not ; if married, he was also an adulterer. The mysterious mode of detecting and punishing it among the Jews is detailed in Num. v. 11-31. The term is often employed with great force in the Bible, to denote the unfaithfulness and idolatry of the people of God, and their w^anton violation of the most sacred engagements.
ADUMMIM (Josh. xv. 7)— a rising ground at the entrance of the wilderness of Jericho. The name signifies red or bloody, in allusion, as it is supposed, to the frequent murders committed in its vicinity. It is still the noted haunt of robbers. The scene of our Saviour's parable of the good Samaritan was laid here (Luke X. 30-36) — that is, on the road which lies along the south face of the Wady-Kelt.
ADVOCATE (1 Johnii. 1)— one that pleads another's cause. In its technical sense, the office of advocate was unknoAvn among the Jews till they became the victims of Roman supremacy. It is one of the official titles of Jesus Christ the righteous, and its import may be learned from John xvii. ; Rom. viii. 34 ; and Heb. vii. 25.
iENON. (SeeENON.)
AFFINITY (1 Ki. iii. 1)— relation by mar- riage, in contradistinction from consanguinity, which is relation by blood or birth. The de- grees of affinity, or the nearness of relationship which should prevent marriage under the law, may be found in Lev. xviii. 6-17. Some of these degrees are still matter of debate; and the case of a man's marrying a deceased wife's sister has been oftener than once a matter of discussion before the British parliament.
AGABUS (Acts xi. 28)— a prophet who foretold (a.d, 43) the famine which, as profane history informs us, took place the following year, when contributions to assist the suffering Jews were sent by Paul and Barnabas from Antioch. A few years after (Acts xxi. 10), he met Paul at Cesarea, and warned him of the sufferings he would endure if he prosecuted his journey to Jerusalem. Some have supposed that Agabus was one of the seventy disciples, and that he suffered martyrdom at Antioch.
AGAG (Num. xxiv. 7) was a king of the Amalekites. Probably this was the common name of their kings, as Pharaoh was the common name of the kings of Egypt. From the allusion to him in the prophetic passage lo
AGE
' above cited, we may suppose him to have been one of the greatest Idngs then on the earth.
Another person of the same name was cap- tured by Saul at^the time the Amalekites were destroyed (1 Sam. xv. 8), but his life was spared, and he was afterwards brought to Samuel, who hewed him in pieces (1 Sam. xv. 33) — a punishment not uncommon in other places and later times.
Hammedatha, Haman's father, is called an Agagite (Esth. iii. 1), probably because he was of Amalek, or sprung from its royal family.
AGAR, or HAGAR (Gal. iv. 25). The history or condition of Hagar is used allegori- cally in this passage to illustrate the nature of the dispensation given from Mount Sinai. (See Allegory, Hagar.)
AGATE, or the ruby (Exod. xxviii. 19; xxxix. 12)— a precious stone, semi-transparent, and beautifully variegated. It often presents a group of figures, disposed with so much regularity as to seem like a work of art ; such as trees, plants, rivers, clouds, buildings, and human beings. The name is supposed by some to be derived from the river Achates in Sicily, where the stone was formerly found in great abundance. It is the rendering of two dif- ferent Hebrew words in Isa. liv. 12 and Ezek. xxvii. 16.
AGE, AGED (Job xv. 10). In the East great and devout respect is paid to age. The Mosaic law contained the following express enactment: — "Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and honour the face of the old man" (Lev. xix. 32). In Athens, Sparta, and Egypt, a similar custom, founded in nature, prevailed. If Job be supposed to be an Arabian, then in his country there was the like veneration given to the old. They delivereil their opinion first — "Now Elihu had waited till Job had spoken, because they were elder than he" (Job xxxii. 4) — and great stress was laid on their experience. Hence the challenge, " With us are both the gray-headed and very aged men, much elder than thy father" (Job xv. 10). The Jews regarded longevity as a special blessing. The promise is, " Yea, thou shalt see thy children's children, and peace upon Israel" (Ps. cxxviii. 6); and in another form, " Thou shalt come to thy grave in a full age, hke as a shock of corn Cometh in in his season " (Job v. 26). Old age was therefore coveted — " The hoary head is a crown of glory, if it be found in the way of righteousness" (Pro V. xvi. 31); "The beauty of old men is the gray head " (Prov. xx. 29). Abundance of old men in a land was a proof or token of peace and prosperity ; and thus the prophet pictui"es it—" Thus saith the Lord of hosts, There shall yet old men and old women dwell in the streets of Jerusalem, and every man with his staff in liis" hand for very age " (Zech. viii. 4). The experience of many years gave old men peculiar quahfication for various offices ; and elders, or nion of a rij^e or advanced eld or age, were variously employed under the Mosaic law. The ferocity of the Chaldean conquerors is very forcibly depicted, when it is
AGO
said that they "had no compassion on the old man, or him that stooped for age" (2 Chr. xxxvi. 17). (See Elders.)
AGONY (Luke xxii. 44)— the name j?iven to the awful and mysterious suffering of Jesus in Gethsemane. The word denotes conflict or struggle, and marks the intensity of our Lord's Buffering.
AGRIPPA, or HEROD AGRIPPA (Acts XXV. 13)— son and successor of Herod the per- secutor referred to in Acts xii. 1. Porcius Festus, the successor of Felix in the govern- ment of Judea, came to Cesarea; and -while there, Agrii)i)a (who was governor or king of several of the eastern jjrovinces of the Roman empire) came, with his sister Bemice or Bere- nice, his incestuous connection with whom was generally suspected, to pay him a visit of con- gi-atulation ui^on his accession to office. The conversation between them turning npon Paul, who was then in confinement in Cesarea, and whose remarkable history must have been very notorious, Festus stated the whole matter to Agrippa, and greatly excited his curiosity to see and hear the illustrious prisoner. Festus, to gratify his friends, but under the pretence of getting from Paul the subject of nis complaint, that he might communicate it to the emperor, to whom the apostle had appealed, ascended the tribunal with great pomp, and surrounding himself with the chief men of the city, ordered Paul to be brought into his presence. When the devoted apostle appeared before them, Festus, addressing him- self particularly to Agrippa, assigned the reasons for requiring Paul to appear at that time, and then gave the prisoner an opportunity to state his own. case, which he did with un- paralleled force and eloquence. Festus could only meet his arguments with the charge of madness ; but Agrippa, to whose conscience he made an abrupt, though not the less respectful and irresistible appeal, was compelled to make that memorable exclamation, "Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian." Paul closed nis address by a most affectionate exhortation to the king. The assembly then separated, and we hear nothing more of Agrippa but an expression of his regret (Acts xxvi. 32) that the faitMul and eloquent apostle could not be set at liberty. (See Herod.)
AH AB— father's brother. 1. (1 Ki. xvi. 29) The son of Onu-i, and his successor as king of Israel. He reigned twenty -two years, and the seat of his kingdom was at Samaria. He married Jezebel, a Zidonian woman of pro- verbially wicked character. She was a gross idolater, and Ahab followed her in all Phoenician superstitions. She acquired a powerful ascen- dancy over the mind of her husband, and was the prime instigator of all his acts of cruelty and superstition. Ahab became at once a worshipper of Baal, and even made a grove and built an altar for this abominable service. At a very early period of his history, the sacred historian says of him, that he did more to pro- voke the Lord God of Israel to anger than all the kings of Israel that were before him. He 0
AHA
was warned by the prophet Elijah of approach- ing drought and consequent famine, which were very sore in Samaria. In tlie third year of the famine, Ahab called Obadiah, the gover- nor of his house, and a godly man, to pass through half the land, while he would jiass through the other half, and see if they could not collect grass enough on the margins of fountains and brooks, to save their horses and mules from perishing. In the course of his journey, Obadiah met Elijah, who had been commanded by God to show himself to Ahab ; and at Elijah's request Ahab came to- meet him. When Ahab ajjpeared in Elijah's pres- ence, he abruptly said to him, "Art thou he that troubleth Israel ? " The prophet replied by a faithful rebuke of the king's idolatry, and proposed to demonstrate to him that the gods he was serving were no gods. To this end he persuaded Ahab to gather the prophets of Baal, whom he worshipped, into one company in Mount Carmel; and there the folly of their idolatry was exposed in a most signal manner. (See Elijah.) The prophets of Baal were all taken and destroyed at Elijah's command ; and before Ahab could return to Samaria there was a great rain.
About six years after this, Benhadad, king of Syria, with a vast army, besieged Samaria ; but Ahab sallied out upon him by surprise, cut off a large proportion of his army, and jjut to flight the residue, Benhadad himself escaping upon a horse. The king of Syria, supposing that his defeat was owing to some advantage of location which Ahab's army enjoyed, flattered himself that if he could go to battle in the plain, he should conquer him. Accordingly, in about a year he laid siege to Samaria agaiia. Of this Ahab had an intimation from the pro- phet immediately after the former "sdctory, and he had prepared himself accordingly. God again gave nim the victory, and the Syrians lost 100,000 infantry in one day, besides 27,000 who were killed by a Avail which fell ujjon them at Aphek, wliither they fled. Benhadad was among the captives ; and after making a treaty with the victorioiis Ahab, he went his way. Ahab was immediately informed that he had been guilty of a great sin in suffering the king of Syria to escape, inasmuch as he had been delivered into his hands by a marvellous inter- position of God's providence, and his character and conduct had been such as to mark him for the Divine displeasure. Besides this, the motives of Ahab in making the treaty may be regarded as ambitious, if not corrupt ; and he was therefore informed that his own life should go for the life of Benhadad, and his people for Benhadad's people.
Heavy and fearful as this sentence was, we find the wicked king of Israel sinking deej)er and deeper in guilt. Naboth, one of his neighbours, had a vineyard, which was situ- ated just by Ahab's palace ; and as it was a convenient and desirable spot for him to pos- sess, he asked Naboth for it, promising, at the same time, to give him a better vineyard, or the worth of it in money, as he might "chouse. 17
AHA
All this seemed very fair ; but Naboth did not •wish to part with his vineyard on any terms. It was the inheritance he had received from his fathers, and for this and other causes its value to him was peculiar, and such as neither money nor any other vineyard in exchange could compensate. He therefore declined the king's proi)osal. Mortified and disappointed by Naboth's refusal, he laid down upon his bed, and refused to eat. J ezebel, his wicked wife, inquired the cause of his sadness, and assured him that he might set his heart at rest, for he should have his desire ; and she forth- with commenced a train of imprincipled mea- sures which resulted in the murder of Naboth ; and Ahab then took possession of the vineyard. But his judgment lingered not. Elijah was sent to charge him with the sin to which he had been accessary, and to forewarn him, not only of his own fearful doom, but of the certain and utter destruction of his posterity : "In the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth shall dogs lick thy blood, even thine." Guilty as Ahab was, he had not yet lost all sense of sin, and when the judgments of God were so near him, he humbled himself and fasted ; and for this he was exempted from the punishment in his own person, but it was inflicted on his son. The circumstances of Ahab's death are deeply interesting and instructive. He proposed to Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, to make war on Hamoth-gilead, which was in the possession of the king of Syria. Jehoshaphat expressed his willingness to join him, but suggested the pro- priety of first inquiring what the will of the Lord was respecting the enterprise ; so Ahab suromoned his four hundred false prophets, and they all prophesied favourably. Jehosh- aphat seems to have been suspicious of the character of Ahab's prophets, and he therefore inquired if there was no prophet of the Lord besides them. Ahab referred him to Micaiah, expressing at the same time his aversion to him, because his prophecies were always evil. However, Micaiah was sent for, and the mes- senger (having probably been instructed to that effect by Ahab) informed him of what had passed, and desired him to prophesy favourably, as the other prophets had done. When Micaiah came before the two kings, who were seated each on a throne at the entrance of the gate of Samaria, and all the prophets before them, the question was proposed to him, as it had been proposed to the other prophets, "Shall we go against Eamoth-gilead to battle, or shall we forbear?" The proi)het advised him to go, but evidently with such a tone and manner as indicated that he was not speaking in the sini'it of proi)hecy. He therefore solemnly and ear- nestly urged him to tell him nothing but the truth, in the name of the Lord. Micaiah then disclosed to him the whole matter, and showed him not only that his enterprise against Ramoth-gilead would be defeated, but that God had sutfered the prophets who had pro-
{)hesied favourably of it to be filled with a jdng s])irit, that they might lead him on to the certain ruin which awaited him. 18
AHA
Ahab sent the faitlif ul prophet back to Sama- ria, and ordered him to be imprisoned till his return from the battle. So the infatuated kings of Israel and Judah, in the face of the counsel of the Almighty, went up to battle against the king of Syria at Ramoth-gilead- In order to secure himself against the direct aim of the enemy, Ahab entered the battle in disguise. But a certain man drew a bow, as he supposed, at a venture, yet the arrow was directed with unerring aim to the heart of the wicked Ahab, and the blood flowed out into the chariot, so that he died that night. His army was scattered, in literal accordance with Micaiah's prophecy. His body was carried to Samaria to be buried, and the blood was washed from the chariot in the pool of Sama- ria, and the dogs licked it, as had been foretold (1 Ki. xxi. 19).
