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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at |http: //books .google .com/I m I A YAO GRAMMAR A YAO GRAMMAR BY MEREDITH ^ANDERSON M.R.C.S. (Eng.), F.R.G.S., F. R.A.I. NYASALAND MEDICAL SERVICE EDITOR OF "CHIIKALA CHA WAYAO " ; AUTHOR OP "NOTES ON 'CHIIKALA CHA WAYAO, * " " NDANO JA CHE 8ULBMANI," ETC., ETC. LONDON SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE NBW YORK & TORONTO : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1922 TO The Et. Hon. WINSTON SPBNCEE CHURCHILL, M.P. PREFACE. Since the first edition of this hook was published I have had the opportunity of visiting Yaoland proper, in Portuguese East Africa and the country north of the Rovuma. I have thus been enabled to stud/y more thor- oughly the language as it is spoken by the Aniasaninga and Amangoche Yaos ; as a result the Grammar has been thoroughly revised and some important construc- tions added. The Vocabulary has been enlarged and now includes most of the words in common use, though of course it makes no pretension to completeness. Unfortunately my dictionary is still incomplete, largely owing to the loss of MSS representing several years* work. In this edition the classification of the nouns has been altered so as to bring it into line with other works on Bantu langu/iges ; this is necessary for the purpose of comparison. The scheme adopted is a modified form of that introduced by Bleek} and is one that will in the course of time, I believe, become universal. The orthography remains the same, though it is admittedly imperfect and invites criticism, I felt, how- ever, that the purpose of the book might be defeated by the introduction of a number of strange symbols — ^"-4 Compa/tative Qrawmar of South African Languages" by W, H, I. Bleek, Fh,D,, Trubner afid Co., London, 1869, • m Vll Vlll PREFACE strange^ that is to say, to the average man. It is for the average man that this hook is primarily intended as a practical handbook to the language, and I have therefore retained the spelling familiar to all, I have introduced phonetic methods of teaching pro- nunciation at the suggestion of Miss K, H, Nixon Smith of the U.M.CA., and the section on the alphabet has been entirely reivritten with the help of notes which she very kindly drafted especially for the purpose. In conclusiont my thanks are due to those who, by their criticism, have helped me in the revision of the first edition. Many of their suggestions Jiave been adopted, and I shall be grateful if readers of this edition will render me a similar service, M. S. Cambridge, 1922. PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. The Yao tribe is, at the present day, so scattered throughout East Central Africa, that the language is inevitably becoming broken up into dialects. I have been mostly associated with the Machinga Yao settled in Nyasaland, but judging by the speech of individuals of other branches of the tribe whom I have met, the dialects differ rather in vocabulary and idiom than in gram,mar. In other words, though som,e expressions used in this book may be peculiar to the Machinga Yax), from whom I have obtained them, the gramm^ar is that of the language common to all Yaxys. With regard to the arrangem^ent of the subject- matte7% I have covered as much ground as is feasible in the first feiv chapters in order to enable the student to begin speaking the language as soon as possible. This has inevitably resulted in discontinuity, but I venture to hope that the advantages of this arrange- ment will be found to outweigh its drawbacks. When writing the exercises I have used colloquial Yax) as far as possible, and have not hesitated to trans- late this into colloquial English in the Key, I think such a proceeding is justifiable, as the exact shade of meaning is more likely to be appreciated when put in everyday language, than when expressed in the classic phrase of the typical conversational primer, ix b X PREFACE TO FIBST EDITION In the vocabulary I have not attempted to do more than give 8om£ of the more com,mjon words — it is a vo- cabulary to the hookf nothing more, I hope to publish a Yao dictionary in the near future. The various accents used in the book have been introduced somewhat reluctantly, and as their function is merely to teach the pronunciation of the words, they have not been used outside the vocabularies. In com,piling the whole book I have freely consulted Dr. Hethenvick*8 ^^ Handbook to the Yao Language,'* and I must acknowledge my indebtedness to the author of that work as the pioneer who has greatly simplified iny task, I am also indebted to Mr. W. P. Ronaldson for mxiny valuable suggestions and substantial assistance* Meredith Sanderson. Karonga, Nyasaland, 1916. I I INTRODUCTION. The WaYao themselves say that they take their name from the hill Yao near Likopolwe in Portuguese East Africa, and that they first became a tribe when their forefathers lived in that neighbourhood. It is evident from their initiation ceremonies that, like the predynastic Egyptians, their religion formerly centred on u conical hill surmounted by a tree, and it may well be that Yao was such a hill, and the prototype of the mound in the Lupanda ceremony. It is probable that the name Acha'dba, by which the WaYao are known to the Anyanja, is derived from Chax), the singular form of Foo. This hill is in the centre of Yaoland proper which includes only a small part of Nyasaland ; it was only in recent years that the Machinga Yao invaded the Shire Valley, the Mangoche Yao spread to the Mlanje and Blantyre districts, and the A-Masaninga occupied the lake shore.^ Practically speaking, the Yao is a stranger in Nyasaland, and few indeed of the younger genera- tion whose men wear white skull-caps, and their women the chipini, have any right to call themselves Yaos. They are the result of inter-marriage with the con- quered Nyanja tribes; many have hardly a drop of Yao blood in them, and ** their speech bewrayeth them." ^ For the traditional history of the WaYao the reader is referred to '*Ghiikala cha WaYao," by Yohanna B. Abdullah, edited aud trans- lated into English by the Author, and published in Zomba, 1919. zi Xll INTRODUCTION These are they who say chimofnnwsi for yalumo, kapena for panjipa, iisanganaanga for chitema. For pure Yao we must go to Yaoland ; our criterion must be the language spoken there. It must not be supposed, however, that the pure language is not understood in Nyasaland. The grammar of the language is identical everywhere; it is more elaborate and idiomatic in Yaoland, but the rules given in the following pages hold good whether north of the Rovuma or in the Blantyre district. ChiYao is a language, not a dialect. It is only with regard to vocabvilary that a warning is necessary. A word is not necessarily a Yao word because it is used by a native calling himself a Yao, even though he insist that it is. The Yao language has affinities with some of the neighbouring tongues, more particularly with those to the north and east — ChiNgonde, ChiKinga, and Chi- Makua — and, of course, in a broader sense, with other members of the great Bantu family. In many respects, however, it is vinique, and is of exceptional interest to the philologist owing to the many archaic forms which have survived in it. It would be a great pity if, owing to European influences, this wonderful language were stifled by the spread of " kitchen " Swahili and ** pidgin " ChiNyanja. It is to ward off such a calamity that this book has been written. It is not claimed that it contains much that is new, but an attempt has been made to present the grammar of ChiYao in an easily assimilable form. A YAO GRAMMAR CHAPTER I. I. THE ALPHABET. 1. General Considerations. The Yao language was first written by the European, and as this was before Phonetics became a science, the English alphabet was used and thus made to record sounds for which it was ill adapted. A similar course was adopted for other languages belonging to the Bantu group, and each writer beng free to follow his own fancy there has been a regrettable lack of uniformity, and in some instances one speech-sound is differently repre- sented in different written languages. The author of a new text-book is therefore on the horns of a dilemma, — if he fellows precedent his record of the language will be inexact, but if he uses the Inter- national Phonetic Script he runs grave risk of alienating students by the introduction of strange symbols and diacritical marks. In this book, therefore, it has been decided to use the conventional symbols familiar to all, but to teach pro- nunciation by means of phonetic methods.^ The assist- ance of Miss Nixon Smith of the U.M.C.A. was invoked, 1 Those wishing to get a general idea of the science of Phonetics are recommended to read "General Phonetics" by G. Noel- Armfield, published by Hefifer <fe Sons, Ltd., Cambridge, X 2 A YAO GEAMMAB and the following account of the Yao speech-sounds has been written in collaboration with her. It is necessary to premise that in phonetics the roof of the mouth is regarded as consisting of three parts, — the "teeth-ridge," the hard and the soft palates. Corre- sponding to these the tongue is described as having a "blade" (including the tip), a "front" used with the hard palate, and a " back " opposite the soft palate. It should also be appreciated that sounds may be "voiced" or "breathed," that is, the vocal chords may vibrate or not in their production. P, A?, t and s are breathed, b, ^, d, m and n are voiced sounds ; only the latter can be sung and a buzzing sound is heard when the ears are stopped during their production, absent with breathed sounds. 2. The Vowel Sounds. In phonetics a number of "cardinal vowels" have been fixed upon by reference to which any vowel sound can be described ; a record of these may be obtaine<J if desired from the Gramophone Company (No. B., 804). Any vowel sound will either be identical with one of the cardinals or he between two of them. In ChiYao only five symbols (a, e, i, o and u) are used for the vowel sounds, but there are at least six, a having two distinct values. Any vowel may be long or short and the signs "■ and ^ are used to diflferentiate where necessary in teaching pronunciation, though not, of course, elsewhere. a represents two distinct sounds, one a " back vowel," (i.e. it is made in the back of the mouth), resembling the a in the English word "calm," and the other a front vowel as in mwauBxshe, husangaXdJ,a ; this front a is very characteristic of ChiYao, and resembles the first part of the diphthong sound ai in English **high" Both a THE ALPHABET 3 sounds lie between cardinals 4 and 5^ the ^^ back" a near cardinal 5, the "front" a nearer 4. Final a is a very short front a, almost cardinal 4. i is very nearly the i in ** machine," but the tongue is a little lower in the mouth and the lips a little further apart ; it is a front vowel and lies between cardinals 1 and 2 but nearer to 2. u is practically equivalent to the w in '* rule ; " it must never be sounded like the u in " cube." It is a back vowel, between cardinals 7 and 8. e resembles the sound of e in " get," but the tongue position is higher ; it is a front vowel, between cardinals 2 and 3. It is thus intermediate between a and i, so that when these vowels follow each other in this order they form e (hence, for example, ma-iso =« mesoy is intermediate between the sound of aw in English " saw " and the first part of the vowel soimd in English ** so ; " the lips are well rounded and there is no trace of a diphthong as in English "so." It is a back vowel, between cardinals 6 and 7, and is intermediate between a and u, so that when these vowels follow each other in this order they form o (for example, wa-u-nomdi = wo- nandi). Note particularly that there is in ChiYao no vowel sound like the English a in " fat " or " mat." There are no diphthongs ; where two vowels are written together there is no coalition of sound and each must be given its full value. For example: -jaulay -poola, pro- nounced -ja-ula, 'po'O'la, 3. The Consonants. Of the English consonants, /, q, c, fe, r, v; x and z are not required in writing ChiYao. B, d, t and tv reqtdre no special mention; they are pronounced as in English. There remain j, k, I, ^, m, «, p, s and y ; also three 4 A YAO GRAMMAB oonsonants which do not occur in English, represented by the symbols ng\ ny^ and ib, and finally ch, O is always hard as in " gone ; " the soft ^ as in ^' giant " is written as /. / might with advantage be written as dy. It is the voiced