2. (Jer. xxix. 21, 22) A son of Kolaiah, and a false prophet, who, with Zedekiah, another false prophet, prophesied falsely to the children of Israel, when in captivity at Babylon. Jer- emiah was commanded to make known to them that they should be delivered into the hands of the king of Babylon, who would slay them; and so dreadful would be their end, that there- after it should be a form of cursing — ' ' The Lord make thee like Zedekiah and like Ahab, whom the king of Babylon roasted on the fire." This was a common Chaldean punishment (Dan. iii. 6).
AHASUERUS is, perhaps, like Pharaoh and Abimelech, a royal title and not a personal name. 1. (Dan. ix. 1) The father of Darius the Median, and the same with Cyaxares.
2. (Ezra iv. 6) Supposed to be Cambyses, the son and successor of Cyrus.
3. (Esth. i. 1) The husband of Esther, and probably the famous Xerxes. We are told that he reigned from India to Ethiopia, over one hundred and twenty-seven provinces; that his palace was in Shushan, the royal city of Persia; and that in the third j'^ear of his reign he made a splendid feast for his princes, probably in preparation for his invasion of Greece. In the height of this magnificent entertainment, the king summoned Vashti, his wife, into the royal presence, that he might show his guests her great beauty. She declined going, as it was contrary to all etiquette. For that cause she was separated from the king and from the royal estate. Xerxes, after his ignominious defeat in Greece, returned to Persia, and abandoned himself to sensual plea- sures. "Pair young virgins " were souglit for him, and Vashti was succeeded by Esther, the niece and adopted daughter of Mordecai, a Jew, who resided at the palace.
Haman, the chief officer of the king's house- hold, considering himseK insulted by Mordecai, obtained a royal decree that all the Jews of the kingdom should be destroyed. Esther, having received intelligence of this cruel plot, embraced a favourable oi)portunity to make it known to the king, and implore his protection of herself and her people. The king could not indeed reverse the decree, but he caused Haman to bo
AHA
AHA
hunj?, and ]Vf orclecai to be advanced to the I ated for the destruction of Judah, were about liiyhestpobtof the kingdom; and also desi)atche J | to lay siege to Jerusalem. At this juncture,
God directed his proj^liet iHaiah to take his son, Shear-jashub, and go to Ahaz, who should bo found at a particular spot in the city of Jerusalem, and make known to him the counsel of the Lord. This favour was shown to the wicked king as the representative of the house of David, and for the people's sake with whom God had made a covenant (Isa. vii. 1).
Isaiah, having found Ahaz at the place designated, told him that the bounds of the in- vading army were fixed; that their purjjose respecting Jeru- salem would be defeated, and that in a limited time the king- doms from which they came should be destroyed; and, to confirm the prophetic testi- mony, the king was told to ask any sign which would satisfy him. Probably from a wicked indifference, but professedly from a better motive, he refused to ask a sign ; but God saw fit to give him one of unerring import: "Behold," said he, "a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel" (Isa. vii. 14; Matt. i. 23; Luke i. 31-35). Some have understood this remarkable prophecy to mean that, notwith- standing the extraordinary conception and birth of the promised child, he shall eat butter and honey as other children do, and, like them, shall gradually advance from one degree of knowledge to another; but before he shall have attained that measure of discrimination which would enable him to choose between good and evil, the land of the Israelite and the SjTian, who cause your distress and perplexity, shall be forsaken of both her kings. Again, various opinions exist as to the child to which allusion is made in Isa. vii. 16 ; some supposing that it denotes the boy whom the prophet took with him; and others, Avith greater probability, suppose that it refers to the child Jesus, as in verse 14 ; and that the meaning is, that in less time than would be required, after the birth of the promised Immanuel, for him to attain to the capacity of distinguishing good from evil (that is, within the space of two or three years), the enemies of Judah should perish. We know that, within three or four years after the pro- phecy was uttered, the kings of both Is;-ael and SjTia were destroyed (2 Ki. xv. 30 ; xvi. 9). This was probably the primary accomplishment of the prophecy, but it received its far more striking and literal fulfilment in the birth of Immanuel ; for Herod the Great was the last who coukl be called the king either of Judah or Israel, and thougli he lived till Immanuel was born, he died while he wjis yet an infant ; and then, Shiloh bein"^ come, the sceptre de- parted finally from Judah, as it had long before departed from Israel (Gen. xlix. 10). 19
Suppliant before a Persian monarch.
messengers in every direction, to inform the .) ews that they were at liberty to gather them- selves together for self-defence, and to destroy all that should assault them.
The name Ahasuerus — Ahashverosh — is only the Hebrew mode of pronouncing the S&nscut kshatra ; on the Persian monuments, kskcrshe; in Greelc, Xerxes, and signifying king. Cyaxares is only another form of the same word. The two names, Aliasuerus — Xerxes, are the same, and the characters correspond. The tyrant who invaded Greece, who scourged the Hellespont, laid his roj^al mandate on Mount Athos, and inithlessly murdered the son of Pythius, has a close resemblance to the frantic and debased monarch who repudiated his wife because she would not expose herself to the gaze of drunken revellers, and who was so far under the influence of an intriguing and ambitious favourite, as, at his suggestion, to devote a large body of his industrious subjects to wanton massacre and pillage.
AHAVA (Ezra viii. 15) — a river in Chaldea, where Ezra assembled the captives who were returning to Judea, and where he proclaimed a fast, and solemnly asked for divine assistance and protection on their journey. Its precise situation is not known.
AB.AZ— possessor (2 Chr. xxviii. 1)— was the son of Jotham, and at the age of twenty succeeded him as king of Judah. Ahaz gave himseK up to gross idolatry, and even sacrificed his own children to the gods of the heathen. This course of wickedness brought upon him and upon his kingdom severe judgments. Ahaz at last abandoned himself to the most desiderate iniquity, and the kingdom of Judah was brought low and made waste because of his great sin.
Early in his reign (probably the second year) the kings of Syria and Israel, who, just at the close of Jotham's reign and life, had confeder-
AHA
Though Ahaz and liis kingdom were thus saved from the hands of the Syrians and Israehtes, he had warning of the terrible judg- ments wliich were in store for him because of his idolatry ; but neither mercy nor judgment could divei't him from the wicked purposes of his heart. He sent ambassadors to Tiglath- pileser, king of Assyria, and made him a mag- nificent present of all the gold and silver of the temple, and besought his assistance against the Syrians. In compliance wdth his wishes, the king of Assyria besieged Damascus, took it, and slew the king. Ahaz went thither to congratulate Tiglath-pileser on his victory, and there he saw an altar, the fashion of which particularly pleased him, and he ordered one to be made, and put up in the stead of G od's altar which he removed into an obscure place. Here he sacrificed to the gods of Damascus, saying, "Because the gods of the kings of Syria help them, therefore will I sacrifice to them that they may help me ; but they were the ruin of him and of all Israel," says the sacred historian. So greedy w'as this abandoned man to commit iniquity, that he wantonly mutilated and abused the furniture of the temple, broke the vessels in pieces, made him altars in every comer of Jerusalem and on the house-tops, for the worship of the stars. He seemed resolved to show how utterly reckless he was of the consequences of sin. But his impious career was cut short, for he was taken away in his iniquity at the early age of thirty-six, and was succeeded by his son Hezekiah (2 Chr. xviii. 27). Though he was buried in the city of Jerusalem, his body was not admitted to the sepulchres of the kings, but was treated wdth ignominy, as were the bodies of Jehoram and Joash, accord- ing to Chronicles. (See Tiglath-pileser.)
AHAZIAH — Jeliovah sustains. 1. (1 Ki, xxii. 40) Was the son and successor of Ahab, king of Israel. So wncked was he, that when Jehosha- phat, king of Ju lah, had j oined with him to build a fleet at Ezion-geberfortheTarshish trade, God sent his prophet to tell him that, because of his alliance with Ahaziah, even in this secular enterprise, his fleet should be destroyed; and the ships were accordingly shattered to pieces by the winds. Ahaziah was severely injured by a fall from an upper gallery in his house at Samaria, and he sent to an idol-god at Ekron, to inquire if he should recover. His messengers were met by the prophet Elijah, who informed them that Ahaziah's sickness would be fatal. They returned, and made the occurrence known to the king, who, supposing from the descrip- tion that Elijah was the man they met, forth- with sent an ofiicer and fifty men to seize him. The prophet was sitting on the brow of a hill when the officer approached, and announced the king's summons. At the prayer of Elijah, the officer and his men were instantly consumed by fire from heaven. The same doom came upon a second officer and his party of fifty men. The third officer fell on his knees before Elijah, and besought him to spare his life and the lives of his men. At an intimation from God, ]i^lijah went down with them, and told the Icing in 20
AHI
person that he should not recover ; and he soon after died, and Jehoram his brother succeeded him.
2. (2 Kings viii. 25) Called also Azariah (2 Chr. xxii. 6) — was a son of Jehoram and Athaliah, and at the age of twenty-two suc- ceeded his father as king of Judah ; though in 2 Chr, xxii. 2 it is said he was forty-two years old when he began to reign, which is an error. His uncle, Joram, the king of Israel, was wounded in a battle at Ramoth-gilead, and was carried to Jezreel to be healed. There Ahaziah visited him j and Jehu, who was left to sustain the siege (and who was in the meantime anointed king over Israel), came down to Jezreel to execute the judgment of the Lord upon Joram, the son of Ahab, and the representative of the house of Ahab. As soon as his approach was announced by the watchman, Joram and Ahaziah went out, each in his chariot, to meet him. And they met in the "portion of Naboth," with which one of Ahab's daring crimes was so closely associated, (See Ahab.) Jehu reminded Joram of the iniquities of his house, and he, suspecting treacheiy, w^amed Ahaziah to flee. Jehu then smote Joram (or Jehoram, as he is called, 2 Ki, ix. 24) through the heart with an arrow. He pursued and slew Ahaziah also, though he had strength to reach Megiddo, where he died, and was carried thence to Jerusalem, and buried, from respect to the memory of Jehoshaphat, his ancestor. (See Jehu.) In 2 Chr. xxii. the circumstances of the death of Ahaziah are stated differently; but the variation is not substantial, and does not require a separate discussion.
AHIAH. 1. (1 Ki. iv. 3) The son of Shisha, one of Solomon's scribes or secretaries.
2. (1 Sam. xiv. 3, 18) Supposed by some to be the same with Ahimelech (1 Sam. xxi. 1) — was the son of Ahitub, and his successor in the priest's office. (See Ahimelech and Ahitub.)
3. (1 Chr. viii. 7) A descendant of Benjamin. AHIJAH (1 Ki. xi. 29)— a prophet of God
who lived at Shiloh. For the most interesting and important transactions with which Ahijah was connected, see Jeroboam. He lived to a great age (1 Ki. xiv. 4).
. AHIKAM (2 Ki. xxii. 12)— a son of Shaphan, and the father of Gedaliah, was one of those whom Josiah sent to Huldah, the prophetess, to inquire of her concerning the book of the law which had been found in the temple. His influence was of great service to the prophet Jeremiah (Jer. xxvi. 24).
AHIMAAZ — brother of anger (1 Sam. xiv. 50) — son and successor of Zadok, the priest. During the revolt of Absalom, Zadok and Abiathar stayed in Jerusalem with Husliai, David's friend; while Aliimaaz and another
Joung man (son of Abiathar), whose name was onathan, stationed themselves at Enrogel,a short distance from the city ; and it was agreed that whatever Hushai should hear respecting Absalom's plans, he should communicate to Zadok and Abiathar, and they to their sons, Ahimaaz and Jonathan, by whom the intelli- gence should be communicated to David. As
AHI
goon as Absalom had rejected the counsel of Ahith(jphel, and adopted that of Hushai, Zadok and Abiathar were promptly informed of it, and directed to send with all possible haste to David. But (perhaps to avoid suspicion) the message was sent by a female. The transaction was seen by a lad, who went immediately and informed Absalom. Ahimaaz and his com- panion set off at once, however; and when they came to Bahui'im, the site of which is now un- certain, they concealed themselves in a well, to escape the observation of their pursuers. The woman of the house near which they were concealed covered the mouth of the well with a blanket, on which she spread com to dry; and when Absalom's messengers came up in the pursuit, and inquired where they were, she deceived them, and told them that the young men were in great haste, and had passed on. Thus they escaped ; and while their pursuers returned to Jerusalem, they hastened to David ■wdth their message. At his own urgent request, Ahimaaz was employed to carry the intelligence of Absalom's death to David his father. He outran Cushi, w^ho had been previously de- spatched on the same errand. Before he had delivered his message, however, Cushi came up, and made known the sad event. (See David.)
AKIMELECK— brother of the kimj (1 Sam. xxi. 1) — is supposed by some to be the same with Aliiah ; but others suppose Ahiah to have been the son of Ahitub, and his successor in the priesthood, and Ahimelech to have been his brother and successor in the same office. It is immaterial which of these opinions is correct. David, in his flight from Saul, came to Nob, where Ahimelech the priest dwelt. He represented himself to be in great haste on the king's urgent business, and by this means obtauied from Ahimelech some of the hallowed bread, and also the sword of Goliath, which was preserved among the sacred things. Doeg, the Edomite, a principal servant of Saul, who happened to be at Nob, and to be a witness of tlie intei*view between David and Ahimelech, told Saul of the matter, who immediately summoned Ahimelech and all the priests that were with him (eighty-five persons) into his presence. He charged them with a conspiracy m aiding and abetting his enemy; and they replied by declaring their ignorance of any hostile views, on the part of David, towards Saul or his kingdom. This defence, sufficient as it surely was, availed them nothing, how- ever; and the king commanded his guard to slay them. The guard declining to lay violent hands on the priests of the Lord, the king commanded Doeg to fall upon them. The foreigner did so, and smote them, and also the city of Nob where they dwelt, and all the men. Women, and children, as well as all the beasts which were found there. Abiathar, Alii- melech's son, was the only one who escaped, and he fled with an ephod in his hand to David. (See Abiathak.)
AHINOAM. 1. (1 Sam. xiv. 50) The daughter of Ahimaaz and the wife of Saul.
2. (1 Sam. XXV. 43) A woman of Jezreel and
A.JA one of David's wives. She was taken captive by the Amalekites in the siege of Ziklug, and aiterwards rescued from cajitivity by David (1 Sam. XXX. 18).
AHIO (2 Sam. vi. 3)— a son of Abinadab, who, with his brother IJzzah, was intrusted by David with the transportation of the ark from Kirjath-jearim to Jerusalem. (See Uzzah).
AHITHOPHEL— 6ro</ier of Joolisfmc38—& singular name for a man of such reputed wis- dom (2 Sam. XV. 12). A native of Giloh, and the familiar friend, companion, and counsellor of David (1 Chr. xxvii. 33). He was, indeed, one of the most eminent counsellors of his age (2 Sam. xvi. 23). David is supposed to refer to his treachery, and to term him, "my com- panion," " my guide," and " my familiar friend," in Psalm Iv. 12-14. Absalom per- suaded him to join in the conspiracy against his father David; but the cunning measures which Ahithophel proposed for the accomplish- ment of Absalom's ambitious plans were all defeated by the counsel of Hushai. Ahitho- phel, seeing that the probable issue would be the utter ruin of Absalom and his cause, which would almost necessarily involve his own destruction, returned to Giloh, and de- liberately hung himself.
AHITUB. 1. (1 Sam. xiv. 3) The son of Phinehas and grandson of Eli. Some suppose that he succeeded Eli in the priesthood. (See Ahimelech.)
2. The name of Zadok's father (1 Chr. vi. 8).
AHOLIAB (Exod. xxxv. 34)— son of Ahisa- mach, of the tribe of Dan, who, with Bezaleel, was divinely appointed to construct the taber- nacle and its furniture.
AHOLAH and AHOLIBAH (Ezek. xxiii. 4) — symbolical names for Judah and Samaria, descriptive of the spiritual lewdness of the two countries. The first name means a tent; and the second, my tent in her. God's habitation among them was polluted by their idolatries.
AHUZZATH (Gen. xxvi. 26)— a particular friend of Ahimelech, king of Gerar, and one of those who attended him when he met Isaac, and made a treaty with him at Beersheba.
AI (Josh. vii. 2) — called also Aiath (Isa. x. 28) and Aija (Neh. xi. 31) — was an elevated spot east of Bethel; the scene of Joshua's defeat, and afterwards of his victory, (Josh, viii.) (See Joshua.)
AIN or EN — a term denoting Sk fountain, and often used in names of places — as En-gedi, fountain of kills; Enmishpat, fountain of judg- ment ; Enrogel, fountain of the foot, or fviller's fountain ; /Enon, where John baptized, signifies spring of water. (See En.)
AIN (Num. xxxiv. 11)— "Eiblah, on the east side of Ain" — one of the north-eastern boundaries. The Septuagint renders, on (he. east side of the fountain, lierhaps the s^jring of the Orontes.
AIN (Josh. XV. 32) — originally a city of the tribe of Judah, but afterwards allotted to the tribe of Simeon (1 Chr. iv. 32), and given to the priests (Josh. xxi. 16).
AJAOLN. 1. (Josh, X. 12) A village of 21
AKR
Canaan given to the tribe of Dan. In the vicinity of Ajalon is the valley of the same name, memorable for the miracle of Joshua. It is now kno-vvn by the modern name of Yalo, and lies about fourteen miles from Jerusalem, to the north of the Jaffa road.
2. (Josh, xix, 42) A to^vn in the country of Zebulun, where Elon was buried. Its site is now unknoAvn.
AKRABBIM— ascent of (Num. xxxiv. 4)— or Maaleh-Acrabbim (Josh. xv. 3) — was a range of hills on the southern border of Judah towards the Dead Sea. Its name would seem to denote that it was infested with scorpions.
ALABASTER (Matt. xxvL 7)— a stone of which there are several varieties. It is a bright and elegant substance, susceptible of a fine polish, and so easily wrought that it is made into vessels of every form. The druggists in Egypt use it at the present day for the purpose of keeping medicines and perfumes. Theocritus speaks of gilded alabasters of Syriac ointment. The phrase "she brake the box," used Mark xiv. 3, seems to mean only that she opened or unsealed the vessel, as we say familiarly, "to break a bottle," when we mean to open it by drawing the cork. It was the custom in the East then, as it is now all over the world, to seal with wax anything from which it is desirable to keep the air, and this is especially necessary for the preservation of precious perfumes and ointments. The breaking of the wax would be naturally denoted by the expression.
ALEXANDER. _ 1. (Mark xv. 21) The son of Simon the Cyrenian.
2. (Acts iv. 6) A distinguished Jew, who, with others, took part against Peter and John.
3. (Acts xix. 33) A Jew of Ephesus, who took a conspicuous part in the controversy between Paul and the populace of that city, and attempted without success to quell the commotion.
4. A convert and apostate (1 Tim. i. 19, 20 ; 2 Tim. iv. 14). Perhaps the same with the coppersmith whom Paul rebukes.
ALEXANDRIA (Acts xviii. 24; xxvii. 6) — a celebrated city of Egypt, founded by Alex- ander the Great, about B.C. 332. It was situ- ated on a strip of land on the southern coast of the ]\Iediterranean, and between that and the lake Mareotis, rather south of the present city of the same name. Ancient Alexandria was at one time the centre of scientific know- ledge; the rival of Rome in size, and the first commercial city of the earth. Historians tell us that its free population exceeded 300,000, and it had at the same time an equal number of slaves. Its ancient magnificence maybe knouTi from the ruins of spacious streets, and the fragments of colonnades, obelisks, and temples. After Alexander's death it became the regal capital of Egypt, and was the residence of the Ptolemies for 292 years, lliey enriched it with numerous elegant edifices, and furnished it with a library of 700,000 volumes, which was burnt by the Saracens in the seventh century. It was famous also for its lighthouse, built on the island of Pharos. From the days 2'^
ALL
of the apostles to the Saracen invasion, it was under the dominion of Rome : and as it was an
extensive market for grain, the centurion who had charge of Paul on his way as a prisoner to Rome readily "found a ship of Alexandria, laden with com, sailing into Italy." Some of the persecutors of Stephen -were from this city, and so was the eloquent ApoUos. Here also_ lived Clement and Origen, the famous Christian fathers. And here, too, was the Greek or Alexandrian version of the Bible made, usually called the Septuagint. Many Jews lived in Alexandria, having a governor of their own, called the Alabarch, and they had several sjTiagogues. (See Scriptures. )
Modern Alexandria is built of the ruins of the ancient city. It is merely the port of Cairo, where vessels touch, and exchanges of merchandise are made. It is 125 miles north- west of Cairo, is the residence of many Euro- pean merchants and factors, and has a popula- tion of about 40,000.
ALEXANDRIANS (Acts vi. 9)— Jews from Alexandria who were present at Jerusa- lem when Stephen preached there, and where they had a synagogue by themselves. Perhaps the Libertines and Cyrenians worshipped with them, or each sect or school might have had separate synagogues. In either case they are properly described as being "certain of the synagogue which is called the synagogue of the Alexandrians," &c.
ALGUM. (SeeALMUG.)
ALIEN (Exod. xviii. 3) — a foreigner or per- son bom in another country, and not having the usual rights and privileges of the citizens of the country in which he lives. The force of the figure, Eph. ii. 12, is sufficiently obvious.