form of ch ^ K and p in ChiYao are never aspirated as, for example, in ChiNyanja and Southern English (in the latter, for instance, the word ** pit " might be written " pMt "). L, initial, is made by the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge ; when medial, the whole blade of the tongue often comes into play, but the sound can never be repre- sented by r as there is no suggestion of a trilL There glso occxirs what is called the " palatal Z," of which there are two types; the first is produced by contact of the front of the tongue with the hard palate and is accom- panied by a glide of the y type. It is written as ly in this book, and it must be remembered that this y is part of the Z, as it were, and not syUabic as in the English word "lying." Thus the word lyuwa must not be pro- nounced ** lai-oo-wa " ; lyu is one syllable. The other type of palatal I is that known as the " dark Z " in Eng- lish, as in * milk " ; it is produced still further back and is accompanied by a glide of the u type. In this book it is written Iw (e.g. Iwala, Iwesi), M is made with closed lips and in a few words is syl- labic (e.g. mtwe, " head," mhwa, " dog," mhyo^ " kidneys "). In other Yao words the initial m is not syllabic, and when it precedes a consonant it is said very rapidly. The lips are closed and the soimd made through the nose. Care should be taken not to pronounce initial m as oom in ChiYao. N is also a nasal consonant ; it occurs in combination with d, g, and y, and is then not syllabic. In rapid speech it is often diflScult to distinguish between m and n. THE ALPHABET 8 in Yao differs from the English s in being produced further back ; the tip of the tongue is curled back till it nearly touches the hard palate. In English the tip of the tongue is used with the teeth ridge. The correspond- ing voiced sound (z) does not occui* in pure Yao though it naay be heard in some localities, probably owing to association with the Anyanja. 7 is never syllabic in ChiYao ; it occurs either alone or as a glide in combination with I, m, p, s, and t Ch is regarded by some as equivalent to ty, but in the opinion of the author it is a compound of t with sh (com- pare the ch of "church'* with the sound oi t and sh in the words "thaf s/iows"i). Oh is sometimes written as c. It is never guttural. Ng^ is identical with x> of the International Phonetic Script. It differs from ng (without the apostrophe) in that the g sound is not carried on to the succeeding vowel. It occurs in the English words " singing," ** bringing " ; in Yao these words would be written ** singling," *' bring'ing." Cf. also "finger" with "ringer" ( = "ring'er"). The ng^ sound may be learned in two ways — first by trying to say ga through the nose, when a vibration will be felt, and secondly by working backwards from the front of the mouth, saying na with the tip of the tongue successively on the lower teeth, on the upper teeth, on the teeth ridge, and on the roof of the mouth; then again with the back of the tongue touching the soft palate. It is with the tongue in the last-mentioned position that the correct sound is produced. When able to say ng^a, repeat these exercises with go and no, gu and nu, gwa and nwaj thus acquiring the sounds rig^o, ng^u and ng'wa. The following words may be used for practice: ng'aso ("furnace"), ng^ombe ("ox"), hu-ng'anda 1 " General Phonetics," p. 20. 6 A tAO OUAMllAft ("to play"), ngong'o ("tortoise")— cf. ngongo^'a, staff"), — JctM^^wa ("to drink"), kung^ong^ondala ("to shrivel"). Ny, thus conventionally written with two letters, is a single sound represented in the Phonetic Script by J^. It is made by pressing the tongue forward so that the tip is in contact with the lower teeth and the front with the hard palate. As already mentioned, y is never syUabic and care should be taken not to fall into the common error of saying Nai-asa (as Nai'(i8aland) instead of Nyasa, which word has only two syllables; nya and sa, ^ is commonly heard and pronounced by the European as w. In the Phonetic Script the sound is written v. It differs from w in two particulars— the position of the tongue and the shape of the lips. " In t(; the lips are rounded and pushed forward and the back of the tongue is raised" as in u ; " in tr, on the other hand, the lips are spread " and the back of the tongue is at rest.^ To learn how to make this sound : (i) place the lips as for b (the soimd merely, not the name of the letter), then open the lips a little, keep the teeth well separated and try to say w ; (ii) say a strong va as in English and then try to say the same sound without using the teeth; (iii) pretend you are blowing out a candle and then voice the sound. This sound is worth some little trouble to acqu re. as in ChiYao it is important, many words being differenti- ated by its use ; e.g. kuwaiaj ** to wear (clothes) " ; kutbalaj "to shine"; kuivila, "to die for"; ku-uwila, "to tie loosely." II. ACCENT. 1. The Accentuation of Syllables. In most Bantu languages the accent is always placed on the last syllable but one, but this is not the case in ^ Quotations from Noel-Armfield's ^* General Phonetics," p. 72. ACCENT 7 ChiYao, and it is impossible to frame any rule for the guidance of the student, except that it never falls on the last syllable. In some words the accent is so evenly distributed that the stress cannot be recognised as faUing on any one particular syUable; in other instances the accent is marked, but it may fall on any syllable except the last. Sometimes the accent is postponed by the addition of a suffix, in other cases no change is made. Note, — All syllables end in a vowel, and this has a subtle in- fluence on pronunciation which is not always appreciated. Take, for example, the word chisonde ; the three syllables are ehif 80t and nde : thus, chi-so-ndey not chia-on-de, as one often hears such a word pronounced. It is neglect of this point, obvious as it may seem, which renders the most (grammatically) correct speech unintelligible to the native. 2. The Accentuation op Vowels.^ Some words, spelt alike as far as the mere consonants and vowels are concerned, have different meanings if the vowel be long or short : — e,g. lipata, a fishdng-weir ; Hp^ta, the butt-end ; mb&nde, shells ; mbande, sides, III. THE INFLECTION OF WORDS.' A number of words, identical in form, differ in mean- ing according to the inflection of the voice with which they are spoken. Taking the sign (') as indicating a rising, and f) as a faUing inflection, we differentiate, for example : — ngang^, beer ; ngang^, a guinea fowl ; chitet^, a grasshopper ; chitetfe, native cloth ; {cf. chitSte, being slow to anger), ^ These accents are not used outside the vocabularies. 8 A YAO GBAMMAB IV. EUPHONIC CHANGES. It would be impossible to lay too much stress on the importance of a thorough knowledge of the euphonic changes which take place in the Yao language. The student is, however, not recommended to learn these by heart at this stage, but they should be studied carefully, and the exercises worked. They will soon become' familiar, even instinctive ; in the meantime this section should be referred to in any case of diflBculty. These changes may be classified under four headings : — (1) The influence of the letter n on other consonants. (2) The changes in certain consonants caused by e and i. (3) The interaction of vowels. (4) The elision of con^nants. (1) The changes which occur in some consonants when the letter n is prefixed to them are especially seen in forming the plural of the lu class of noun (the prefix of which is n), and the 1st person singular of many tenses of the verb, where the connective pronoun is n. They are as foDow : — n4 becomes nd. n-t nd. n-k ng. « n-j „ ny. n-ch „ nj. n-w „ mbw before e or i, and sometimes before a. n-w becomes mh before o or w, and sometimes before a. • n-u becomes mh. n-p „ mh. EUPHONIC CHANGES 9 Similarly — m-u sometimes becomes mbu or mbw. m-w „ „ mb or mbw. Exercise 1. Correct the following : — NteeHejkunleka., w/fusosa, w^aule, tiwc/iilola,akuwtf ona, nweni, nZesile, wA;uku, nkwi, kuww;ona, kunt^laga. (2) k before e or i becomes ch. g ,y ^ » j- Exercise 2. Correct the following : — AleA;e, naiA?e, ajaule^e, mta^e, tala^e, w*eleA;e, wZuAiile, nwalege. (3) a-i becomes e, i before another vowel becomes y, (4) n is elided before s, i, w, w, or n; e.g. saso for nsasOy iiche for niiche, etc. Z is sometimes elided after ti; e.g. aninde for anlinde. I is usually dropped after A;t^, j)a and mu in words having the prefix li- ; e.g. A?«^ litinji = kwitinji ; joa liganga = pegariga. I is almost invariably elided between two vowels, e.g. lyalinandi » lyainandi = lyenandi; pilikana = pikana. Similarly — Other consonants may be elided ; e.g. syasina7idi s syenandi ; ja mitela » jetela, j is often elided after ku, the w becoming w ; e.g. kujaula =» kwaula ; kujepepala = kwepepala, etc. 10 A YAO OEAMMAK Exercise 3. Correct the following : — Ciche, tome, iuku, waunandi, yaikulungwa, nsulo, nsosile, IjaliQito, ja7^A;ulungwa; kuji&a,, ku/asima, pa Zitala, ku /ttinji, lya Zijela. (5) Thus mb may stand for mw, nw, nb, np, or nu. fid >i V «< or nZ. kwi 11 » fcit/i, kuli, or Aim. kwa »> M kuja. mwi » M muli. lye »» >> lyali. sye j> J> syasi. 9^ j> >> gali. Exercise 4. What euphonic changes have occurred in the following words ? Ngwete, kwina, yepiUyu, lyesimba, ngonji, lyekoka, mbwete, mbatile, sichi, tinjiika, ngawone, tini- mbone, timbone, kwinjila, ngulola, kwimba, nyendeje, kwimuka, ndenda, kwikonde, mwipenu, kwanga, syenandi. CHAPTER II. THE CONCORD. 1. All parts of speech in Yao consist of a stem or root to which are added various prefixes and suflBxes ; of these the prefixes ara by far the more important. The function of these prefixes is to classify the idea conveyed by the root, and crystaUise it, as it were. Take for example the root -ndu; this has the idea of existence or being : prefix mw-, and the mere idea of being is crystal- lised into the conception of an actual living person — mundu, " a human being." With the prefix cW-, the idea of mere individuality is obtained — chindu, " a thing," " an article." Similarly with ka- (indicating smaUness) we get — kcmdu, " a trifle." During the process of evolution this method of building up speech has naturally become obscured, and my object in alluding to it has been merely to call attentiqii to the fact that these prefixes represent elements from which the language has been evolved. Their importance lies in this, that they are attached to the roots of all parts of speech, and it is by their use that the noun, verb, adjective, etc., are brought into agreement. This agreement is known as the *' Concord." It has its parallel in the agreement of the parts of speech in European languages. 2. The ruling part of speech is the noun, and it is evident that, if nouns be classified according to t^leir (11) 12 A TAO GBAMMAB respective prefixes, each prefix will become the charac- teristic of its class, and can be used to bring other parts of speech into agreement therewith. Further, this " characteristic " by itself may be used to represent any class of noun and so constitute a true pronoun. An example will make this clear. We have seen that the word chindu consists of a root {-ndu) and a prefix (chi-). This syllable (chi) is the characteristic of the word chiitdu and may be used in reference thereto ; for example, it may be used as a relative pronoun (which), or a sub- jective or objective pronoun (it), referring to chindu. e.g. Ghinda chi nacWweni, the thing which I {it) saw. Chindu chi c^tgwile, the thing which (it) has fallen. Similarly, for nouns of other classes (e.g. lijela, ** a hoe") : Ltjela li naZtweni, the hoe which I {it) saw, Zftjela li k'gwile, the hoe which {it) has fallen. The characteristic enters also into the formation of other parts of speech, bringing them into agreement with its particular class of noun ; these examples are given merely to illustrate the meaning of the term ** Concord." It wiy be seen that the result of the concord in the above examplesis alliterative, but this is not always the case. Thus the characteristic of the word mundu is not mu but ju ; of majela, not ma but ga. An explanation of this is found by comparison with other Bantu languages in some of which nouns have a double prefix, the ordinary class prefix and a prepretix. These preprefixes are of great interest as in form they are intermediate between the class prefixes and the class characteristics, and they illustrate how these have come to diflfer. Those interested in etymology will find a few notes on the class prefixes at the end of this chapter (par. 7). ^ the ooncobd 13 3. The Noun. In ChiYao, as in other Bantu languages, there is no distinction of gender, nor are nouns declined in respect of case. Number is indicated by a change of prefix. We see then that not only the meaning of a noun but its number is varied by means of the prefix which is attached to the root, and, further, that this prefix — or a modification thereof — is used to bring other parts of speech into agreement with the noun (the " Concord "). Seeing that in ChiYao there are no less than 18 diflPerent noun prefixes it is obvious that some scheme of classification is necessary as an aid to learning the plural of any given noun and its characteristic syllables, singular and plural. The tables on pp. 14-15 give the class pre- fixes and characteristics of ChiYao with examples of representative Yao nouns in each class. There is another prefix which must be mentioned, viz, NA-. This, in Yao, is always prefixed to one or other of the class prefixes; e.g. Nalwii, "a chameleon;" Namlondola, " a black hornet." It takes the concord of the 1st class, JU, and makes its plural by the addition of ACHI-, — achinalwii, achinamlondola. Most of the noims taking this prefix are either names of animals or terms of more or less jocular contempt ; e.g. nandumho, " a man with a ' paunch \" It would seem to be a way of personifying a noun of another class, as it is often employed with names of animals in folk-lore. This would also account for such terms as nangolo, " a parent ; " namkopoka, ** one who has just passed the initiation ceremonies." 