ALLEGORY (Gal. iv. 24)— a figure of speech, nearly resembling the parable or fable, common in the Scriptures and among all oriental nations. It personifies irrational and inanimate objects or moral qualities, and en- forces and illustrates tx"uth by their conduct or by a supposed conversation between them. Bunyan's Filgrini's Progress is a beautiful allegory.
The clause, Gal. iv. 24, in wh'ch the word " allegory" occurs, should be rendered " which things are allegorized." Certain events in the history of Isaac and Ishmael are adduced as foreshadowing im])ortant truths, which the reader of the sim]ile nan-ative might not easily discover. But the assertion that a portion of early history is allegorized is very diflerenb from saying that it is an allegory.
ALL ALLELUIA (Rev. xix. 1), or HALLE- TiUJAH — a Hebrew word signifying Praise ye the Lord. It was a common exclamation of i(»y and jiraise in the Jewish worship, and be- gins and concludes several of the ijsalms, as cvi,, cxi., cxiii., cxvii., and cxxxv.
ALL-TO (.Tudg. ix. 53)— "And aU to break
lis skull." The words "all to" do not mean
*and all for the purpose of" breaking. All-to
an old J^^nglish word, and signifies "tJiorough-
' — " and comjiletely broke his skull."
ALMOND (Gen. xliii. U)— a wsll-known
lit, and among the best that Canaan pro-
aced. The loaves and blossoms of the almond
2e resemble those of the peach tree, and it is
jmarkable for its early maturity. It flowers
January and gives its fruit in April. The
lit is enclosed in a tough shell, and this again
ithin a horny husk, which opens of itself
^hen the fruit is ripe. It is cultivated with
;at care at the present day in England for its
irly and beautiful flowers, and in the south of
Surope for exportation.. The tree blossoms on
■ e bare branches, and hence the striking
lusion of the poet : —
"Tlio hope, in dreams of a happier hour, That alights on misery's brow, Springs out of the silvery almond flower That blooms on a leatiess bough."
.The original word from which almond is de- rived, means to make haste, or awake ear- ly, denoting its hasty growth and early ma- turity. Hence the allusion in Jer.. i. 12, is to the haste with wliich God would send his judgments, or the vigilance with which he watched over his word to fulfil it. So the chiefs of the tribes had almond rods, em- blematical of the vigil- ance which became them as the leaders of God's chosen people (Num. xvii. 6-8). In Eccl. xii. 5 allusion may be made to the ■white silvery hair which, ere one is well aware, covers the head in old age, and which, if foimd in the way of rigliteousness, is a crown of glory. Others, however, render the clause, " and the almond sliall be despised," that is, by the old man who is toothless.
, ALMS, ALMS-DEEDS (Matt. vi. 1; Acts ix. 3G)— deeds of charity, or (Luke xi. 41) the thing given in charity. The giving of alms is :in important duty enjoined by the Scriptures, and the manner of it is prescribed (see Acts x. 2-4,^ and the passages already cited).
The regulations of the Mosaic law in refer- ence to the poor were very judicious, considerate, anil kind. Ample provision was made for the unfortunate by a vai-iety of statutes. Yet, in
ALP
consequence of national degeneracy, we find that begging was a c(jmmi>n jjractice in the time of our Lord. Alms-giving, therefore, became a necessary duty. (See Poor. )
ALMUG TREl<:S (1 Ki. x. 11), or ALGUM TREES (2 Chr. ii. 8) — one of the kinds of timber which Solomon ordered from Tyre for the building of the temple. Jewish historians describe it as a fine wnite, glossy wood, and used for musical instruments, and the orna- mental work of the temple. Dr. Shaw sup- poses it to have been the cypress, which is still used for harj^sichords and other stringed instruments. Kimchi supposed it to be Brazil wood ; and Maria Callcott (Scripture Herbal) identifies it with thyine wood. The Vulgate has thijina. But there seems little doubt that it was the far-famed sandal wood of the East, so highly prized for its fineness, fragrance, durability, and the beautiful polish which it takes.
ALOES (Song iv. 14). One species is a plant vnih. broad thick prickly leaves. The juice of this plant, when boiled, j^roduces the medicinal article called aloes ; and it is said to have been used in embalm- ing (John xix. 39). The Cape of Good Hope and the islands of Sumatra and Ceylon furnish, many varieties.
Lign-aloe, or Aloe, was a dif- ferent plant from the preceding, and was other- wise named agal- lochum (Num. xxiv. 6). The smell of it is very fragrant, and the wood of some species is worth more than its weight in gold. Besides its use as a strong perfume, it was employed for fine cabinet and ornamental work. Perhaps, after all, one kind of aloe, or the agallochum, is referred to in Scripture.
ALPHA (Rev. i. 8; xxi. 6; xxii. 13)— the name of the first letter of the Greek alpha- bet. " I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last," is the expressive language emjiloyed by our Saviour in reference to himself. The phrase among the Jews to denote from first to last was, " from Aleph to Tau," which are the names of the first and last letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The expressions in the passages cited denote the eternity and perfection of the Being to whom they are applied; and their force Avill appear by comparing them with Isa. xlL 4; xliv. 6; xlviii. 12.
ALPHEUS. L (Matt x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13) The father of the apostle James. 2. (Mark ii. 14) The father of 23
\)&.M/!^
^
ALT
Levi, or Matthew, as he is called, Matt. ix. 9. Many suppose that the first Alj)heus was the same pei'son as Cleophas, who is mentioned John xix. 25, and he is by many conjectured to be the husband of Mary, sister of our Lord's mother, so that James, his son, is called our Lord's brother, (Compare Matt. xiii. 55 and xxvii. 56, and Mark vi. 3 and Luke xxiv. 10.) (See James, JosES.)
ALTAR, (Gen. viii. 20)— a structure appro- priated exclusively to the offering of sacrifices. (See Sacki- FiCES.) Though sacrifices were offered before the flood, the word altar does not occur unti3. the time of No- ah's departure from the ark. The building of them in connec- tion with the in- vocation of the name of God is ■often referred to in the patriarch-
.*===:*^ ^xis^^-^-y^--/<^-3, ^1 history. ^^^^^ £2£^^^ Altars were of
various foiTQS, and at first very rude in their construction, being nothing more, probably, than a square heap of stones, or mound of earth. The altar on which Jacob made an offering at Bethel was the single stone which had served him for a pillow during the night (Gen. xxviii. 18). The altar which Moses was commanded to build (Exod. xx. 24) was to be made of earth. If made of stone, it was expressly required to be rough, the sculpture of ornaments, which might easily degenerate into images, being strictly forbidden, and the use of an iron tool being regarded as polluting (Exod. xx. 25). It was also to be made without steps (Exod. xx. 26. See also Deut. xxvii. 2-6, and Josh, viii, 31). The altar also had horns (Exod. xxvii, 2; 1 Ki. ii. 28; Rev. ix. 13). They were prob- ably used to confine the victim (Ps. cxviii. 27). Altars were erected to commemorate im- portant events, as at the defeat of Amalek (Exod. xvii. 15). For idolatrous purposes, altars were often built in groves and on high places, which very speedily became scenes of pollution and idolatry.
The altars required in the Jewish worship were — 1. The altar of burnt offering, or the brazen altar, in the tabernacle in the wilder- ness; this altar stood directly in front of the principal entrance. It was made of shittim wood, and was about 7 feet and 6 inches square, and 4 feet and 6 inches high. It was hollow, and covered or overlaid with plates of brass. The horns (of which there was one on each comer) were of wood, and overlaid in the same way. A grate or net- woi-k of brafjs was also attached to it, either to hold the fire or to support a hearth of 2-1
Altar— Temple.
ALT
earth. The furniture of the altar was all of brass, and consisted of such articles as a shovel to remove the ashes from the altar, and a pan to receive them ; the skins or vessels for receiving the blood of the victims, and hooks for turning the sacrifice. At each comer was a brass ring, and there were also two staves or rods overlaid with brass which passed through these rings, and served for carrying the altar from place to place. The fire used on this altar was perpetually maintained. It was kindled miraculously, and the sacred flame was cherish e d with the most devoted care. It was also a place of con- stant sacri- fice : fresh blood was shed upon it continually, and the smoke of the burning sacrifice ascended up towards heaven without interruption.
In the first temple (which, in its general plan was constructed after the pattern of the taber- nacle in the wilderness, that being a tent and this a house of larger dimensions), the altar of burnt offering stood in the same relative position as in the tabernacle. It was much larger, however, being 30 feet square and 15 feet high ; its particular plan being appointed expressly by divine authority (1 Chr. xxviii. 11-20). It was ascended either by a series of three platforms according to some, or accord- ing to others by an inclined plane — steps are attached to the east side of the altar in Ezekiel's vision. And in the second temple it occupied the same position, though it was still larger and more beautiful than the first. We refer to the one built by Herod, described both by Josephus and in the Talmud.
2. The altar of incense, or the golden altar, stood within the holy place, and near to the inmost vail (Exod. xxx. 1-6). It was made of the same wood with the brazen altar, and was 18 inches square and 3 feet high. The top, as well as the sides and horns, was plated with pure gold, and it was finished around the upper surface with a crown or border of gold. Just below this border four golden rings were attached to each side of the altar, one near each corner. The staves or rods for bearing the altar passed through these rings, and were made of the same wood with the altar itself, and richly overlaid with the same precious metal. The incense altar in Solomon's temple was very similar. What became of the one in the second temple, which was restored by Judas Maccabaeus, is not known. It does not appear on the arch of Titus among the representations of the spoils of the temple. Upon this altar incense was burnt every morning and every
AIMA
evening (see Incense), so that it was "per- jjetual'' (Exod. xxx. 8). Neither bunit sacii- fice, nor meat oflfering, nor drink offering, was jiermitted upon this altar; nor was it ever .stained with blood except once a year, when tlie priest made atonement (Lev. xvi. 18, 19).
The altar was an imjiortant portion of reli- ious furniture among the ancients, and forms " it among various nations, both square and »imd, have been preserved. Altars were gen- lly dedicated to certain divinities whose they bore. Some, however,.were anony- )us ; and one in Athens bore the remarkable 3cription, "To the unknown God" — that is, some crisis (a time of plague, according to iogenes Laertius) they knew not what god to jpitiate, and therefore built this nameless ^ Itar. The Romans often festooned their altars ^(vith garlands and flowers, while their sides were sculptured with symbols of the gods to whom they were consecrated. The altar was also an asylum for criminals, both among the Jews and other ancient peopla Persons in dread of death fled and "laid hold upon the horns of the altar" (1 Ki. i. 50).
AMALEK (Gen. xxx\4. 16). He was the son of Ehphaz, and grandson of Esau. Some have supposed him to be the father of the Amalekites, but they are mentioned as a powerful people long before the birth of Amalek (Gen. xiv. 7). The Arabians have a tradition that he was the son of Ham.
AMALEKITES (1 Sam. xv. 6)— a power- ful j)eople who occupied the country between Palestine and Egypt, called, Num. xxiv. 20, "First of aU the nations." They were the first who attacked the Israelites, and made an onslaught on the feeble who Imgered on the march. This predatory horde, who seem to h3,ve subsisted wholly by plunder (a nest of "land-pirates"), were signally defeated in a contest with the children of Israel at Rephidim ; and for their guilt in opposing the progress of God's people, they became objects of his terrible judgments. They were afterwards defeated and repulsed by Gideon (Judg. vii. 12), and by Saul (1 Sam. xv.), and by David (1 Sam. xxx. ) ; till at last the word of the Lord was fulfilled to the very letter, and their name was blotted from the earth (1 Sam. xxx. 17, and 1 Chr. iv. 43).