4. This table wiD become more intelligible if the illus- trations of the use of the characteristic following it are studied. For the sake of simplicity the examples given in paragraph 2 will be used again. 14 A YAO OBAMMAB Class. CUss Prefix. Ezftmple of Noun. Glass Char. Remarks. I. M- MU- Mchanda, y<nUh Mundu, person Mwanache^ child Singano, needle JU (Living) Personal II. A A- ACHA- ACHI- ^anache^ children &t&ti, faiher achacaanda, youths achisingano, needles Wa Plurals of CI. I. III. M- MU- Mtela, tree Musi, village Mwesi, nkoon U (Living) Impersonal IV. MI- mitela, trees misi, vUlages miesi, moons {months) Jl Plurals of CI. III. V. LI- Lijela, hoe Ljra^, day LI % VI. MA- majela, hoes mo^a (mau^a), days GA Plurals of CI. V. VII. CHI- Chijuni, bird Chome, cat CHI Plurals of CI. VII. VIII. I- ijuni, birds yome, cats I IX. N- MB- (nw.) Nguku, fowl Nyninba, house Mbusi, goat *Uti, gun JI X. N- NY-i MB- nguku, fowls nyumba, houses mbusi, goats 'uti, guns SI Plurals of CI IX. Before a vowel. THE CONCORD 16 Class. Class Prefix. Example of Noun. Class Char. Remarks. XI. LU- Lukonji, rope LU The plural of this class ia CI. X., e.g. Ngonji, ropes XII. TU- tutela, little trees TU PluralsofCLXIII. XIII. KA- Katela, little tree KA Diminutives XIV. U- Ugono, sleepvng-mat Ugali, porridge Ukungwi, skill U Collective and abstract, no plu- ral ; others take CI. VI., e,g* Magono XV. KU- KW- Kuluma, hitvng KU Infinitive and Gerund. (KU)i KWA- kwa- pa- -kuteleka, ■ a cookin^g- • place KU Locality (to) XVI. PA-i PA Locality (at) XVII. (MXJ.)^ MWA- mwa- MU Locality (in) Classes I. and IL are somewhat irregular but have been included for the sake of completeness. Class I. Mu-ndn ju {or jua) na-m6-weni, A man whom I (him) saw. Mw-anache ju a-gwile, A child who . {he) has fallen. 1 These locative prefixes are not, in ChiYao, used as noun prefixes, but their characteristics are similar in all respects to those of the nouns (see Par. 7). 16 A YAO GRAMMAB Class II. Wa-nAvL u People whom ' Tra-nache u Children who III. Jf^^-si u M-tela u rV. Jfisi ji nayiweni. V. i^jela li naZiweni. VI. Majela^a na^aweni. VII. GhomQ chi nsxhiweni, VIII. Fome * naiweni. IX. Mbn&i ji nayiweni. X. Mbusi si nasiweni. XI. Zri^konji lu naZt^weni. XII. Tutels, tu na^ttweni. XIII. Zatela ka nakaweni, XIV. CTjgono u nai^weni. XV. Kulumsi kit naA;tAweni. Zii;akuteleka ku mJcuwem, ' Zt^akuteleka ku kugwile, XVI. Pakuteleka pa na;;aweni. Pakuteleka pa ^agwile. XVII. Mwakateleka, mu namwweni. Jfi^akuteleka mu mugwile. (For further illustrations of the use of- the concord, see Appendix IV., page 127). na-i2)a-weni, I {them) saw. i8a-gwile, (they) have fallen, na-u-weni. w-gwile. Mtela ji jigwile. Zrijela li Zigwile. Majela ga gagwiLe. Chi^uni chi chigynLe, Jjuni i igwile. Tfyumba ji jigwHe. J^^umba si ^tgwile. Zrz^konji lu Zi^gwile. ^Tt^tela tu ^ligwile. Zatela ka A^agwile. CTgali u ttgwile. 6. The student is strongly advised to learn the charac- teristic syllables appropriate to the diflferent classes of nouns before he proceed^ to the next chapter. He will be well repaid for the labour entailed as otherwise he wiU constantly have to be referring back to them, and, moreover, he will never be able to speak Yao correctly until he has thoroughly mastered them. THE CONCOED 17 The following plan is recommended : — (1) Note that the characteristics of the follgwing classes are alliterative— 2, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16. (2) Note that from 1-13 inclusive the odd numbers are al- located to singular prefixes, and the even, to plural ones. (3) Learn the Class Characteristics in conjunction with the { Class prefixes rather than by the numbers of the classes. Thus, I it is better to learn the syllable JI as the characteristic of " the { MI class," not as that of " the fourth class." This is best achieved in the first instance by learning them off by heart, thus : — " Mu, ju ; ^a ; ^a ; mu, u ; mi, ji ; n, ji ; n, si ; " and so on. 4. The important classes are the first fourteen. The others ' may, if the list is found to be too formidable, be omitted until a more advanced stage. (5) When the characteristics have been learnt it will be found to be good practice to go through the English- Yao Voca- bulary, giving each noun its appropriate class characteristic. I The parts of speech have been indicated in this vocabulary ' partly for this purpose. These nouns need not be learnt ; the object of this exercise is merely to familiarize the sound of the class prefix with that of the class characteristic. ' The only difficulty may be with nouns having no prefix — as to whether they belong to the first or ninth classes. Most of these < belong to the latter. i 6. Summary. (1) Every part of speech consists of a stem or root and various prefixes and suflSxes ; these modify the primary meaning of the root. 1 (2) The noun prefixes when attached to other parts of speech bring these into agreement with the noun : this agreement is known as ^' the Concord.'^ (3) Noun prefixes may be singular or plural, and certain 2 18 A YAO^GBAMMAB plural prefixes are especially associated with certain singular ones, ie, they tend to run in pairs. (4) This applies also to these prefixes when they are used as characteristic (pronominal) syllables. 7. A few notes on general etymology with regard to the nouns may be of interest. (1) MU- The 1st and 2nd prefixes indicate persons and \V"A- their offices. MU in general conveys the idea of life. A few nouns having no prefix take the concord of this prefix (JU, WA) but these are mostly foreign words. JU- This is derived from MU through the archaic pre- prefix QU- which still survives as such in the North Elgon dialects.^ The peculiar plural prefix achi-, acha- appears also in Chi- Makua, though in that language it is frequently softened to n- and is not confined to the second class as in Yao. It is probable that it is allied to the honorific Che ; this is prefixed to names of persons, and corresponds to our English " Mr." (cf. 'ChekidUf "old," in which the syllable che is strongly accented) and both are probably derived from the IX. prefix Chi- in its aug- mentative sense. Acha is said to be actually in use as an honorific among some Yaos." NA- Johnston refers to this as a sex-prefix,* but there seems to be no indication of sex as used in Yao. I think it is more likely a form of the Copula (m, no, etc.), and may be allied to the form of the impera- tive in no- (e.g. nalole, " look I ") ; its use with any given noun would then indicate emphasis. It is ^ Sir H. H. Johnston, "A Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi Bantu Languages," p. 19. * Ibid. p. 234. Personally I have heard this honorific used with only two words, both Swahili — hwana and bibi {chibwanaj cichibibi). « /6id., p. 19. THE CONCORD 19 difficult to explain, otherwise, the retention of the . ordinary class prefix, and also that of the prefix na- itself in the plural ; it is unprecedented to have three prefixes to a noun (achi-na-m-londola). In folk-lore, moreover, it is often given to nouns, especially names of animals, which normally have only the class prefix. Johnston^ calls attention to this ^* directive n*' but does not seem to associate it with this na- prefix. (2) MU- The third prefix (MU-) is probably identical in origin MI- with the first. Classes III. and IV. also comprise living things, though impersonal as contrasted with the personal forms in Classes I. and II. ; thus all trees belong to Classes III. and IV. In addition, things intimately connected with man are often put into these classes (parts of the body, village, etc.). The 3rd characteristic U has a similar derivation to the 1st, but in this case the G of the preprefix is dropped, possibly to differentiate it from the 1st class. In the fourth characteristic the G of the preprefix GI- is softened to J. (3) LI- These classes contain mostly augmentatives and it MA- is not uncommon to hear a noun which usually belongs to another class given this prefix to indi- cate size (e.g. lijuni, *'a large bird,'* instead of the more usual chijuni). The 6th prefix MA- is also used for collective nouns, and liquids. Its characteristic GA is identical with the preprefix of this class. A few nouns take the 7th prefix (chi-) in their singu- lar and the 6th in the plural, e.g. chitendoj " an action," plural matendo. Some nouns of the 11th class, also, take their plural alter- natively in the 6th or 10th, e.g. lukongoloj **a leg," plural ngongolo or makongolo. Finally, most foreign words of recent introduction are given the singular concord of the 1st class, but take the prefix and ^ Sir H. H. Johnston, op. cit^ p. 32. 20 A YAO GBAMMAB concord of the 6th in the plural, e.g. huhi, " a book/' plaral mabuhu. (4) CHI- Noans having these prefixes are often instruments I- and inanimate things in general. Large size may be implied to a certain extent but not (in Yao) to the same degree as in the 5th class. Many neigh- bouring languages have VI- as their 8th prefix — ^a form intermediate between the original BI and the Yao I. (5) N- Torrend^ suggests that this class was formed for indiscriminate objects — a sort of asylum for home- less nouns— obviously a confession of failure to determine its purpose, at which it must be left. The archaic preprefixes are GI- (9th) and THI- or ZI- (10th), to which the characteristics JI and SI are obviously allied. (6) The LU- prefix has not survived in many Bantu languages. It indicates, in general, length, and hence its general appli- cation in Yao to rivers. (7) TU-, plural, is in some languages the complement of LU-, singular. Hence its position in the classification between LXJ- and KA-. In Yao this prefix is diminutive only. EA- is nearly always diminutive throughout the Bantu group ; in Yao, always. (8) The U- prefix in general gives an abstract meaning to a root, e.g. umme, "price," from -svmay "buy," or "sell," Some- times it has a collective meaning, and hence its association with the 6th prefix MA-. The root of some nouns has been cut down in Yao until its first sound is U, and, though they are placed in the N class, the class prefix has been dropped (e.g. uti, " a gun ; " ula, " rain," which should properly be written *utiy 'u^a, to indicate the lost prefix). Care must be taken to distinguish such words from nouns whose prefix is U-. (9) As will be seen from the table the prefix KU- has a double meaning. The first of these is definitely substantival and cor- responds to the English Gerund, but it is also used as a locative like the allied forms PA- and MU-. 