AMANA (Song iv. 8)— a peak of one of the moiuitains of Lebanon; probably so called from a river of similar name which flowed from it. (See Abana.)
AlVIASA (1 Chr. il 17)— a son of Jether, who is elsewhere called Ithra (2 Sam. xvii. 25), Absalom placed him at the head of his troops in the rebellion agahist his father David ; but he was defeated by his cousin Joab. After- wards, David recognizing the relationship be- tween them, not only pardoned Amasa, but made him captain of his host in the room of Joab. On the revolt of Sheba, David required Amasa to assemble tlie peoi)le within three days, and march with them to suppress it ; but in consequence of his delay, the king despatched Abishai with such an army as could be mus-
AMA
tered at the moment, and together with Joab they i)urs»ied after Sheba. At a particular place in Gibeon, Amasa joined them. The envious and mortified Joab approached to sa- lute him, and seized the opportunity to inflict upon him a deadly wound.
AMASAI (1 Chr. vi. 25) — a Levite, and one of the sons of Elkanah. He was chief of a gallant party that came to David when he was flying from Saul (1 Chr. xii. 16-18). David gladly availed himself of their aid, and gave them commissions in his army.
AMAZIA-YL—Strenyth of Jehovah (2 Ki. xiv. 1-20)— the eighth king of Judah, was son and successor of Jehoash. He commenced his reign in the twenty-fifth year of his age. His char- acter is peculiarly described. His religion was not the result of sincere conviction, nor was it uniform and consistent. It was moulded and modified by circumstances. "He did that which was right in the sight of the Lord, but not with a perfect heart" (2 Chr. xxv. 2; 2 Ki. xiv. 3). At the commencement of his reign he showed an outward regard to the law of the Lord ; but power and ambition turned his heart. At length a powerful conspiracy was formed against him, and he was destroyed by the hand of violence.
On his accession to the throne, Amaziah re- solved to make war upon the Edomites, who had revolted fix>m the kingdom of Judah sev- eral years before (2 Ki. viii. 20) ; and for this purpose he raised an army of 300,000 men from among his own subjects, and hired 100,000 men of Israel, for whose services he paid £40,000. Before he commenced the expedition, however, he was directed by divine authority to disband his hired soldiers, and was told that if he did not, he should certainly fall before his enemies. After some hesitation he dismissed the Israel- itish army and sent them home. Amaziah met the Edomites in a place called the Valley of Salt, and gained a signal victory over them, slaying 10,000, taking 10,000 prisoners, and capturing Selah or Petra, their capital. Elated by his success, and forgetful of the God of battles who had given him the victory, he took the idols which his vanquished enemy had worshipped, and set them up as his own gods. The anger of the Almighty was kindled against him, and he sent a message to him, the very terms of which exposed and rebuked his sin (2 Chr. xxv. 15). The king was already hard- ened enough to question the authority of God's messenger, and even to threaten him with death. He was wanied of the destruction he would bring upon himself for liis idolatry and unbelief. Thus given up to follow his owti devices, he sought occasion of war Avith the king of Israel. The answer of that king to the challenge was given in the form of a fable, but was expressive of the utmost contempt, and contained at the same time a severe rebuke to the king of .Tudah for his pride and vain-glory. Amaziah was not to be deterred from his piur- pose ; and he met the army of Israel at Beth- shemesh in Judea, and it is said by Jewish historians that the army of Judah was sud- 25
AMB
denly seized with a panic, and fled before Israel without a blow on either side. Amaziah was taken prisoner by the king of Israel, who forth- with proceeded to break down a section of the city wall 600 feet in length, and marched through the breach; plundered the temple of its gold and silver vessels; seized the king's treasures, and, taking such hostages as he pleased, returned in triumph to Samaria, leav- ing the king of Judah to reflect on the folly and madness of rejecting the counsel and disobeying the command of God, (2 Ki. xiv.) About fifteen years after this disgraceful defeat, Amaziah fled from Jerusalem to Lachish to escape assassination, but he was followed by the conspirators to the place to which he fled, and put to death. His body was taken back to Jerusalem and buried with his fathers. (See Amos.)
AMBASSADOE (JosKix. 4; Isa. xxxiii. 7) ■ — a person appointed to some business in a foreign country, in the transaction of which he represents the government that appoints him (2 Chr. xxxii. 31). Many instances occur in the Old Testament. The word is used of the apostles (2 Cor. v. 18-20), to denote that they were sent forth by divine authority, and fur- nished with divine credentials, to proclaim the terms of pardon and eternal life to the rel^ellious and condemned subjects of God's government in this world. The imprisoned apostle calls himseK an ambassador in bonds — among states a violation of all international law.
AMBASSAGE (Luke xiv. 32)— a public message. The term may include the messenger or ambassador as well as his message. ^ AMBER (Ezek. i. 4, 27 ; viii. 2)— a beau- tiful bituminous resin, susceptible of a fine polish, and presenting several colours, though chiefly yellow and orange. It is foiind in Prussia, and near the shores of the Baltic Sea. In the passages cited the allusion is simply to the colour of amber, and does not imply that it is indestructible by fire ; or rather, as others suppose, the reference is to a peculiar metal of dazzling brilliancy — a mixture of gold and copper, or gold and silver.
AMEN — true, faithful (Deut. xx\-ii. 15). This word, thoiigh variously used, has substan- tially the same meaning. It is an aflfirmative response, and is used to denote assent, or entire acquiescence. After a creed, it means, "so it is;" af ter a i^rayer, " so let it be " (Deut. xxvii. 15-26). It is sometimes translated verily, and was frequently used by our Saviour when he was about to utter some distinct, important, and solemn truth. Its repetition, " verily, verily, I say unto you, " strengthens the assertion.
It was the custom among the early Christians for all the worshippers to say amen at the close of the prayer, or of the giving of thanks (1 Cor. xiv. 16). One may say that this is almost the only form of worship prescribed in the New Testament. The promises of God are amen, because they are made sure and certain in Christ (2 Cor. i. 20). Amen is one of the titles of our blessed Saviour (Rev. iii. 14), as he is the faithful and true witness. 2G
AMM
AMETHYST. This gem has its name, -m which is a Greek compound, from the notion m that it was a kind of amulet which charmed ™ away the effects of drunkenness. It was one of the most valuable of the precious stones. It has a variety of colours, though purple prevaUa . (Exod. xxxix. 12). It was one of the stones in ■ the high j)riest's breastplate. M
AMMINADAB (Exod. vi. 23)— Aaron's father-in-law. The allusion to the chariots of Amminadab, or Amminadib (Song vi. 12), may refer to the known beauty and swiftness of tlie vehicles of some famous charioteer. In the margin, however, it is rendered, " my Avilling people."
AMMONITES, or children of AMMON (Gen. xix. 38) — were the descendants of Ben- ammi, a son of Lot, by incest. He was born in the neighbourhood of Zoar, but his jjosterity spread northwardly, and occupied the moun- tainous regions of Gilead, between the rivers Arnon and Jabbok. In fact, they had con- quered an earUer people — the Rephaim, or Jamgummims — and seized their territory. Originally their possessions were bounded north by the river Jabbok, west by Jordan, south by Arnon, and stretched eastward into Arabia. The Amorites, under Sihon their king, expelled them from the richest part of their possessions, which lay between the two rivers ; but Moses recovered it from the Amor- ites, and divided it between Reuben and Gad. The western boundary of the Ammonites then became a branch of the river Jabbok, on which their capital city, Rabbah or Rabbath-Ammon, stood, and the mountains of Gilead bounded them on the east, while the main stream of the Jabbok continued tobetheirnorthern boundary, and the land of Moab the southern. This last is intended by the kingdom of Ammon as used in the sacred history.
The children of Ammon were gross idolaters (Judg. X. 6). Their chief idol was Moloch, the same with Baal, Milcom, &c. ; and their history is fuU of the judgments which their sins brought upon them, though they were spared, by God's express command, wdien Israel passed by them from Egyjit. Yet they showed no friendship for the Hebrew w^anderers, and so were per- petually excluded from entering into the con- gregation of the Lord (Deut. ii. 19; xxiii. 3; 2 Chr. XX. 10).
Three hundred years afterwards the king of the Ammonites made war upon the Israelites, under the pretence that they had taken his land (Judg. xi. 13) ; and after a severe battle the Ammonites Avere routed with great slaughter. In the beginning of Saul's reign (1 Sam. xi. 1) the Ammonites, imder Nahash their king, attacked Jabcsh-gilead, biit proposed to spare the inhaV)itants, provided they would all con- sent to lose the right eye. During the time allowed for their answer, they collected a suf- ficient force to meet the Ammonites, and so completely routed them, that two of them were not left together. Fiftj'- or sixty years after this, one of the kings of the Ammonites died ; and David, who seems to have been under some
AMM
obligation to him, sent a message of condolence to his son and successor. This friendly act was not received kindly, and the messengers of David were grossly abused and insulted. (See Hanun.) Expecting that David would attempt to revenge th(i insult, they obtained large sup- )lies of men from the Syrians ; and when David leard of their preparation for war, he sent lb with a cliosen trooj) from the army of j1 to meet them. The result was fatal to Ammonites. They and their allies were lued, and fled. Kabbah, their capital, and all the rest of their cities, were afterwards destroyed by the Israelites, the king's crown was taken from his head and put on David's, and the people were reduced to a state of abject servitude (2 Sam. xii. 29-31). In this condition they remained till the reign of Jehoshaphat, when they united with tlie Moabites and otners, made war upon Judah, and were miraculously cut off, (2 Chr. XX.) Jotham fought and pre- vailed against them, and made them tributary for several years. The most dreadful judg- ments were threatened against them and their chief city, because they seized and occupied a part of the territory of Israel (Jer. xlix. 1-6) ; and again, because they insolently triumphed over the Israelites in the days of their cap- tivity (Ezek. XXV. 2-7, 10); and every threat was executed to the very uttermost in due time, as profane history abundantly attests. They soon became extinct as a nation ; and Origen, a writer of the third century, assures us, that in his time they were only known under the general name of Arabs. They were never better at any time than Arabs, for they had always been a wild, unsettled, and ijredatory race. (See Rabbah.) A:\LM0N-N0. (See Amon, No.) AMXON (1 Chr. iii, 1) Avas the eldest son of David, and was guilty of violating the chas- tity of his half-sister, Tamar, (2 Sam. xiii.) David was very angry, though he did not punish Amnon ; but his brother Absalom de- termined to revenge the injury; and, after cherishing his purpose for two years, he finally executed it in his house, at a feast to which he had invited Amnon, with the rest of his father's family. (See Absalom. )
AMOl^i— artificer (2 Ki. xxi. 18-26)— the fourteenth king of Judah, and the son and successor of Manasseh. Amon resembled his father in many things — copied all the bad ele- ments of his character. He addicted himself to the worship of idols, and scorned the national faith ; " forsook the Lord God of his fathers, and wallced not in the way of the Lord ;" — nay, "he served all the carved images which his father had made." Such is the dark account of him given in the books of Kings and Chronicles. But he did not imitate his father's penitence and reformation — "he trespassed more and more." His reign lasted only two years. A consi)iracy was formed against him among his courtiers, for what reasons we know not. The assassination of a king is, under despotic governments, the short, sharp way of obtaining redress or political ciiaugc. " His
AMO
servants conspired against him, and slew him in his own house." But his assasHins liad not gained the popular sympathy or apjirobation^
the people of the land slew all those that had conspired against king Amon." Manasseh was buried in the garden of his own h(m.se," otherwise called "the garden of Uzza;" and Amon was buried in the same place. He was succeeded by his son Josiah.
2. In Jer. xlvi. 26 our version reads, "the multitude of No;" but the margin has, rightly,
" Ammon of No " — that is, Thebes. Amon-ra was one of the eight great gods, and was worshipped in that Egyptian city. Ra means sun, and the name shows his connection with that luminary.
AMORITi:S (Gen. x. 16). They are de- scribed as "those who dwell in the mountains " (Num. xiii. 29), or highlanders, in conti-ast to Canaanites or lowlanders, who dwelt in the valleys. They were of gigantic statr.re and great courage (Amos ii. 9), and inhabited one of the most fertile districts of the country, being bounded on three sides by the rivers Amon, Jabbok, and Jordan. But their territory, or conquests, stretched as far as Hennon (Dent, iii. 8). The Israelites asked pennission of their king to travel through their territory, but it was refused. The Amorites collected and attempted to oppose their progress, but were defeated and their territory taken and divided between the tribes of lleuben and Gad. A jiortion of tho 27
AMO same people dwelt early among the precipices west of the Dead Sea (Gen. xiv. 7). The name is sometimes used with a rude significance, as if equivalent to Canaanite.
AMOS — a burden (Amos i. 1) — one of the lesser prophets, who lived in the reign of Uzziah king of Judah, and in the latter part of the reign of Jeroboam the second, nearly 800 years before Christ. He was a contem- porary of Hosea. While employed as a herds- man at Tekoah, he was divinely appointed to prophesy against Israel. He was driven from Bethel upon the false representation made to the king by the idolatrous priest Amaziah. The time and manner of his death are un- certain.
In the days of Amos the kingdom of Israel had regained somewhat of its ancient grandeur and territory. The proud Israelites are de- picted by the prophet as exclaiming, "Have we not acquu'ed dominion?" Yet their con- sequent luxury, injustice, andimi:»iety rendered their temporal prosperity short-lived, and brought do\vn upon them the curse of Jehovah. The denunciations of Amos were delivered to the guilty people at this crisis, but their hearts were hardened, the prophet was ridiculed, and his message contemned. The prophecy begins with awful fidminations against the surround- ing kingdoms, but the doom at length concen- trates on Israel itself. Israel is warned and admonished, is beset with severest menaces, and indulged again with glowing invitations to repentance. The poetical style of this old Hebrew bard is full of vivid imagery. His images are both natural and striking — "as if a man fled from a lion, and a bear met him ; or leaned upon the wall, and a serj^ent bit him." His figures are often taken from his occupa- tion. The vineyard and the pasture ground supply him with varied and ever-recurring sjonbols. How beautiful and original his de- scription of the extreme fruitfulness of the land! "The plougher shall overtake the reaper, and the treader of grapes, the sower of seed." He excels in powerful delineation. His spirit was fresh and vigorous as the verdant fields where he had wandered. His metaphors are often startling as a thunder-clap. Nay, what is more surprising, this shepherd-prophet writes with no little eloquence and polish. His language has no rustic awkwardness, but its rhythm is smooth and uniform. Variations in orthography give but a pleasing zest to his style. Jerome was in error, therefore, when he thought him unskilled in speech — judging him rashly from his early employment. He is equal to any of the proi)hets, not only in splendour and variety of imagery, but also in beauty and elegance of diction. The estimate of Lowth is nearer the truth, "our shepherd is not a whit behind the very chief of the prophets. " In the first and second chapters occur regular strophes — a proof of his literary skill and taste.
AMPHIPOLIS (Acts xvii. 1)— a city of
European Turkey, originally founded by Cimon,
the renowned Athenian general (b.c. 500), and
formerly the capital of Eastern Macedonia.
28
ANA
It lay on the river Strymon, about seventy miles east of Thessalonica. Now an obscure place called by the Turks Jeni-Keni, or New Town.
AMRAPHEL (Gen. xiv. 1-16)— the Hamite king of Shinar (Gen. xi. 2) who, confederate with other kings, made war on Sodom and the other cities of the plain, plundering them, and making prisoners of their inhabitants. Among the captives was Lot, Abraham's nephew. (See Lot.)
ANAH. (See Mules.)
ANAK (Num. xiii. 22) was the son of Arba, who gave the name of Kirjath-arba, or city of Arba, to what is other^vise called HelDron (Josh, xiv. 15). Anak had three sons, who were giants ; and their children, who were called Anakims, were also remarkable for their stature and fierceness. In the time of Moses they occu- pied the territory between Hebron and Jeru- salem, and were divided into several tribes or clans (Josh. xi. 21, 22). They were, however, cut off by Joshua and Caleb, and the Israelites entered into their possessions. The messen- gers who were sent forward by the Israelites to search the land reported themselves to be as grasshoppers in comparison with the children of Anak. (See Giants.)
ANAMMELECH. (See Adeammelech.)
ANANIAS. 1. (Acts. v. 1-10) One of the professed converts to the Christian faith under the preaching of the apostles. When the dis- ciples had thrown then- property into a common stock, Ananias sold his estate, and brought a part of the purchase-money, pretending that it was the whole proceeds of the sale. Being charged by Peter with his flagrant and aggravated sin, he fell down dead upon the spot. His wife Sapphira, who was privy to the fraud of her husband, but ignorant of his dreadful end, being asked for how much their estate had been sold, confirmed the falsehood which Ananias had told, and instantly met the same dreadful doom.
2. (Acts xxii. 12) A primitive disciple who lived at Damascus, and was commissioned to visit Paul soon after his conversion, and restore him to sight. The apostle tells us what took place on that occasion, and also speaks of Ana- nias as a devout man, and highly esteemed in the place of his residence. It is thought by many that he was one of the seventy disciples, and that he died a martyr.
3. (Acts xxiii. 2) A Jewish high priest. When Paul was commencing his defence before the Jewish Sanhedrim, Ananias, who became, in 48 A.D., high priest, ordered him to be struck upon the mouth. The apostle, sensible of the violation of his rights, rebuked the high priest for his breach of the very law he was appointed to administer. Upon being reminded of the official character of Ananias, as "God's high priest," the apostle replied, I wist not that he was God's high priest." The apostle does not plead defective eyesight, or that he did not identify the high priest, or that he regarded him as a usurper ; but he simply says that, in speaking as he had done, the fact that he was
ANA
addressing the high priest was not at the mo- ment i)re.sent to his mind. The prophetic doom pronounced \ipon liim by the apostle was verified, for he fell by the da^'gers of the Sic- arii, at the beginning of the Jewisli war. He was a venal and ambitious hypocrite. ANATHEMA (1 Cor. xvi. 22). It means the , 4evoting of an animal, person, or place to God, jij^JM^ divine vengeance (Lev. xxvii. 28; Josh. I^^BlG), that he may be glorified on it. Another HPvek form of the same word (anathema) signi- ^Tes any gift presented to God, that he may be glorified in it, and is used in the original of Luke xxi. 5. (See Accursed.)
Anathejia MAR.VNATHA is a Syriac excla- mation, signifying accursed, our Lord cometh. These resemble the words with which the Jews began the sentence of utter excommunication ; not onljr cutting the subject off from their communion, but consigning him, as far as it was possible, to everlasting perdition.
ANATHOTH (Josh. xxi. 18)— a sacerdotal city of the tribe of Benjamin, situated a few miles north of Jerusalem. It was the birth- place of Jeremiah (Jer. i. 1), and the subject of one of his prophecies (Jer. xi. 19-22), as well as of Isaiah's (Isa. x. 30). It is also an interesting
glace in connection with the Jewish history (2 am. xxiii. 27; 1 Ki. ii. 26; Neh. vii. 27). Robinson identifies it as the village of Anata — about four miles from Jerusalem. ' ANCHOR (Acts xxvii. 29). (See Ships.)
Used symbolically, the word denotes what- ever sustains the soul amidst the storms of griefs and fears that may assail it. The grace of hope has such an influence on the believing heart, and is called its anchor (Heb. vi. 19). ^ ANCIENT OF DAYS (Dan. vii. 9, 13, 22) is applied to Jehovah, and evidently refers to his eternal and unchanging essence.
ANDREW (John i. 40)— the son of Jonas and brother of Simon Peter, was a native of Bethsaida, in Galilee, and originally a disciple of John the Baptist, whom he left to follow our Saviour. When he had found the Messiah, he forthwith sought his brother Simon, and brought him to Jesus, and soon after they both attached themselves to the little band of his disciples, and followed him till the close of his ministrv. The events with which Andrew was particularly connected are recorded in Matt. IV. 18-20 ; Mark xiii. 3 ; and JMn i. 35-40 ; vi. 3-13 ; xii. 22. Tradition varies as to the scene of his apostolical labours, though it is generally agreed that he suffered martyrdom.
ANGEL (Gen. xxiv. 7). This word, both in the Greek and Hebrew languages, signifies a messenger. The original word is often applied to men (2 Sam. ii. 5; Luke vii. 24; ix. 52). When the term is used, as it generally is, to designate spiritual beings, it denotes, not the nature they bear, but the office they sustain as God's messengers, or agents by whom he makes kno\\-n his will and executes the purposes of his government.
Our knowledge of the existence of such beings is derived whollv from revelation, and that rather incidentally. We know, from their
ANG
residence and employment, that they must possess knowledge and purity far beyond our present conceptions ; and the titles applied to them denote the exalted i)lace they hold among created intelligencies. They are a race of creatures above man, more highly exalted in the great scale of being, and not furnished with an animal constitution. "He maketh his angels spirits " — that is, they are not corporeal —have not an animal organism like man.
Of their appearance and employment we may form some idea from the following passages : — viz., Gen. xvi. 7-11. Conapare Gen. xviii. 2; xix. 2, with Heb. xiii. 2; Judg. xiii. 6; Ezek. X. ; Dan. iii. 28; vi. 22; Matt. iv. 11; xviiL 10; xxviii. 2-7; Luke i. 19; xvi. 22; xxii. 43; Acts vi. 15; xii. 9; Heb. i 14; ii 16; 2 Thess. i. 7 ; Rev. x. 1, 2, 6. .
Of their number some idea may be inferred from 1 Ki. xxii. 19; Ps. Ixviii. 17; Dan. vii. 10; Matt. xxvi. 53; Luke ii. 9-14; 1 Cor. iv. 9; Heb. xii. 22.
Of their strength we may judge from Ps. ciii. 20; 2 Pet. ii. 11; Rev. v. 2; xviii. 21; xix. 17.
And we learn their inconceivable activity from Judg. xiii. 20; Isa. vi. 2-6; Matt. xiii. 49; xxvi. 53 ; Acts xxvii. 23 ; Rev. viii. 13.
These are but a few of the leading passages in which some intimations are given of this superior order of spiritual beings. There is also an order of evil spirits, fallen from their first estate, ministering to the will of the prince of darkness, and both active and powerful in their opposition to the will and government of God (Matt. XXV. 41). There are various degrees or classes among them (Eph. i. 21 ; 1 Pet. iii. 21). The above references, if examined closely, will afford very satisfactory knowledge respect- ing the character, employment, &c., of the heavenly messengers. It may not be amiss to remark, however, —
1. That the expression (Matt, xviii. 10) seems to denote the relation which the children of God sustain to him, and of course to his people, and the watchful care and protection which they enjoy. The angels which minister to them behold the face of God — that is, though high in honour and dignity, yet thej' rejoice to do ser- vice to "these little ones." The same idea is suggested in other passages, as Ps. xci. 11, 12 ; Luke XV. 10 ; Acts xii. 15. Or the angels goiard- ing the little ones are so lofty in honour that they are among the spiritual magnates whose prerogative it is to stand in thfe divine presence and near to the throne.