1 J. Torrend, S. J., " A Comparative Grammar of the South African Bantu Languages," p. 86. THE CONCORD 21 It may be objected that these locative prefixes have no proper place ia a table of noun-prefixes. Yet in reply one may with justice contend that such forms as kwakutelekay etc., though formed from verbs are used substantively (e.g. Kwangali kwa- kuteleka, " there is no place for cooking "). In any case, how- ever, they are^ entitled to a place in a table of concords as their characteristics are identical with those of the noun classes. Thus KU when used as a preposition, "to,*' requires its own concord, e.g. ku nyumba kwangu, " to my house,** not ku nyumba jangu ; in other words, this syllable ku has more the nature of an extra prefix to the noun nyumba than that of a preposition, (cf. also the form kuchele, " it is dawn, " lit. " there is dawning,*' — a form of the locative). CHAPTER III. THE NOUN {continued). 1. Useful words are given in the following vocabularies divided into their appropriate classes. It is recom- mended that these be learnt by heart : — CLASS I. Class Characteristic JU. Mwanache, a child. Mundu, a person. Mchanda, a youth. Mlamu, a brother- (or sister-) 'in-la/w. Mlendo, a stranger. M'mwenye,! a Banyan trader. Mehimwene, a headman. Mwanasi, Mnasi, a neigh- hour. Mlumbu, a brother, a sister. Msungu, a European. Singano, a needle. Sona, tobacco. CLASS II. Class Characteristic, W A. Wanache. Wandu. Achaehanda. Alamu (polite sing.).^ Achalamu (pL). Alendo (polite sing,).^ Achalendo (pi). Amwenye. Aimwene.* Waimwene.* Anasi (polite sing.).^ Achanasi (pi.). Alumbu (polite sing.).^ Achalumbu (pi). ^^asungu. Achasingano. Atati (polite sing.)f^ father, etc. Achatati (pi). Amao (polite sing.),^ mother, etc. Achamao (pi). ^From the Swahili. Conti^st Mioenye ("a chief") having a similar derivation (achimwenye). ^ Note the double plural. * The plural of any part of speech may be used with reference to a single person to imply respect. (See also p. 37, note (4) ; p. 45, note (1).) (22) THE NOUN GLASS III. CLASS IV. Class Characteristic, u. Class Characteristi Mkono, an arm. Mikono. • Mtela, a tree, medicine. Mi tela. MseUy a hoed ro^. Miseu. Musi, a village. Misi. Msinda, a large village. Misinda. Mgoji, a hark rope. Migoji. Mchiga, a root. Michiga. Mkalo, a knife. Mikalo. Mkonga, a huruyh of bananas. Mikonga. Mkwamba, a fathom. Mikwamba. Mlasi, bamboo. Milasi. Mlasa, leaf of boraams palm. Milasa. Mgwalangwa, a borassus pcUm Migwalangwa. Moto, fire. Mioto. Mgunda, a garden. Migunda. CLASS V. CLASS VL Class Characteristic, LI. Class Characteristi Liganga, a stone. Maganga. Litala, a path. Matala. Lipenu, a verandah. Mapenu. Libweta, a box. Mabweta. Lyu^a, a day, the sun. Mo^a. Lichika, a reed mat. Machika. Ligasa, the palm of the hand. Magasa. Ligombo, a banana. Magombo. Lijela, a hoe. Majela. Likoka, a drag-net. Makoka. Likonde, the bush. Makonde. Litinji, the bush. Matinji. Lilo^e, a word. Malo^e. Lina, a name. Mena (maina). Lino, a tooth. Meno (maino). Lindanda, an egg. Mandanda. Lipende, a skin. Mapende. Lisimba, a lion. Masimba. 23 4 A TAO GBAMMAB CLASS V. CLASS VI. Class Characteristic, LI. Class Characteristic, GA. Lisegwe, a noise {of talk, Masegwe. laughter, etc.). Litaka, earth. Mataka. Litete, a reed. Matete. * Liti^, a valley. Mati^i. Liu, ashes. 'Liupa, a hone. Maupa. Linage, an axe. Ma'^ago. Li'^anga, a sore, a wound. Ma^anga. Li^ata, a duck. Ma'^ata. # Mesi, water. Mate, sense, meaning. Masengo, work. 2. The Possessive. The class characteristic prefixed to -a has the meaning "of" or "for." Thus :— Class I. Class IIL Class V. Class II. Class IV. Class VI. )^a. Ja (ji-a). Ga (ga-a). Jua. Wa (u-a). Lya (li-a). The Possessive agrees with the qualified noun. e,g, Mitela ja Msungu, the European's trees, Lijela lya atati, the father's hoe. The Locative ku used in conjunction with the Possess- ive gives the meaning "from.'* With the name of a person this locative becomes kwa. e.g, Litala lya ku musi, the path from the village. Wandu ^a, kwa Liwonde, people from Liwonde, Note, — The Possessive is pronounced as though it formed part of the succeeding word. No hiatus should be perceptible. Occasionally the Possessive -a becomes -aka ; but this form is rarely used. E,g, Lwendo Iwaka Muyao, " The restlessness of the Yao " (from an old song). THE NOUN 25 Exercise 5. Translate into English : — Malowe ga wandu ; mwanache jua mlendo ; musi wa nichimwene ; mikalo ja mlumbu ; ligombo lya mchanda ; mandanda ga mwanasi; lipende lya lisimba; matete ga lichika ; mkwamba wa mgoji ; mlamu jua atati ; sona jua msungu; achisingano wa kwa mmwenye; mkonga wa ku migunda ; mkono wa amao. Exercise 6. Translate into ChiYao, giving both singular and plural : — The child's arm ; a knife for tobacco ; the root of the tree; the Banyan's child; the chief of the village; a duck for the stranger ; bark rope for the tree ; the word of the European ; bamboo from the valley ; a road from the chiefs village ; a stone for the path ; a knife from the Banyan; the noise of the children; water for the stranger ; the meaning of a word ; father's axe. 3. Formation of Adjectives. The adjective consists of a stem and two prefixes — the possessive and the class prefix {not the characteristic). The latter has the eflfect of converting the stem to which it is attached into a noun having the meaning " -ness;" the whole adjective literally translated might therefore be rendered " of -ness." e.g. " Mitela jaminandi." The adjective -navdi is merely a stem, it can never stand alone. The addition of the prefix " mi- " converts it into a noun of the fourth class, in agreement with the substantive *' mitela^" and having the meaning " small- ness." The addition of the possessive *'ya," also in agreement with ^^miiela" gives the meaning "trees of smallness," hence " small trees," 26 A TAO GBAMMAB So also : — Mwanache jua-m-nandi, a small child, Mkalo wonandi (waunandi), a smcUl knife. 4. Some adjectives like -mbonej ** good," -mnono, " small," are really nouns, so that only the possessive is prefixed to make them agree with a noun. Such forms are easily recognised by their initial letter m, e.g. Wandu ^a-mbone, good people. Maupa gamnono, small bones. Occasionally this prefix m becomes mi in the plural, e.g. ng'ombe syamikolo, cows. The pronominal adjectives {all, other, any, etc.), on the other hand, prefix the class characteristic only. e.g. Wandu ^osepe, all the people. Lilo^e line, another word. All adjectives follow the noun they qualify. 5. Vocabulary. (i) True Adjectival Boots. -jinji, much, many. -pilijru, black. -nandi, small. -leu, long. -koto, heatUiful. -jipi> short. -site, heavy. -lume, male (of persons only). -nonono, difficult. -kongwe, female {of persons only), -swela, white. -kulungwa, hig, large. -jumu, dry. -sisisi, cold. -jumi, living. -^isi, fresh {of meat), green {of -chekulu, old {of per- grain, leaves, etc.). sons only). -nami, false, lying. -chejeu, red. mm THE NOUN 27 (ii) Noun Adjectives (prefixing the possessive only). -mbone, good. -mkolo, female (of animals), -mtega, useless. -mnono, small. -mkambako, male {of animals). Note. — There is no adjective meaning " bad." The Yao most often uses the term -ngahimbana, " not good/' in this sense ; this is really a negative relative (see p. 52), and is mentioned here for convenience. It prefixes the possessive only. (iii) Pronominal Adjectives (prefixing the class characteristic only). -ose, -osepe, (sing.) the whole, (plur.) all. -ana -ose, ^ -osepe, / ^**^ '^' -li ose, any. -ine, other, more, different. -ine . . . -ine, some . . . others. Examples. Lipende lyosepe, the whole skin. Musi wose, the whole village. Magombo gosepe, all the bananas. Misi j osepe, all the villages. Wandu ^ana ^ose, every man. Wandu ^^osepe^ every man, all the people. Li^^ago lili lyose, any axe. Malo^e gane, other words, more words, different words. BxEROiBB 7. Translate into English : — iliXEROiBB 7. Translate into English : — Wandu wajinji; matete gamawisi; mitela jamijumu; mchiga wojumi ; musiwosepe; misi j osepe; mikalojami- kulungwa ; sona juambone ; achachanda wamtega ; juam- kongwe ; juamlume ; mawata gamaswela ; majela gama- jinji; milasi jine; milasa jam bone; mseu woleu; litala lili lyose ; matete gamajinji ; mandanda gosepe ; mgoji wojipi ; mesi gamajinji ; maganga gamasito ; miindu juangalumbana ; litaka lyepiliyu; juampiliyu; mtela wosito : (inimdu^ iuamchekulu. wosito ; (inimdu) juamchekulru 28 A YAO QRAMMAB Exercise 8. Translate into ChiYao : — Natives (black people) ; white stones ; a fathom of good rope; tall (long) trees; a dry skin; a beautiful woman ; a large village ; more water ; many old people ; a useless knife; long bamboos; green palm for reed- mats; more palms for the verandah; a small village t short roots ; all useless fools ; good chiefs ; many sisters ; large teeth ; everyone (of) the children ; any small needles ; the tall European ; the whole day ; much work ; a drake; a male; all lionesses; the black duck; dry tobacco ; all old Europeans ; any path. CHAPTER IV. THE NOUN {continued). Class VII. Class VIII. Class Characteristic, CHI. Class Characteristic, I. Chijuni, a bird, Chome, a cat Chitumbili, a species of monkey. Chiula, a toad, Chuku, the rainy season, Chiulo, froth, Chitengu, a stool, Chisoti, a cap, Chipewa, a hat, Chipanje, wealth, Ohichili, a peg, a post. Chipagala, a roof, Chimanga, maizei Chinangwa, cassava, Chisui, a leopard, Chimbonga, a walking stick, Chilumbo, a knot, Ohilumba, an island, Chikungu, brass (a bracelet). Chigamba, a patch, Chitungulu, a wheel, Chala, afmger, toe, Chaka, a year^ a festival, Ghindu, a thing. Ijuni. Yome. Itumbili. lula. Yuku. lulo. Itengu. Isoti. Ipewa. Ipanje. Ichili. Ipagala. Imanga. Inangwa. Isui. Imbonga. Ilumbo. Ilumba. Ikunga (bracelets), Igamba. Itungulu. Yala. Yaka. Indu. (29) 30 A YAO C^KAHMAR Class IX. Cr.Ass X. Class Characteristic, JI. Class Characteristic, SI. Nouns which belong to the 9th Class in the singular have the same form in the 10th Class as plural. Nyumba, a hfmse / houses. Nguku, a fowl ; fowls. Nyama, meat; game. Nguo, cloth, calico j' clothes. Ndembo, an elephant, ivory; elephants. Ngondolo, a sheep ; sheep. Ngwena, a crocodile ; crocodiles. Ng*ombe, an ox, a cow ; cattle. Njota, thirst. Ngongo, a staff; staffs. Mbwa, a dog ; dogs. Mbale, a plate; plates. Mbeju, a plant ; plants, seeds. Mbungo, toind. Mbepo, cold. Uti, a gun ; guns (or rifle). Ula, rain. Sala, hunger. Note. - Nyumba sometimes takes majumba as its plural, par- ticularly with reference to large houses. So also a few nouns of other classes, especially the 7th and 11th ; e.g. chitendo (plural matendo), " an action " ; lukongolo (plural ngongolo or makongolo), " a leg." Class XI. Class X. Class Characteristic, LU. Class Characteristic, SI. Nouns in lu- take their plural in w- (or ny- before a vowel), i.e. in Class X. This n produces the usual euphonic changes (see p. 8). Luambi, a branch. Nyambi. Luau, a net. Nyau. THE NOUN Lugomo, a lip. Ngomo. Lujuchi, a hee. Nyuchi. Lukalala, a basket. Ngalala^ T.nkole, a verandah room. Ngole. Lukoloma, a trench. Ngoloma. Lukonji, a rope. Ngonji. Lukosyo, a tribal family. Ngosyo. Lukuju, a fig. Nguju. Lukwi, a pisce of firewood. Ngwi. Lusasu, a piece of firewood. Sasu. Lusambo, a wire. Sambo. Lusulo, a stream. Sulo. Luulo, a waier~pot. Ulo. Luumbo, a hair. Umbo. Lulimi, a tongue. Ndimi. Lupambai a kind of small ant. Mbamba. Lupiya, a shilling. Mbiya, money. Lunda, vjisdom. 31 Classes XII. and XIII. Any noun can be made into a diminutive by changing its prefix into ka- singular, or tu- plural. Occasionally the native prefers to use both prefixes (i.e. ka- and the usual class prefix). Class XIII. Class Characteristic, KA. Katela, a small tree, Kaluambi, a small branch, Kanache, a small child. Class XII. Class Characteristic, TU. Tutela. Tunyambi. Twanache. Class XIV. Nouns in w-. Those having an abstract or collective meaning have no plural, others take their plural in mor (Class VI.). (Note that some nouns in u- belong to the 9th class, an n having been dropped). 32 A TAO OBAMMAB OT.AflS XIV. Class VI. Class Characteristic, U. Class Characteristic, GA. Ulalo, a bridge. Maulalo. UgOQO, a resd sleeping-mat. Magono. Utope, mud. Matope. U^asi, a miMhroom. Ma^asi. Uwou, pus. Mawou. Ukali, fierceiMSS, bravery. Ukana, native beer (fermented). Ukungwi, skill. Ulusi, usi, threcid. Umi, healthf life. Unami, deceit, lies. (Uchili). Machili, strength. Ugali, porridge. Uganja, friendship. Upile, good luck. Utitili, fleas. Class XV. The prefix KU- is used with two mean- ings : — (i) In the first of these it is prefixed to a verbal stem, the latter remaining unchanged.^ Its equivalents in English are the Dative (Gerund) and the Infinitive. e.g. Ngusaka A;ulola, I want to look (i.e. ^^ I want looking.^^) Koga (ku-joga) nde kwamhone, Bathing is good. 1 In this it differs from the other class prefixes ; when these are used with a verbal stem the final a of the latter often changes, usually to o, but sometimes to e or t. Those which change to -o are usually instruments. e,g, UgonOf ** a sleeping-mat " (from -gona). Ghisogosiy " fruit " (from -sogola). Chitumbilif " monkey " (from -tumbila). THE NOUN 38 N,B. — Caxe must be taken in sentences like the first of these examples that this dative refers to the subject of the verb ; compare the following : — Ngusaka ajaule, " I want them to go/' i.e. ** I want that they should go." (Not ngwasaka kwaula.) Here the going does not refer to the subject *' I." (ii) The second use of KU- is locative and will be considered together with Classes XVI. and XVII. The Locative Prefixes. These are identical with the locatives KU- PA- and MU-, and are not used as noun prefixes. When prefixed to a noun, however, they have the effect of transferring it to their class and require their concords, not that of the noun prefix proper : — e.g, Nyumba jangu, my house. hut Ku n> umba kwangu, to my house. M'nyumba'muno mwambone, it is nice in this house. They may be used also to convert a verbal stem into a noun, but only with the idea of place. Th6 possessive is prefixed to the infinitive of the verb : — Kwakoga (kwakujoga), a bathing place. Mwakupikana magambo, a place for hearing cases-at'law. It will be noticed from the second example that these fQrms though substantival, may yet retain the power of possessing an object when formed from a transitive verb. 3 84 A YAO GBAMMAB 2. The Possessiveb of these nouns are : — Class VII. Cha. Class VIII. Ya. IX. Ja. X. Sya. XI. Lua, Iwa. (X. Sya). XIII. Ka. XII. Twa. XIV. Wa. (VI. Ga). XV. Kwa. XVI. Pa. XVII. Mwa. 3. The Adjectival Prefixes are according to rule (see p. 26). e.g. Chachiswela (chijuni), white (bird). Syannandi (nyumba), small (houses). Eakajipi (katela), short (tree). Nyama josepe, all the meat. Lukonji Iwambone, a good rope. Note. — In the n class, the class characteristics ji and si are often used in place of the class prefix n. Thus : nyvmba jor-ji-kulungwa ^ *^& large or nyumba ja-n-gulimgwa (jit-n-kulungwa) j house." mhwa sya-si-nandi (or syenandi) ^ or mbwa syannandi (aychn-nandi) ) ^™*" Qogs. Exercise 9. Translate into English : — Itumbili yepiliyu; chipagala chosepe ; nyumba j a ma- ganga; imanga yejipi; chipewa cha mchanda; litala lyambone; libweta lyenandi ; majelagamasito; malowe gamanami ; Una lyangalumbana ; lipende lyejumu ; mesi gamasisisi ; mesi ga moto ; ngonji syejipi ; lunda luo- jinji (Iwalujinji) ; mbamba syamnono; sasu syewisi; umbo syasiswela ; luau Iwalusito ; ulalo woleu ; magono gamtega ; ukali wojinji ; ugali wose ; matope gane; kasiilo kane ; tuwanga twatujinji ; kagamba kakaswela ; tubweta twatusito. THE NOUN 35 Exercise 10. Translate into ChiYao : — Much wealth; long pegs; a big hat; many years; small paths ; a reed- mat for the verandah ; the truth (good words) ; a white drake ; much ash ; green reeds ; a male lion; good water; much sense; small baskets; a wire rope ; dry firewood (pi.) ; the long hair of a Euro- pean ; a strong bridge (of strength) ; cold porridge ; good beer; all the mud; more good luck; a small house (dim.) ;'^little bones (dim.) ; little baskets (dim.). CHAPTER V. THE VERB. The verb consists of a stem and various prefixes and suffixes attached thereto. These prefixes are : — (1) The subjective pronoun (connective). (2) The objective pronoun (connective). (3) The tense prefix or prefixes. The commonest suflBx is -ga after final a, or -je (for -ge) after final e. Apart from its occurrence in certain tenses, of which it is a specific part (see pp. 71 and 107), this suflBx may be added to any tense when it is desired to indicate that the action is continuous or recurrent (see also p. 41). e.g, Akwisaga mo^a gosepe, he comes every day, Talwaleje, he will continue to he ill. Note. — The stem of the verb is liable to various changes in- dicating tense, mood, etc. 1. The Subjective and Objective (connective) Pronouns. These connective forms of the personal pronoun are inseparable from the verb. (a) Class I. The subjective forms are : — n-, ni-, I. (u-), (thou). a-, he, she, or it (you). tu-, we. m-, mu-, mw-, you. ^a-i a-, they {he, you). (36) THE VERB 37 The Objective forms are : — -n-, -ni-, me. (-ku-), (thee). -m-, him, her, it, you, -tU-, U8. -m-, -mu-, you, -^a-, them (him, you), (b) The subjective and objective connective pronouns for other classes are the same as the class characteristics : u, ji, si, etc. Notes, . (1) The second person Bingular is only used idiomatically (see p. 45). It is never used with the meaning of " thou," " thee," except in speaking to children, or when it is intended to express contempt or disparagement. (2) Note that the only difference between the Subjective and Objective forms is in the third person singular (excepting the disused second person singular). (3) The n of the first person singular causes the usual euphonic changes both in the tense prefixes and in the stem of the verb. ni- is only used as the subjective before an objective pronoun :— e.g, tindole, I will look {not tinilole). hut tinimlole, / will see him, nimbweni, T have seen him. (4) The third person (singular and plural) is often used for politeness in place of the second person ; in such cases the per- son referred to can only be ascertained by the context. (5) The objective connective pronoun is always placed im- mediately before the stem, i.e, after all other prefixes. Examples : (-weni, <* has seen ") :— a-tu-weni, he has seen us. t^aweni (tu-^a-weni), we have seen them, mbweni (nweni), / have seen. ^asiweni (mbwa), they have seen them (dogs). mugaweni (majela), you have seen them (hoes), (nyama) situ weni (the game) have seen us. nigaweni (maganga), / have seen them (stones). 38 A YAO GRAMMAR 2. The Infinitive Mood. This mood is formed by prefixing ku- to the stem : — e,g. ku-wona, to see. kuta^a, to bindy tie, build, 3. The. Indicative Mood. (a) The Present Tense. This tense is formed by prefixing the subjective (con- nective) pronoun to the infinitive : — nguwona (nkuwona), I see, akuwona, he sees. tukutaA^a, tve build. mkutaA^a, you build. ^akuwona, they see. jikuwona, sikuwona, etc. (b) The {immediate) Future Tense is formed by prefixing the syllable ti-, ta-, or tu- to the pronoun and stem, the final -a of the latter being changed to -e : — tinda^e (ti-n-tawe), I will build. tata^e (ta-a-ta^e), he will build. tututa^e. we mil build. timta^e, you will build. tata^e, ta^ata^e, they will build. tajiwone (mbwa), it (dog) will see. tasituwone, they will see us. Note. — The vowel of this tense prefix (<a-, etc.) changes ac- cording to the demands of euphony, but considerable latitude is observed, and it is not possible to frame a rule. (c) The Present Perfect Tense. This tense — and its derivatives — is very irregular and the changes in the stem should be learnt empirically for the present, together with each verb. The subject has been dealt with fully later (see Chap. XVI.). THE VERB 39 The tense is formed by prefixing the subjective pro- noun to a modified stem. The perfect form of the verb kuta'iba, " to build/' is 'taibile, hence : — nda^ile (ntai^ile), I have built. ata^lO) he has built. tuta^le, we have built. mta^le, you have built. wata^ile, they have built. uta^le, jita^le, sita^ile, etc. The present perfect form of kuwona is -wenij hence :— ^ mbweni (nweni), I have seen. aweni, he has seen. tuweni, we have seen. muweni, you have seen. Avaweni, they have seen. uweni, jiweni, siweni, etc. (d) The Past, or Past Perfect Tense, is formed from the present perfect by prefixing -a to the stem, i.e. between it and the pronoun : — naweni, I saw or 'had seen. nata^le, I built or had built. waweni, he saw or had seen. wata^e, he built or had built. twaweni, we saw or had seen. mwaweni, you saw or had seen. i^ata^le, they built or had built. wata^le, jata^ile, syata^ile, etc. Note. — It will be seen that the third person singular of this tense has wa-, where one would expect a- ; this has evidently been adopted so as to diflEerentiate between the present perfect tense and the past. It must not be confused with the {ba- of the third person plural. 40 A YA.0 GBAMMAB 4. The Subjunctive Mood. This is formed by changing the final -a of the stem into -e, and prefixing the subjective (connective) pro- noun : — ndai^e (nta^e), I may build, let me build. awone, he may see, let him see, tutai^e, iJbe m>ay build, let us build. muwone, you may see, ata^e, they m^y build, let them build, uta^e, jita^e, sita^e, etc. . Note, — In this tense the subjective pronoun is usually a- instead of {ba-, in the 3rd person plural. The introduction of the syllable- /ca- gives emphasis, or indicates that action is to be carried out at a d. stance : — ngata^e '\I must build, I may go and (nkata^e)j build, etc, akawone, he must see, let him go and see, 5. The Imperative Mood. There are three forms in common use : — (i) The simple stem : — taiba, " build." The plural is formed by suffixing -ni : — taibani, '•* build ye." The continuative suffix -ga, when used, is inserted immediately after the stem : taibagani, " continue to build.^' This is the only tense in which the continuative suffix is infixed — elsewhere it always occurs at the end of the word. ^ii) The subjunctive is used for politeness, and the third person singular is used as often as the more direct second person plural . — ata^e, or mta^e, build, akata^e mkatat^e,! ^^^^ ^^ ^^ j^.^ or mukata^e J THE VERB 41 The continuative suffix may be added: — atai^eje (not -ga), continue bmlding. Note, — Idiomatically, this use of the continuative suflBx may have a somewhat petulant significance, " Oh ! build if you want to." (iii) The letter n is sometimes prefixed to the sub- jmictive third person singular : nataibe, " build." There are other forms (nimlaibe, hwntaibe, kataibeni), but they are not in common use. 6. In telling a story or in describing a series of actions during conversation the proper tense form need only be used for the first verb. All succeeding verbs of the series, having the same subject and being of the same tense as the first, may be replaced by the infinitive with the syllable ne or nde (a form of na, " and ") prefixed to it. Verbal stems having initial g ox k drop the ku of the infinitive. e.g. Wajawile ku musi, nekusosa mundu*jo, nekumsalila malowe'go, negona; kundai^i nekuuja, He went to the village^ sought out the man, gave the message and slept {there) ; next morning he returned. Vocabulary. (The perfect form of verbs is given in brackets.) kulola (-lolite), to look, kutama (-temi}, to dt, stay, dwell, kwika (-iche), to come, kwisa (-jisile), to come. kwaula (-jawile), to go, kwenda (-jesile), to walk, go, kusosa (-sosile), to look for, want. kusaka (-sachile), to want. kutenda (-tesile), to do. 42 A YAO GBAHMAB kupita (-pite), to pass {go atoay '). kwinjila (-jinjile), to enter. kujigala (-jigele), to cari-y, bring, kujiganya (-jigenye), to teach. kulijiganya (-lijigenye), to learn, ku^echeta (-^echete), to speak. kusala (-sasile), to say, kusalila (-salile), to tell. ku^ilanga (-^lasile), to call, swnmon. ku^alanga (-^alasile), to read, count, kiilemba (-lembile), to write, mark. kuwona (-weni), to see {think), kuta^a (-ta^ile), to tie, hind, build, kupela (-pesile), to he tired, to suppose, kuganisya (-ganisisye), to think, consider. kusakalika (-sakaliche), to he tired, be spoiled, kwima (-jimi), to stand, to refuse, kwimuka (-jimwiche), to get up, kwimusya (-jimwisye), to rouse^ ^^call," kutyoka (-tyosile), to go away, start, kutyosya (-tyoeisye), to take away, kugona (-gonile), to lie down, sleep, kuwala (-wete), to wear, put on {clothes). kuwula (-wusile), to take off {clothes). kukola (-kwete), to have, possess, koga (-josile), to bathe. kuchapa (-chapile), to wash {clothes). kusigala (-sigele), to remain, kupikana (-pikene), to hear, obey, ku, from, to, pa, ai, on. mu, m', in. kwa, for, to, from {a person). ^ The verb -pita is used in the sense of " go away " only in the perfect tense, in speaking of a third person : apite, " he has gone," in the sense of " he is no longer here," not referring to the act of departure i)w,tyoka). Idiomatically, -p^ia is used in the sense of the English " come in." THE VERB 43 Notes, — (a) In verbs describing an action the present indicative is often used where the present imperfect is used in English : e.g. ngwaulay ** I am going." There is a present imperfect tense in ChiYao (see Chapter X.), but it is used when it is desired to emphasise the incom- pleteness of the action ; as we say in English, " I am looking for it," in reply to a demand, " Why don't you look for it ? " or " Have you found so-and-so ? " (6) In verbs describing a condition, as oppiosed to an action, the present perfect is used where the present indicative is employed in English : — e.g, mbesile (npesile), I am tired {not ngupela). ndemi (ntemi), I am sittmg down {not ngutama). (c) The expression "come and do so and so" and similar constructions, are rendered by putting both verbs in the sub- junctive : — e.g. mjise mlole, come and look. mjimuche msale, get up and say. mjaule mkamsalile, go atid tell him. Exercise 11. Translate into English : — Ngusosa ; ngwaula ; ngwisa ; akutenda ; wakwinjila; mkuwecheta ; ngumsalila ; akunyiganya ; tukusiwala ; wakupela; alole; ndole; mbilanje; ambilanje; ajime; mukachape; apite; tingone; tawale; tindyoche; tini- mbilanje ; tinyoje ; tutuwalanje ; tiiche ; tajinjile ; tisache ; nyawile ; mbechete ; ndolite ; mbesile ; atyosile ; tuwete ; sijimwiche; gatemi; nimjigenye; amsalile; wasichapile; sakaliche ; nijitawile ; namjimwisye ; t^ivrawusile ; waweni ; twambilasile ; nagasosile; twachitesile ; akalole; muka- chape; mkambilanje ; akasoseje ; ajauleje; jaulagani; jigalani; nalole; naiche; sigalagani; awaleje; asigaleje. Exercise 12. Translate into ChiYao ^ : — I see ; I am coming (I come) ; they stand ; we are lying down ; I am going ; I want them ; I want to see him {inf.) ; * In this and succeeding exercises, words in square brackets [thus] are not to be translated. 