2. The angels in heaven have never sinned, and are not therefore partakers of the benefit of Christ's blood, as men are. Yet, as this wonderful scheme of mercy and grace declares and illustrates the infinite glory of the divine perfections, so their conceptions of the divine character are enlarged by the contemplation of it, and their happiness greatly increased (Eph. iii. 10; IPet. i. 12).
3. They will be the future companions of the heirs of salvation (Heb. xii. 22, 23 ; Rev. v. 11, 12). They carry souls to paradise (Luke xvi, 22),
ANG-
4. Angels are to sustain an important office in the future and final administration of God's government on earth (Matt. xiii. 39; xxv. 31- 33 ; 1 Thess. iv. 16).
5. Angels are not proper objects of adoration (Col. ii. 18; Eey. xix. 10).
The ministration of angels is not the less real, though it be mysterious. In former times they assumed the appearance of humanity, and were seen as young men, to denote their im- mortal youth; young men in shining raiment, to symbolize their purity and felicity. But the Scripture gives no distinct sanction to the idea of tutelary spirits. Their agency is always in subordination to the will of God, and is em- l^loyed in carrying on the designs of his pro- vidence. They are never to be regarded as intercessors ; yet they are depicted as in some way presenting "the prayers of all saints," according to Eev. viii. 3.
Angel of his pkesence (Isa. Ixiii. 9) by some is supposed to denote the highest angel in heaven j as " Gabriel, who stands in the presence of God;" but others believe it refers to none other than the incarnate Word, the brightness of the Father's glory.
Angel of the Lord (Gen. xvi. 7) is one of the common titles of the pre-incarnate Messiah in the Old Testament (Exod. xxiii. 20. Com- pare Acts vii. 30-32, and 37, 38). . Angel of the church (Eev. ii. 1). ^ It is said that the chief officer, secretary, minister, or representative of the Jewish synagogue, was called the angel of the church, because he addressed God in their behalf, and offered sup- plications as their messenger, or angel, and transacted their necessary business. Others take " angel " in an ideal sense, but others take the word in its literal meaning — each church having a mysterious relation, like the "little ones, " to one of the sjiiritual beings or guardians.
Angel of Light. (See Devil.)
AN GEE (Ps. vii. 11; xc. 11)— a strong emotion, which is sinful or otherwise, according to its object and degree. When ascribed to holy beings, it is used to denote high displeasure at sin. In this sense good men may be angry and sin not (Neh. v, G ; 2 Pet. ii. 7, 8) ; and even God is said to be " angry with the wicked every day." Anger is severely rebuked (Eph. iv. 31; Col. iii, 8; and numerous passages in Proverbs). "Let not the sun go down upon your wrath," means, do not cherish it so long that it degenerates into malignity and revenge.
ANGLE (Isa. xix. 8; Hab. i. 15)— the art of taking fish by means of a hook, line, and rod. In the passage of Isaiah referred to, the various modes of fishing practised in Egyi^t are graphi- cally described. The Egyptian fisheries were very valuable, and Isaiah pronounces tbe doom of Jehovah against them as a principal source both of national amusement and sustenance. Many representations of the various modes of fishing by hook, spear, and nf t, both in rivers and "sluices and ponds," aro found among the Egyptian monuments. (See Fish, Net.)
ANISE (Matt, xxiii. 23)— properly dill, or a plant of the same family with dill. It grew 30
AND
abundantly in Judea, and the tithe of it waa scrupulously paid by the Pharisees. (See Mint. )
ANNA (Lukeii. 36)— a descendant of Asher, and a projjhetess. She was very constant in her attendance on the services of the temple. At a very advanced age she listened to the prophetic blessing which Simeon uttered while he held the infant Eedeemer in his arms, and joined in it with great fervour.
ANNAS (Luke iii. 2). At the commence- ment of John's ministry, Caiaphas and Annas were high priests. Annas had held the office before, and it was customary to continue the title 'to one who had held the office, after he ceased to officiate. This was the case with Annas. He is mentioned first because he was eldest in years and office. Two of his sons had filled the office in succession ; and he was father- in-law to the incumbent at that time. Five of his sons were high priests. Wlien our Saviour was apprehended, he was carried before Annas first, to secure the favour and sanction of one who had great influence, and bjr him was sent in bonds to Caiaphas (John xviii. 13-24).
ANOINT (Gen. xxxi. 13). The earliest use of this word in the sacred writings is in the passage cited ; and it signifies in that connection the pouring of oil upon the stone which Jacob had set up for a pillar (Gen. xxviii. 18).
The anointing of persons, places, and things, with oil or ointment of a particular composi- tion, was a mode of consecration prescribed by divine authority, and extensively practised among the Hebrews (Exod. xxviii. 41). The ingredients of the ointment, embracing the most exquisite perfumes, are minutely given (Exod. XXX. 23-33), and the common use of it was expressly forbidden (Exod, xxx. 33).
It was customary at festivals, and on other great and joyful occasions, to anoint the head with fragrant oils; hence it became a sign of joy or happiness. This fact explains 2 Sam. xiv. 2; Ps. xxiii. 5, xcii. 10; Eccl. ix. 8; Matt, vi, 17. It is supposed that anointing was a daily custom; oil maketh the face to
Anointing.
shine (Ps. civ. 15 ; Euth iii, 3). The anointing of kings and rulers is pai-ticidarlv prescribed, and we have frequent accounts of tne process (2 Sam. xix. 10; 1 Ki. i. 39; xix. 15, 16).
ANO
Anointing was sometimes done privately by a prophet (i Sam. x. 1; xvi. 1-13; 1 Ki. xix. IG; 2 Ki. ix. 1-6), and was a symbolical intimation that the person so anointed would at some future day ascend the throne. After the mon- archy was established, the anointing was done by the priest (1 Ki. i. 39), probably in some public place (1 Ki. i. 'S2-'M), and, at least on one occasion, in tlie temple, surrounded by the royal guards (2 Ki. xi. 12, 13).
It was common to anoint the person, or some part of it (as the head, feet, hair, &c.), for the sake of health or cleanliness, or as a token of respect, and also in connection with religious observances (Matt. vi. 17; Luke vii. 46; John xii. 3). When practised to show respect, as toward Christ, the most expensive materials were used, and the ceremony was performed in such a manner as to denote the most humble and submissive reverence. The anointing of the sick with oil was also common. Such unc- tion is still practised in the East. The healing properties of oil are well kno\vn, and though the cures wrought by the disciples of our Lord were obviously miraculous, they still employed the ordinary means of remedy (Mark vi. 13). The apostoiie direction (Jas. v. 14) respecting the anointing of the sick, shows us that, together with prayer, the appropriate means of healing should be employed in dependence upon or in the name of the Lord. This anointing, it will be observed, is commended with a view to its healing effect, for which i^urpose it was in con- stant use among the Jews, Of course, to em- ploy it for the professed purpose of sanctifying the soul, or preparing it for death, is sinful and highly superstitious. It is clear that the use of this passage to justify such practices is a gross perversion of language.
The bodies of the dead were often anointed, to preserve them from corruption. It was, in short, the Jewish method of embalming (Mark xiv. 8 ; xvi. 1 ; Luke xxiii. 56).
The Anointed, or Messiah (or in Greek the Christ), applied to Jesus, signifies that he was consecrated, and qualified by Jehovah to the great work of man's redemption. The term Messiah, or anointed, is given by God to Cyrus, because God had consecrated him to the work of relieving the captive Jews in Babylon. Such a divine consecration applies in a far higher sense to Jesus, the Son#f God, who is constituted our high priest and intercessor, was anointed with the Holy Ghost, of wliich the anointing of priests, prophets, and kings, un- der the Jewish dispensation is supposed to be typical (Ps. xliv. 7; Isa. Ixi. 1; i)an. ix. 24; Luke iv. 18, 21; Acts iv. 27; x. 38). The terms anoint, anointed, and anointing, are em- ployed also in a variety of forms to illustrate the sanctifying influences of divine grace upon the soul (2 Cor. i. 21; 1 John ii. 20-27; Rev. iii. 18).
ANSWER. In addition to the ordinary meanings of this term, it often denotes in Scripture simply to continue a discourse.
ANT (Prov. vi. 6; xxx. 25)— a little in- sect, remarkable for industry, economy, and
ANT
architectural skill. They are called by an inspired writer "exceeding wise;" and Cicero was so filled with wonder at their wisdom that he declai'cd they must have mind, reason, and memory. But theaccountofthemannerin which they collect grain, and prevent it from germin- ating, by nibbling out the germ, is entirely fanciful, as is also the snp])osition that they lay up grain for winter. That they provide them- selves food in the season of it is rightly inferred from their whole character and habits ; and the reproach of the sluggard is, that he lets the summer pass and the harvest end, while he is indulging in sloth and idleness (Prov. vi. 6). This is all that Solomon means to say ; and the inference usually deduced is as erroneous in interpretation as it is false in fact. The wise man only affirms that the ant improves the propitious opportunity, but the sluggard ne- glects it. He says nothing of the ant col- lecting food and storing it in magazines for consumption during winter ; for in -winter ants are torpid, and need no food. The vulgar error as to the foresight of the ants has no support in the sacred writings nor in natural history. Yet the blunder has been a prevalent one, for Bochart adduces men of all ages and countries who believed it.
ANTICHRIST (1 John ii. 18, 22). This word occurs only in the Epistles of John. Theo- logians have supposed it to denote —
1. A great power to arise at a period succeed- ing the apostolic days, and which would oppose, •with great virulence and blasphemy, the doc- trines and disciples of Christ. The same power is supposed by many to be meant in 2 Thess. ii. 3, 8, 9; Rev. xvii., xviii. Or,
2. False teachers, who are hostile to the church of Christ, and to the spirit and precepts of his religion. This antichrist was in the world in the days of the apostles (1 John iv. 3).
The views of our ordinary theology as to the nature of antichrist are neither distinct nor well-founded. Whatever predictions of the rise, growth, and malignity of the papal power may be found in Timothy, Thessalonians, or Revelations, it is clear that the antichrist of John is not to be identified with them. John specifies what he means by antichrist, for he was in existence in his own day; nay, " There were many antichrists." The error of anticlurist is declared to be, denial of the Father and Son, — or still more precisely, denial that "Jesus Christ is come in the flesh." The emphasis lies on the last words, in the flesh. Denial of the real humanity of Jesus was the error of antichrist. Now, we know that this denial of Christ "in the flesh " was the capital error of the Gnostic heresy. This heresy ex- isted in the days of the apostle, wrought great havoc in the church, and answers to these depicted features of antichrist. The man who held it became anti-christ — against Chi'ist^ against him in his actual, anointed, and con- secrated humanitv or flesh.
ANTIOCH. 1. (Acts xi. 20) The capital of Syi-ia, founded by Selenius Nicator, 300 B.C. It was situated on a bend of the Orontes, an«i 31
ANT
was once a i)lace of great opulence, learned refinement, and commercial enterprise. Its citizens enjoyed peculiar civil privileges, and it ranked as the third city of the Roman provinces. The beauty and salubrity of its situation, amidst flowing streams and cjqoress groves, was un- paralleled ; and here, too, was the famous shrine of Daphne, Paul and Barnabas preached here; and here, too, the name Christian was first applied to the disciples, whether as a term of reproach or as a mere distinctive title, is not certain. The same word occurs Acts xxvi. 28 and 1 Pet. iv. 16. Galileans or Nazarenes were terms of reproach ; but the name Christian merely denoted the adherents of Christ, or the Messiah. (See Christian.)