44 A YAO GBAMMAR I am going to call him ; he is learning ChiYao ; let him look ; let them remain ; you may go ; they may lie down ; let me get up ; you must write ; he must wash them [clothes] ; you may go and look ; let me go and call him ; he will remain ; I will bring it [plate] ; we will come ; they will go ; you will say ; I have looked ; he has come ; I am tired (per/.) ; they have learnt ; it [lion] has gone ; they [goats] entered ; we sat I spoke ; I went ; we bathed ; he called me ; we saw them [cattle] ; they [birds] went away ; take away the plate ; write them [words] ; call him ; go and bathe ; come and sit down ; stand up. CHAPTER VI. THE PRONOUN. 1. The Pebsonal Pronoun (relating to the first and second classes only). The subjective and objective forms of the personal pronoun are the same. une, J, me. (ugwe), {thou, thee), uwe, we, U8. umwe, you. It will be noticed that there are no personal pronouns for the third person singular or plural. The demonstrative pro- nouns proper to the first class {ajo, sing., a-Cbo, plur.) are used in their stead. These forms may be combined with the preposition na or ni, " and," " with '' : — none (naune), and I, with me. najo, and he, with him {or her). nowe (nauwe), and we, with us. nomwe (naumwe), and you, with you. na^o, and they, with them. Notes, -(i) The third person, singular or plural, is frequently used for the second person, occasionally even the demonstrative kweleko (" there ") : e.g. Tamlipe'mwe wani ? " Who is going to pay you ? '' Wao or Ktoeleko, " You (are)." (ii) Idiomatically the personal pronoun, 2nd person singular, is used where in English we should say " one " (see example, App. VII.). (46) 46 a yao grammab 2. The Possessive Pronoun. These are formed by prefixing the class characteristic to the following stems : — -angu, my. (-ako), {thy). -akwe, his, hers {your). -etu, our, -enu, your. -ao, their {your). e.g. chipewa changu, my hat. lijela lyenu, your hoe. ^andu ^ao, their {his, your) people. mate gakwe, its meaning. . 3. The Demonstrative Pronouns. There are three adjectival forms, two {this, that) re- ferring to near objects, and the otheT{that), to distant ones. (i) "This." The syllable a- is prefixed to the class characteristic : — . Class I. aju Class • II. a^a III. au IV. aji V. ali VI. aga. etc., etc. (ii) "That" (near) is formed from the preceding by changing the final vowel into -o, except -li and -si, which become -lyo and -syo. Class I. ajo Class II. a^o III. awo IV. ajo V. alyo VI. ago etc., etc. m THE PBONOITN 47 Na (" and," *' with ") may be prefixed to these forme — e.g. na^o, nasyo, nago, etc., and they, with them. najo, nawo, nalyo, etc., and he (it), with him (it). Similarly, the copula ndi (see pages 71-72). e.g. ndijo, it is he. ndi^o, it is they, ndicho, it is it, etc. And with the personal pronouns — ndine, it is I. (ndigwe), it is thou. ndiwe, it is we. ndimwe, it is you. (iii) " That " (distant). The syllable -la is suffixed to the first form (" this ") : — Class I. ajula Class II. at^ala III. aula IV. ajila V. alila VI. agala etc., etc. All these adjectival forms follow the noun they qualify. Notes.— (a) The initial vowel is usually dropped when these forms follow a noun : — eig, mundu*ju, for mundu aju. mbwa'sila, for mbwa asila. In such instances the accent is usually postponed so that in the preceding example the stress would be transferred from the mM of " mundu " to the d-w, as if " mundu^ju " were one word. (6) These forms are sometimes reduplicated for the sake of emphasis : — e.g, aju mundu'ju, this man. aga'majela'gala, those hoes. (c) The demonstratives agreeing with Classes XV., XVI., and XVII., ahu, aha, dkulaf apa, a/po, apala, amu, amo, amula, are equivalent to " here," " there," " in there." (For other forms of the demonstrative see page 58.) 48 A YAO GBAMMAR 4. When a locative (ku^ pa\ mu) precedes a noun and a demonstrative, the latter always takes the concord of the locative rather than that of the noun : — e,g. m'nyumba 'muno, in this house {not m'nyumba 'jino). pa lusulo^pala, at that stream {not pa lusulolula). Vocabulary. mnope, mlope, very, kusyene, very. kusyesyene, extremely. kuti {c<yaj.\ that, so that. akuQO, apano, here. kweleko, pelepo, there. elo, yes. kwali, kwalini, / donH know, perhaps. ngwamba, no. samb&no, now. nombe na-^o, -jo, -syo, etc., also. ^na, {indicates a question). nipo, ni na, and. naga, anaga, nawa, if. chichi ? what f -chi {vnth noun), what ? which ? {adjectival.) -api {with class characteristic)y what ? which ? {adjectival.) kwapi ? where ? nambo, hut, except, though basi ! enough !, that is all. Exercise 13. Translate into English : — (1) Ana umwe mkwaula kwapi? Ngwaula ku lusulo, nyoje. (2) Ajo nyumba'jo jambone kusyene. Elo, ja- mbone, nambo ajila jambone nombe najo. (3) Ngusaka kuchapa nguo syangu. Chambone {all right), nambo mkachape sine sya Msungu nombe nasyo. (4) M\mdu*ju akusosa masengo. Naga akwete chikalata chambone, tinimlembe. (5) Naiche akuno, umwe, ndole chikalata THE PBONOUN 49 chenu. Ngwamba, bwana, chikalata chakwe changa- lumbana ; juamtega aju. Basi ajauleje. (6) Ngusaka kuwona mbwa jenu. Mbwa'chi? Jajipiliyu'jo, mbikene kuti jambone mnope. None ngwete mbwa, jajinandi nambo. (7) Ana umwe, mkusaka chichi ? Naiche nim- lole umwe. Chambone, ambweni une ; sambano chichi ? Nyauleje? Elo, jaulagani. (8) Nasachile wandu wane ajigale mikeka 'ji, nambo wosepe wajawile ku migunda. Mjaule ku musi kwa mwenye, mumsalile kuti ngusaka achachanda wane, ajijigale. Elo, tinyaule. Exercise 14. Translate into ChiYao : — (1)1 saw your cattle in my garden. They have gone now. (2) This man [is] a fool. He comes here every day. What does he want? I don't know. (3) Carry this basket. Tell the other man to carry it {subj.)y I am tired. If you are tired, you may remain here but I shall tell the master {tr. European). (4) This Banyan [is] a bad [man]. He wants me to go and wash {subj,) his tslothes, but I think that he should call (suhj.) his boy to wash them (subj:) (5) What are you doing there ? I am writing a letter to my sister. (6) Call me when the bugle sounds (pepenga). I want to get up and bathe at (ku) the river. All right, I will call you. (7) I hear {pres. perf,) that you are going away. Yes, I am going to see my brother-in-law. (8) These people have brought some mats for you to look at (subj.). Tell them to come in (apite). These mats [are] no good, [they are too] small. Take them away. CHAPTER VII. THE NEGATIVE TENSES OP THE VERB. The negative syllable in general is nga (ngej ng% ngu), prefixed as a rule to the pronoun and stem of the verb.^ The vowel of the negative syllable (nga) changes in accordance with the demands of euphony. 1. The Present Indicative (Negative). This is formed by prefixing the syllable ^iga-, ngi-j etc., to the positive form : — ngengusaka, ngingusaka, or ngongusaka, J c^ not want ngakusaka (nga-akusaka), he does not want ngetukusaka, we do not want, ngimkusaka, you do not want, ngakusaka, ngat^akusaka, they do not want, nguukusaka, ngajikusaka. ngasikusaka, etc. 2. The Future (Negative) is formed by prefixing the negative syllable to the subjective pronoun and (un- modified) stem : — ngindola (ngi-n-lola), I mil not look, ngalola, he will not look, ngetulola, we vnll not look, ngimlola, you will not look, ngalola, nga^alola, they will not look. nguulola, ngajilola. ngasilola, etc. 1 There are two exceptions — the negative forms of the sub- junctive mood and of the relative tenses, q.v, (60) THE NEGATIVE TENSES OF THE VERB 51 A more emphatic negative is obtained by the use of ngasa- {ngisi-, etc.) in place of the simple negative syllable. 3. The Present Perfect, Past Perfect, and Past {Negative). There is only one negative for these tenses. It is formed by prefixing ngana- {ngim-, ngunu-, etc.) to the subjective pronoun and (unmodified) stem : — ngininyoga (ngini-n-joga), I have not bathed or did not bathe, nyanajoga, he did not bathe, etc. nganitujoga, we did not bathe, etc. nganimjoga, you did not bathe, etc. nganai^ajoga, | ^^^ ^.^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ nganajoga, ) ngunuujoga, nganijijoga, nganisijoga, etc. As in all the tense prefixes, no general rule can be laid down as to the euphonic changes taking place in the vowels. The forms given above are, however, those most generally used. 4. The Subjunctive (Negative) is formed by prefixing ka to the (unmodified) stem of the verb, and adding the subjective pronoun :— ^ ngawona (n-ka-wona), I may not see, let me not see. akawona, he m^y not see, etc. tukawona, we may not see, etc. mkawona, you may not see. akawona, ^akawona, they m^y not see, etc. ukawona, jikawona, sikawona, etc. This syllable ka becomes kasa if emphasis be desired, e.g. akasawona, tukasawona. ^ See also p. 109. 52 A TAO GBAMMAR Note, — The Negative Subjunctive must be carefully distin- guished from the emphatic positive form, which has, of course, a diametrically opposite meaning. The emphatic negative {"kasa-) should be used by the beginner to avoid confusion. c/. akalole with akalola ngajaule with ngajaula, etc. 5. The Imperative {Negative), There is no negative form of this mood, the negative subjunctive being used, e.g. mkajimay "don't stand"; mkasajimusya, " don't call,'' etc. 6. The Relative Tense (Present), (a) The Positive is formed by prefixing the possessive (jua-y wa-, ja-, etc.) to the Infinitive. It has the meaning ti — who {or which) does so-and-so": e.g. mundujuaku- wecheta^ " a man who speaks ; " ngwena syakukamula wandu, " crocodiles which seize people." {h) The Negative of this tense is formed by prefixing -nga- to the stem of the verb, preceded by the Possessive : e.g. mundu juangapikanaj "a man who does not hear" (hence, " a disobedient man ") ; majela gangalumbana, " hoes which are not good" {i.e, " bad hoes "). Note, — This tense is greatly used in Yao where, in English, we should use a negative Participle, e.g. ibandu {bangaika . , ., " the people not coming . . .;" mitela jangagwa , . ., "trees not falling . . ." ExEBCiSE 15. Translate into English : — Ngongupikana ; ngakwisa ; ngetukoga ; ngakupita ; mkajinjila; akawilanga; ngasigala ; tukajima ; aka- wecheta; akasalemba; mkasaganisya ; akasajoga; ngi- nyaula ; ngajimuka ; ngimsala ; ngutusalila ; nganapela ; ngeninyimuka ; nganitutyoka ; nganimtyosya ; wandu wangapikana ; wanache wakulijiganya ; achachanda wakujigala; nyama syangagona. THE NEGATrVB TENSES OF THE VEKB 53 Exercise 16. Translate into ChiYao : — I do not teach ; he does not speak ; we do not see ; you do not hear {or obey) ; they do not come ; don't let me see ; don't let him speak ; don't speak ; let us not go ; don't go ; I will not bathe ; he will not want ; we shall not go ; you will not tell ; they will not speak ; I did not think; he did not hear; we did not go; they did not come; the boy who is reading; the game which is pass- ing ; the woman who does not refuse ; people who do not come. Vocabulary. lumembe (11), a fly. njenjema (9), a mosquito. katundu (pi. akatundu, ndundu), a load, chisogosi (7), fruit. mpunga (3), rice. mapemba (6), sorghum (a Izind of millet). atati (2), father, uncle, etc. amao (2), mother, aunt. achikulu-wangu (2), my mother. achikulu-wakwe (2), his mother. akulu (2) elder brother. -gwe {suffixed to names of relations), his. . atatigwe, his father. achimwene (2), elder brother, sir, chief. ambuje (2), grandfather, grandmother, master. mpwanga (1), my younger brother. mpwenu (1), your younger brother. mpwao (1), his, their younger brother. kwangali, pangali, there is not, -pali, -kuli {with CI. Char.), there is, there are. kumanyilila (-manyilile), to know, understand. kukombola, kupakomlx)la (-kombwele), to be able. kuuta (-utile), to pull. kututa (-tut lie), to push. kulya (-lile), to eat. kung'wa (-ng'wele), to drink 54 - A TAO GBAMMAB kuutuka (-utwiche), to nm, kutila (-tisile), to run away. kogopa (-jogwepe), to fear, he afraid, kogoya (-jogweye), to frighten, he frightful, mkati (mu), inHde, kusa (ku)^ pasa (pa), outside. kusi (ku), pasi (pa), helow, under, on the ground. kwinani (ku), penani (pa), ahove, over, pachanya (pa), on top of, pesi (pa), across (a stream, road, etc.) pasyeto (pa), kusyeto (ku), on the other side of {an ohstckcle, e.g, house, hill), iyoyo, thus, ligongo, hecause. ligongo chichi ? why ? menema, therefore, mele, melepe, on pu/rpose, ^ani ? who ? Exercise 17. Translate into English : — (1) Ajigale yakulya; Msungu akwilan^a yakulya. Chambone, tiiche nayo. (2) Ligongo chichi mkutama pasi'po.^ Ana nganimjogopa? Ngajogope chichi? (3) Ngimkumanyilila kuti Msungu akwete mbwa jangu- lungwa? Elo,^ ngininimanyilila, sambano tindile. Eh! mbesile kumjogoya'mwe ! (4) Wandu wajawile kwapi? Watemi pasa. Ngusaka atute galeta, anyigale une tujaulekuZomba. (5) Chambone, tiniwawilanje. Mundu juine nganaika, nambo mpwao asalile une kuti ajawile kulola achikulu-wakwe. (6) Akuno kogoya, njenjema syejinji: nginingona kose^; tinyaule gona^ kwine. (7) Tajaule kwapi? Kwalini, ngongumanyilila. Ligongo * See page 60. ■ Kose {ku-ose) is used only with a negative tense ; it has its equivalent in the English ** at all " — " I did not sleep at all." ' The ku of the Infinitive is often dropped, especially in verbs beginning in g or h THE NEGATIVE TENSES OF THE VERB 55 pesi naweni kuti membe syejinji. Elo, mate gakwe ng'ombe'syo sya mwenye. (8) Ana mkulya chichi akuno ? Yejinji, ugali wa chimanga ni mapemba, mpunga, isogosi, — tukulya kusyene. (9) Nambo akuno kwan ali somba. Elo, kwangali, nambo ku nyasa. Menema lyuwa line tinyaule kwa achimwene, nisisose. (10) Amsalile wani kuti 'ngVe mesi'go? Mkunyogoya chichi? njota jang- wete,^ nginingVa mesi genu mele, mbesile kuti ga wandu ali wose. Exercise 18. Translate into ChiYao : — (1) What are you running away [for]? I was afraid [of] the European. I hear that [he is] very fierce {tr. of fierceness very). (2) Who told you that [he is] fierce ? The people of the village on the other side [of the hiil] yonder told me [so]. [It is] not true (tr. lies), [he is] a good man, that [one]. (3) This tree [is] very heavy, we cannot carry it. Some [of you] pull and others push, you will be able [to do it] thus. (4) Run and bring a a hoe. You will find one (tr. it) on the top of the big box in my house ; that [is] my house over there across the stream. (5) I am afraid to enter your house. All right, stand outside and tell those who are {tr. sit) inside that you want my hoe. (8) Put that pole (chitela) on the ground and come here. What shall I do now? Sit down (pasi)^ I want to tell you something (chindu), (7) Do you understand (pikana) ChiYao. No, I cannot speak (inf.) it, but I am learning. (8) Who is teaching you? The {tr, that) capitao who comes here every day. I have not seen him. * Not Nakwete njota. Similarly, Sala jingwete, ** I am hungry " ; Sala jamkwete^ " he was hungry." CHAPTER VIIL 1. The Vebb {continued). (i) The " Not yet " Tense— Present Perfect. This is formed from the Negative past by changing the final a into e : — e,g, ngininimbone, I have not yet seen him, or before I see him, nganajaule, he has not gone yet, or before he goes. (ii) The " Not yet " Tense— Past. This consists of the Pronoun, the prefix -kana- (-Wm-, etc.), the pronoun again, and finally the stem, the final a of the latter becoming e : — e.g. akanajaule (a-kana-a-jaule), he had not yet gone, or before he went. ngininiiche, I had not yet corns, or before I came. tukanatumanyilile, before we knew. Examples : — natyosile akanauje, / had left before he came back. wakanaiche Wasungu, before the Europeans came. jikanajitande ngondo, before the war commenced. 2. The Pronoun {continued). (i) An emphatic form of the Personal Pronoun is ob- tained either by suffixing -ji to the simple form, or by reduplicating the last syllable : — e.g. uneji, umweji,^ etc. ) I myself, you .} unene, umwemwe, etc. j yourself, etc. ^ Or umwejo. (56) VBEB AND PRONOUN 57 (ii) The Reflexive form is represented by -syene, prefixed by the class characteristic in all classes except the first, which takes the following forms : — namsyene, myself. msyene, asyene, himself. tusyene, twasyene, "^ 7 \ , '^ ' > ourselves. twachimsyene, J mwasyene, 1 ,. , ; , ' } yourself, yourselves. mwachimsyene, J asyene, achimsyene, themselves. Other classes — usyene, jisyene, sisyene, etc. Note. — Asyene has also the meaning of " the owner," " master " ; hence asyene musi means " the headman of the village ; " kusyene, " very," has a similar derivation. (iii) The simple Possessive Pronoun {-cmgu^ -etu, etc.) may be made more emphatic by suffixing the Personal Pronoun : — -angune (-angu-une), my own. -etuwe (-etu-uwe), our own. -enumwe (-enu-umwe), your own. These forms are used, idiomatically, with the pre- positions ku, pa, and mu, instead of the Personal Pro- noun : — e.g. kwangune, to me. petuwe, at us. (iv) The initial vowel of the Personal Pronoun is often elided after a verb, and the accent may thus be post- poned : — e,g. wambutile'ne {for wambutile une), he hit me. ^atuweni'we {for watuweni uwe), they saw us. (v) An euphonic g is often prefixed to the Possessive Pronoun after titles of relationship : — 58 A TAO GBAMMAB e.g. atatigwenu, your father, mlumbugwao, their sister. The plural form, without this g, is, however, more polite. 3. The Demonstrative Pronoun {continued). In addition to the adjectival forms already given (page 46), there are several forms of the true Demonstrative Pronoun. Thjese are formed as follows : — (i) The simple Demonstrative, like the adjectival, has three forms, expressing degrees of proximity. The near demonstrative " this one " is formed by pre- fixing the Possessive to 'ile- ( = -ele-) and suffixing the class characteristic^: — Ju-ele-ju {jua-ile-ju), ibeleiba, weleu, jeleji syelesi, chelechd, yelei, etc. " That one " (near) is obtained by changing the final vowel of the above form into o ^ ; — Jiielejo, ibeleibOy welewo, jelejOy syelesyo, chelecho, yeleyo, etc. [Hence : kweleko, pelepo, mwelemo, " there " (that place).] The distant " that one (over there) " consists of the Possessive prefixed to i ( = e), the class characteristic, and finally the syllable 4a : — Juejula (jua-i-jula), ibewalay weula^ jejila, syesila, chechilaj etc. [Hence : kwekula, pepala, mwemulay " there " (yonder).] An adjectival form, derived from the above, is some- times heard; in this, the pronoun is split, part being prefixed to the noun, and part suffixed : — ^ The final syllable is often dropped (e.g. juele' for jv^leju or juelejo ; kwele\ for kweleku or kwelekoj etc.) ; a rising inflexion indicates distance, a falling one proximity : kwey, " over there ; " hveU, "here." VERB AND PRONOUN 69 e.g. jue'mundu'ju, this man. je'nyumba'jila, that house. Bye' mbusi'syo, those goats. (ii) The simple adjectival form reduplicated giveB the meaning *• this same one " : — Ajuju, aibaiba, auu, ajiji, asisi, achichi, aii, alili, agaga, etc. [Hence : akuku, apapa, amumu, " this same place."] ** That same one " (near) is formed in a similar manner, except that the class characteristic replaces the initial a : — Jujojo (or jiiejojo), 'Q)aibo'(bo, uwowo, jijojo^ sisyosyo, chichochoj etc. [Hence : kukoko (or ukoko)^ papopo, m*moino, " that same place."] In the third, distant, form, the initial a is dropped :■ — Julajula, jilajila, etc., " that same one." [Hence : palapala, kulakula, mulamula, " that same place."] (iii) The adjectival form "this" with the suflBx -fto gives the meaning " this here " : — Ajuno, atbanOf aunOy ajino, asinOy achino, aino, alinOy agano, etc. [Hence : akuno, apano, amuno, here.] This fdrm may be used adjectively, e.g. mtela 'uno, this tree here ; majela'gano, these hoes here. Another form, which may be used either adjectively, in which case it is split, or pronominally, is : — JuejunOj {be^afio, weuno, jejino, syesino, chechinoy etc., this one here. 60 A YAO GRAMMAR e.g, Wandu ^api ? We^ano, Which people ? Tliese here, Ge* mowa' gano, These days (now-a-days,) [Similarly — kwekuno, pepano, mwemuno, this place here.] 4. Assent and Dissent. It should be noted that a Yao, in reply to a negative question, will say " Yes," where in English we say " No," and vice versa : — e.g, nganimbona ? did you not see him ? elo, yes (I did not). nganaiche ? has he not come yet ? elo, yes {he has not), nganapikana ? didn't you understand ? elo, yes {I didn't). So also : nganaiche ? has he not come yet ? ngwamba, aiche katasi, no {you are wrong), he came some time ago, 6. The Locative ku- may be used with the Gerund (p. 32) when the action is to be carried out at a distance : — e,g, ajawile kukuchijigala, he has gone to bring it, tinyaule kukoga, I will go and bathe, * Exercise 19. Translate into English : — (1) Nganapite; nganinyaule; nganituwawone ; nga- nimtende ; ngininiwawilanje. (2) Akanawechete ; tukana- tulembe ; nginisalile ; nganinimsalile ; mkanamjiganye ; wakanawajoje. (3) Namsyene; jeleji; syelesi; gelego; lyelelyo; ajiji; agaga; lilyolyo; kukoko; papopo; gagogo; alino ; agano ; asino. (4) Jilajila ; kwekuno ; palapala ; Iweluno. VBRB AND PBONOUN 61 Exercise 20. Translate into ChiYao : — (1) I have not yet eaten; he is not tired yet; they have not got up yet ; we have not yet put on our clothes. (2) Before they ran away ; before you called me ; before we went; before they [game] passed; before it [dog] entered. (3) Ourselves ; this one [child] ; that one [child] ; these [houses] ; those [hoes] ; that [soil] (4) These same reeds; the father himself; that same ox; the real rainy season (tr. itself) ; this man here ; these hoes here. (5) Those same [oxen] ; in this very place ; to that same place over there ; these same [houses] here. Vocabulary. ichenene, uchenene, well, nicely, ku^andika (-^andiche), to be near, easy, ku^ndichila (-^andichile), tg come near, kwa-, pa-ku^andika, near. kutalika (-taliche), to be far, difficult. kwakutalika, far. kwanaula, far. kumbujo, in the future. kumbujo (ku), ahead, beyond, in front. kunyuma (ku), panyuma (pa), in the rear, behind. panyuma pakwe, afterwards, later. pangaka^a, soon. kunonopa (-nonwepe), to be hard, difficult. kuuwa (-uwile), to die. kwasa (-jasile), to throw away, lose. kwasika (-jasiehe), to be lost, to be dead. kutuma (-tumile), to send (a person), kutumisya (-tumisye), to send (a thing). kupeleka (-peleche), to convey, conduct. kumala (-masile), to finish, end. kumalisya (-malisye), to finish (trans.). kupa (-pele), to give to {with obj. pronoun). kuja (-jile), to go. kuteka (-techile), to draw {water). chitema, quickly. 62 A TAO GRAMMAR chi^ela, the same as before. chalumo, yalumo, the same, mpela, like, as if, yati'ii^ such things as these. -li {with cl, char.), is, are (describing a condition), ni, no, is, are (identity)', -a chi ? (with cl, char.), what sort off kumangw-etu, -enu, -ao, our, your, their home, ExERcrsE 21. Translate into English :— - (1) Ana atati wakwe ajasiche? Elo, wauwile waka- naiche Wasungu. Wani ajinjile Una (tr, succeed) ? Mpwao CheJuma. (2) Ngusaka kutuma mundu ni chikalata'cho, achipeleche kwa Msungu. Chikalata'chi ? Chelecho, chili pa teblo (table), (3) Chambone, nambo wandu wajile kukuteka mesi. Ana wajawile wo- sepe? Juine ajile ku flaso, juine nganaiche. Mtume juine jua kumangwenu. (4) Ana mkalo wenu uli kwapi? Ujasiche. Nganimkola upile umweji, mwau- jasile kwapi? Pasyeto'pala, kumangwao achimwene. (5) Nguwona kuti ChiYao chikunonopa, ligongo wandu ngakuwecheta ichenene, none ngongupikana malowe gao. (6) Nambo mkulijiganya chitema, timpakombole kupikana 'chenene pangakawa. (7) Akatundu ali kwapi ? Ali kumbujo'ko, nawaweni watemi pasi. Ana mwaweni wosepe? Ngininiwawalanga, nambo ngonguwona kuti wane ali munyuma, ligongo akogopa lyuwa; tajende chitema. (8) Ngusaka kuti amale kutawa tenti, uweji nganituiche, ligongo mbesile nipo ngusaka koga. (9) Mate gakwe chichi mkutenda yatili? Ligongo chichi ngimkumalisya masengo genu 'chenene mpela ajuno? Ana mkuganisya kuti timbe umwe mbiya chalumo ? Exercise 22. Translate into ChiYao : — (1) Have you finished that work? What work? I told you to go and draw water from the river, and pour VEEB AND PRONOUN 63 it on the vegetables (mbeju) in the garden. (2) I did not understand. I will call the workers now. All right, but you must finish quickly, because I want you to do some- thing else afterwards. (3) Take this letter to the Banyan. You must run, as I want the calico soon. But it is a long way to the Banyan's. Yes I know. Go on. (4) Has that man gone ? Not yet (tr, no, he has not gone yet). I told him to go before I had eaten. Yes, but he says he is tired. Send him home. (5) Have the people not finished building (in/.) their house? No (tr, yes), they have gone to bring reeds. (6) Where is the head- man ? He ran away [in-] to the bush. Why does he do such things as this? I don't know. I suppose he is afraid. (7) The work is not finished yet. Go and look yourself. (8) Don't throw away those reeds. Which reeds? These, here. I want them though. (9) What do you want to do with them ? I shall give them to my sister. (10) All right, you may take them. CHAPTER IX. NUMERALS. 