Antioch was the centre of the first mission- ary enterprises. From it Paul started on his missionary circuits. Prom being the capital of Syrian heathendom, it soon became a noted city of Eastern Christendom, and has been famed as the place of the birth and the scene of the earlier laboiurs of the eloquent Greek father, Chrysostom.
Many calamities have befallen this city of Greek kings and Roman governors. It has been besieged and plundered at least fifteen times; and in one instance 117,000 persons were slain or taken prisoners. Three times has it been visited with famine, twice with fire, and once with plague ; and four times it was overthrown by earthquakes, by one of which 25,000 persons are supposed to have perished. These visitations of God have long since re- duced the city to desolation. The splendid buildings of ancient times have given place to mean hovels of the present Antakia.
2. Antioch (Acts xiii. 14) was the name of the capital of the province of Pisidia, in Asia Minor. It has been identified with a place called Yalobatch by Arundell and Hamilton. Paul and Barnabas preached there; and we have a fuller abstract of one of Paul's sermons at this place than of any of the apostolic discourses. A violent persecution was raised against them, and they were compelled to flee for their lives. There were at least sixteen cities of the name of Antioch in Syria and Asia Minor.
ANTIPATRIS (Acts xxiii. 31)— a town be- tween Cesarea and Jerusalem, ten or fifteen miles from Joppa. It was founded by Herod the Great, and was the place to which Paul was conveyed by the Roman guard, to escape the consjjiracy formed against him by the Jews, who had agreed to waylay him on the follow- ing day, and put him to death. Antipatris was built on the ruins of a place called by Josephus Kapharsaba — the sound of which is still preserved in the Arabic name of the village which occui)ies its site.
APE (1 Ki. X. 22). This animal, which bears a rude resemblance to the human race, both in figure and physical capacity, was among the articles of merchandise imported from Ophir in Solomon's ships. The royal naturalist per- haps wished his fleet to import living specimens of foreign animals for his investigation. Those 32
APO
apes are called in the Hebrew text kophim, a foreigia or Sanscrit term, showing that they had been brought from India or Ceylon.
APELLES (Rom. xvi. 10). His origin and residence are unknoAvn, but his character is given in three words— aj?2^roz;ec? in Christ.
APHARSITES (Ezra iv. 9). This, with several other tribes named in the same connec- tion, are supposed to have been colonies from Chaldea, Media, and Persia, who settled in Samaria.
APHEK— citoc^eL 1. (1 Sam. iv. 1-11) A city on the border of Judah and Benjamin, east of Jerusalem, where the Israelites were defeated by the Philistines, and the ark taken from them. This place is supposed to be the same which is elsewhere called Aphekah (Josh. XV. 53).
2. A city in the plain of Esdraelon, not far from Shunem, in the vicinity of which Saul and Jonathan fell in battle (1 Sam. xxix. 1). Nigh the same locality, or another of the same name, was the encampment before the battle in which the sons of Eli fell.
3. A city in the tribe of Asher, also called Aphik ( Judg. i. 31), situated in Lebanon, on the northern border of Canaan.
4. Another town of the same name, situated at the head of the Wady File, 6 miles east of the Lake of Galilee appears to be the spot that Benhadad assembled the Syrian troops (Josh. xii. 18; xiii. 4 ; xix. 30 ; 1 Kl xx. 26).
i^g^H-} See above.
APHRAH. (See Ophrah.)
APOLLONIA (Acts xvii. 1)— a city of Macedonia, situated at the head of the ^gean Sea, on a promontory between Thessalonica and Philippi.
APOLLOS (Acts xviii. 24). He was bom at Alexandria, in Egypt, of Jewish parents, and is described as an " eloquent man, and mighty in the Scriptures." As one of John's disciples, he had been instructed in the elements of the Christian faith, and came to Ephesus to speak and teach the things . of the Lord. He was there more particularly and fully taught the doctrines of the Gospel by Aquila and Priscilla, who had themselves been favoured with the company and instruction of Paul at Corinth, and on a voyage from that city to Ephesus. He afterwards went into Achaia, where his labours were crowned with abundant success. At Corinth, too, he was regarded as a powerful and successful preacher of the Gos- pel. Paul had already been instrumental in establishing a church there, to the care of which Apollos succeeded (1 Cor. iii. 6). The mem- bers of it were divided into parties, some being particularly partial to Paul, others to Apollos, and others still to Cephas. Some peculiarity of style, illustration, or delivery, on the part of these three men, may have originated those unseemly preferences. The rebuke of the apostle (1 Cor. i. 12) is directed against these partialities, in all which the power and grace of (J (id st'c'uied to be overlooked or disregarded. It has been remarked as an exemplary trait of
APO
character of these two eminent servants, tliat the contention of their respective friends and admirers had no effect on their love and respect for each other. They both refrained from visiting the church Avhile it was distracted with such prejudices and partialities, though a worldly ambition might have selected it as the field and the season of self-aggrandizement. (See Corinth.)
APOLLYON". (See Abaddon.)
APOSTLE. 1. (Matt. x. 2) This term was given originally to the twelve chief disciples of our Lord. Their names were — Simon Peter, Andrew, James and John (sons of Zebedee) ; Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew, James, and Lebbeus, who is also called Judas or Jude (sons of Alpheus) ; Simon the Canaan- ite; and Judas Iscariot. Christ's charge to them is recorded in Matt. x. 5-42, and is worthy to be diligently studied. Their history, as far as they are known, will be found under their respective names.
As maj' be gathered from the lists given in various places, the twelve appear to have been arranged, for some reason or other, into three bands of fours, — Peter always at the head of the first, Philip of the second, and James Alphaei of the third four.
The office and commission of apostles were remarkable in the following i>iirticulars : — (1.) TTiey were all reqiiired to have been eye and ear- witnesses of what they testified (John xv. 27; Acts i. 21, 22; xxii. 14, 15; 1 Cor. ix. 1; XV. 8; 1 John 1. 3). (2.) They were all called or chosen by our Saviour himself (Luke vi. 13; Gal. i. 1). Even Matthias is not an exception to this remark, as the determination of the lot was of God (Acts i. 24-26). (3.) They were inspired (John xvi. 13). (4.) They had the power of working miracles, and of imparting spiritual gifts (Mark xvi. 20 ; Acts ii. 43; Heb. ii. 4; Acts xix. 6; Rom. i. 11).
2. The term apostle is applied to our Saviour (Heb. iii. 1), and with singular propriety, as in the character of Messiah he is emphatically the sent of God.
3. The word is used in an inferior or ecclesi- astical sense, to signify a companion of the apostle — as Barnabas (Acts xiv. 4) and others who did public service for the churches, as in 2 Cor. viii. 23 ; Phil. ii. 25, (See James.)
APOTHECARY (Exod, xxx. 35)— a per- fimier, or dealer in perfumes. The sacred ointment was to be prepared by one of them.
APPAREL. (See Clothes.)
APPEAL (Acts XXV. 11)— the principle of appeal was early recognized in the Mosaic jurisprudence (Deut. xvii. 8, 9); and by the Roman law every accused citizen had a right to cany his cause before the emperor at Rome, by appeal from the judgment of the inferior magistrates.
APPII-FORUM (Acts xxviii. 15)— the place where Paul met several of his brethren from Rome, when he was on his way to that city as a prisoner. It was about 43 miles from Rome, and is identified with ruins called Trei)onto, on the Naples road. The name is D
AR\
derived from the circumstance that it is on tha Appian way, a road leadin^' fn^ra Rome to Capua, which was made by Ai>pius Claudius ; and, I)t'ing at th« north end of a canal, it con- tained a forum or market-place, to which pedlars and petty merchants resorted in gi*eat numbera ; and it had many taverns.
APPLES, APPLE TREE (Songii. 3; Joel i. 12). It is generally agreed that these tei-ms refer to the citron tree, and its fruit. The proper apple tree is very rare in the East, and its fruit is destitute both of beauty and fra- grance, and in both these respects it ill accords with the allusions to it in the sacred writings. But the citron corresponds to all said in the Song of Solomon of its beauty, its fragrance, its delicious fruits, and its refreshing shade. Others prefer the orange as the object of allusion.
Apples of gold in pictures of silver (Prov. XXV. 11) is a figurative expression, comparing delicious fruit in silver baskets, or salvers curiously wrought like basket- work, and perhaps re- E resenting animals or mdscapes, to season- able advice wisely and courteously adminis- tered.
Apple of the eye (Prov. vii. 2; Zech. ii, 8). In these passages reference is had to the keen sensibility of the ball of the eye. The same figure is used (Deut. xxxii. 10 ; Ps. xvii. 8) to denote the most complete protection and security. And in Lam. ii. 18 the phrase, "apple of thine eye," is figuratively used for tears.
AQUILA (Acts xviii. 2)— a Jew bom at Pontus, in Asia Minor. Being driven from Rome by a decree of the emperor Claudius, requiring all Jews to leave that city, he and his wife Priscilla came to Corinth, and were dwelling there at the time of Paul's first visit to that city (Acts xviii. 1). They were of like occupation (tent-makers), and Paul was re- ceived and hospitably entertained at Aquila's house, and they also accompanied him from Corinth to Ephesiis. On some occasion they rendered Paiil very important service, and a very warm friendship existed between them (Rom. xvi. 3-5). (See Apollos. )
AR (Num. xxi. 28), or RABBAH-MOAB — the chief to^vn of Moab, was situated 20 or 25 miles south of the river Anion. It is called Rabbah or Great, as the chief town of the Ammonites was called I^abbali- Amnion, and by the Greeks it was called Areopolis. Its present name is Rabba ; and modem travel- lers have discovered two copious fountains near the mins of the ancient city (Xunu xxL 15).
ARAB AH (Josh, x^iii. 18). The word occurs only here in our version as' a proper name or a •Si
ARA
feographical term, but it often occurs in the lebrew as a local designation, "the Arabah." It signifies that most remarkable deep valley, unequalled on the face of the earth, which extends from Hermon, 150 miles in length, to the high cliffs which intercept it 10 miles south of the Dead Sea; and from which it stretches again to the Elanitic gulf of the Red Sea. In this last part, 100 miles long, must have been many of the journeyings of the Israelites. The portion through which the Jordan runs is now called el-Ghor, but the southern part keeps its old name. It is usually translated "plains," in connection with Moab, Jordan, Jericho; and often in the prophets it signifies a desert, or, as the word means, a place burned and parched up. ARABIA (1 Ki. x. 15) — called by the natives the peninsula of the Arabs, lies in Western Asia, south and south-west of Judea. Various derivations of the name have been given, and the most probable opinion is that which refers the name to the term arabaJi, found in Hebrew and the cognate tongues, which denotes a wide plain or waste. Such an appellation to a country of sand, rocks, and desert, is very appropriate. It is 1,500 miles from north to south, and 1,200 from east to west, or about four times the extent of the kingdom of France. It is bounded north by Syria, east by the river Euphrates and the Persian Gulf, south by the Indian ocean, and west by the Red Sea, Palestine, and parb of Syria. It is described in three divisions, the name of each being in- dicative of the face of the soil and its general character : —
1. Aeabia Deserta (or the Desert) is a wide waste of burning sand, with here and there a palm tree and a spring of