1. Numbers are counted in fives, and tens; this has arisen from the habit of using the fingers for this purpose. Of the cardinal numl^ers, two (4 and 5) are invariable ; the others (1, 2, and 3) prefix the class characteristic of the noun to which they refer ; likumi (10) is treated as a noun. The Cardinal Numbers are: — 1. -mo. 2. -wilL ■ 3. -tatu. 4. mcheche. 5. msano. 6. msano na (ni) -mo. 7. msano na -wili. 8. msano na -tatu. 9. msano na mcheche. 10. likumi. | 11. likumi kwisa {or na, ni) -mo. I 12. likumi kwisa -wili. I 16. likumi kwisa msano na -mo. 20. makumi gawili. 23. makumi gawili na -tatu. 27. makumi gawili kwisa msano na -wili. 30. makumi gatatu. 36. makumi gatatu kwisa msano na -mo. (64) NUMEBAIiS 65 40. makumi mcheche. 60. makumi msano na limo. 73. makumi msano na gawili kwisa -tatu. 78. makumi msano na gawili kwisa msano na -tatu. 99. makumi msano na mcheche kwisa msano na mcheche. 100. lichUa. 126. licbila kwisa makumi gawili kwisa msano na -mo. 389. machila gatatu kwisa makumi msano na ga- tatu kwisa msano na mcheche. Examples. libweta limo, 1 box. nguku sitatu, 3 fowls. majela msano na limo, 6 hoes, nyumba likumi, 10 houses, ^andu likumi kwisa msano na jumo, 16 people, ijuni makumi gawili kwisa msano na mcheche, 29 birds, nyambi makumi msano na gatatu kwisa msano na lumo, 86 branches. mikwamba lichila kwisa jitatu, 103 fathoms. misi machila msano na gatatu, 800 villages, ngalala machila likumi kwisa machila mcheche kwisa makumi msano na gawili kwisa lumo, 1471 bankets, Notes,^a) It will be seen that both the tens and hundreds take the plurals and concords proper to their own class (the 5th and 6th), and do not take the concord of the substantive which they enumerate. (6) Where the last digit is one or six, the numeral -mo agrees with the singular of the substantive qualified. (e) There is no rule as to the use of the conjunctions " hwisa,** "na" and "m," but the expedient adopted above, of using 5 66 A YAO GRAMMAB " kwiaa " to divide the tens from the hundreds, etc., in contra- distinction to closely associated numbers, is recommended. {d) Some nouns, though singular in meaning, have a plural prefix ; these require a plural prefix to qualifying parts of speech, not excepting -wo (** one ") : — e,g. machila gamo, one machila, ^akongwe ^amo {poliU form)^ one woman, 2. The Adverbial Numerals are formed from the pre- ceding by prefixing ka : — e,g. kamo, once (kamokamo, occasionally), kawili, ttoice (kawilikawili, often), kachechej four times.. kasano na kawili, seven times. kakumi, ten times, 3. The Ordinal Numbers may be expressed in two ways : — (i) By prefixing the plural class characteristic (appropri- ate to the noun qualified) to the number, and connecting it with the noun by means of the singular possessive, also in agreement with the noun : — e,g, lyu^a lya gatatu, the third da/y (or lyuiba lya^tatu), mwesi wa mcheche, the fourth month. (ii) By connecting the adverbial form vdth the noun by means of the possessive : — e,g. lyu^a lya katatu, the third day, mwesi wa kacheche, the fourth month, 4. "First" is expressed by the Relative Tense of the verb kutanda (" to begin ") : — e,g, nyumba jakutanda, the first house, etc. NXTMBBALS 67 " Last" is expressed by the Relative Tense of the verb kumalicJdsya ("to finish" — intensitive form). e.g. masengo gakumalichisya, ^^^JnaZjo^. lilo^e lyakumalichisya, the last word. Vocabulary. njelwa (9), a brick. msela (3), a line. msaku (3), a hag. litumbi (5), a hill, a mountmn. msika (3), a market mwanda, a great number (^^uncountable"), lelo, to-day, inala^i, to-morrow. mtondo, the day after to-nuyrrow. liso, yesterday, lijusi, the day before yesterday, lijusi'Iila, the other day, some days ago. kunda^i, in the morning. kunda^i kwakwe, next morning. ligulo, the evening, musi, the day time. chile, at night. winji (indeclinahle), too many, very many. wipi, too shorty very short. -lingwa? (with cl. char.), how many? uli ? how ? what ? -pe (attached to a noun), only, kukumbuchila (-kumbuchile), to remember. kukumbusya (-kumbwisye), to remind, kwasima (-jasime), to lend, borrow, kwitichisya (-jitichisye), to assent, to agree. kukana (-kanile), to refuse, kuulaga (-uleje), to kill. kusyo^elela (-syo^elele), to be accustomed to, to be in the habit of, kuputa (-putile), to strike, beat kupunda (-pundile), to excel, exceed, ^ kuuja (-usile), to retu^^. €8 A YAO GRAMMAR Exercise 23. Translate into English : — (1) Misela jitatu; misaku msano na mcheche; ngo- ndolo msano ni siwili ; majela likumi kwisa limo ; wandu makumi gawili kwisa jumo; mbiya makumi mcheche kwisa msano na lumo. (2) Mowa lichila ; ngalala lichila kwisa makumi gawili kwisa msano na sitatu; mitela machila gatatu kwisa jitatu; njelwa machila likumi kwisa makumi msano ni gatatu, kwisa msano ni siwili. (3) Nambweni katatupe ; akwisa kawili-kawili ; timbuje pa lyuwa lya kasano; mulembe wandu wosepe nambo jua watatu; mkaulaga nguku'jo, jakumalichisya jelejo. (4) Naiche kumangwenu chilo cha lelo, nambo wajile kwine. Mwasachile chichi? Nasachile kwasima lijela. (5) Ana wa m'lukosyo luenu mkusyowelela kwinjila m'nyumba chilo, mjasime lijelape ? (6) Ngwamba, na- mbo nalikumbuchile petala, nipo nasachile kwaula ku masengo nalyo kundawipe. Ngengwitichisya kuti mku- wecheta gambone. (7) Lukonjilu wipi. Ana mkusaka luine? Elo, mkajigale mikwamba jitatu. Jilingwa? Nginimbikana 'chenene. Jitatupe. (8) Mkaulaje mbusi'jo, jajipiliyu'jo ; akwisa alendo. Taiche lyuwa'chi ? ligulo lelo. (9) Tinyaule kwa mpwanga malawi, ngajasime mbiya. Ana tamjitichisye? Nguwona, ligongo akwete mbiya syasijinji mnope, sya ku masengo gakwe. Exercise 24. Translate into ChiYao : — (1) 2 houses ; 6 sheep ; 8 people ; 15 dogs ; 21 days ; 37 shillings ; (2) 61 reeds ; 86 bamboos ; 94 fathoms ; 106 men; 126 fowls; 372 eggs; 1001 words. (3) He comes here only occasionally; I have been there four times this month; What month is this? The third. Which day will you come? The tenth. The first shilling. (4) Come on, let us go to the market to-day. No, I can't go during the day, but I will go this evening. (5) How many people did you see the other day? Where? On the hill there. Oh, I don't know, a great number. How many though, thirty or three hundred? There were more than five hundred. Yes, it is very many. (6) Do you remember that you borrowed two shillings from me? No, when (what day)? The day before yesterday at the market. You said I was to re- mind you. Oh yes. Come to my home and I will give them to you. (7) Do you know [how] to build houses like this? Yes, we are accustomed to build them at home. They are very good. Excellent. CHAPTER X. 1. Thb Verb "to be." Infinitive, Pres. Indie, J Subjunctive, Future, The verb is somewhat irregular. The simple tenses are : — ku^a, to be. ndili, I am. ali, he is, they are. tuli, we are. muli, you are. wali (all), they are. mbe (n-^e), let me be. a^e, tu^e, mu^e, etc. timbe, I will be. ta^e, tutu^e, timu^e, etc. Present Perfect, mbele, I have been. a^ele, tu^ele, mbele, chi^ele, etc. Past, naliji, or na^ele. I was. waliji, or wa^ele, he was. twaliji, or twa^ele, etc. Negative Present nginimba, J was not, and Past, I am 9iot. ngana^a, etc. Negative Subj. (rarely used)j nga^a, akat^a, etc. Negative Futtire, ngimba, I shall not be. nga\^a, ngiitu^a, etc. The other tenses are regular. (70) THE VBBB 71 Note. — The verb kwCba has also the meaaing of " to become .' * e.gf. Fakawile tiichi^a yangune, They will become mine eventTially, Sambano a^ele juawii, He hcM become a thief now. Cf. also :— ^' Malamulo gane nganitu^e 'gamanyilila^ mate gakwe ne lelo," (lit.) Some laws we have not yet become understanding their meaning it is to-day ; i.e. We have not yet been able to fathom the meaning of some laws to this day. 2. The Present Imperfect. This tense is formed by prefixing the present tense of kuibay ** to be," to the verbal noun (Class XV.) with the locative m' {i.e. the participle, see page 110). e.g. ndili-mknlola, I am looking. alimkulola, tulimkulola, etc. 3. The Past Imperfect is formed in two ways : — (i) In a similar manner to the above, by the use of the past tense of kuwa with the participle : — e.g. naliji-mkwenda, I was walking. twalijimkujigala, ibe were carrying, etc. (ii) By prefixing the pronoun followed by a to the stem, and suffixing -ga : — e.g. najendaga, I was walking. twajigalaga, we were carrying, etc. 4. The Copula. (a) There are two forms--^(i) The appropriate tense of the verb kuiba, and (ii) the syllable nd% fide, no, or ni. The former is used for purposes of description, and the latter, identity : — ^ Ku elided before g (see note, page 54). 72 A YAO QRAMMAB e.g, muli mwanachepe, you are quite a child. ngwamba, ndili juamkulungwa sambano, no, 1 am grown up now. but juelejo no * boi * juangu, that is my servant. Not infrequently the copula is altogether omitted : — e,g, nyumba'jo jambone, that is a nice house, bttt nyumba jili jambone, a house is nice. (6) In the negative form the same rule holds good for the use of the verb kuway the negative copula corres- ponding to ndij etc., being ngati : — e.g, mtela'wo nganaut^a woleu, that tree is not a tall one. but ngati ajo ? is it not he ? 5. " There is " (or " there are ") is expressed by infixing ku, pa, or mu to the present tense of kwiba : (e.g. apali, upaUj ukuli, jipaU, simuUt etc.), ku expressing the idea of motion, pa of inaction, mu of existence '* m." 6. " There is not *' (or " there are not ") is rendered by kwangali, pangali, mwangali, ngapagwa. ** There was not " (or ** there were not ") is represented by nganapagwa or nganaku,gwa. " Nobody " and " nothing " are expressed by the use of the word ngapagwa (present) or nganapagwa (past), the relative being used before the verb (if any). e.g. kwangali nguo, there is no calico. ^andu nganapagwa, there were no people. nyama nganisipagwa, there was no game. mkusaka chichi ? Ngapagwa, what do you want ? Nothing, ngapagwa juatajaule, nobody shall go. nganapagwa juambweni, nobody saw me. nganapagwa juanimbweni, I saw nobody. THE VERB 73 7. Ths RiiLATrvE Tenses {affirmativo). (i) The Relative Pronoun corresponding to all noun classes is the same as the class characteristic. There is only one exception, viz. the second class, which has u instead of '(ba. In all tenses other than the present (see page 52) the Relative Pronoun is merely prefixed to the ordinary form of the verb : — e.g, mikalo jijagwilC; knives which fell lisimba litiliiche, a Lion which will conie. , jungwaula, I who go, uwe utuli WaYao, we who are Yaos. 'mwe umjigele, you who have brought ^andu u^akwete yakulya, people who have food. mundu juwaiche. a person who came. (ii) The Relative Pronoun is made objective by adding the objective (connective) pronoun of the same class, to the verb : — e.g. ng'ombe'jo jinajiweni, the ox which I saw. mundu juambweni, the man who saw me. mundu ju {or jua) nambweni, the man whom I saw. nde ai^a utuk^atuma'^a, these are they whom we send. Colloquially, however, the objective pronoun may be omitted if no ambiguity result. (iii) The relatives " when " and " where " are rendered by a similar use of the characteristic of time and place, pa. This is liable to euphonic changes. e.g. pataiche, when he comes. pinyawile, when I have gone, potumbweni, when we saw him. 74 A TAO GBAMMAB The demonstrative is usually added when this form has the meaning " where " : — e.g, pa atem^pala, where he sat potumbweni'po. where we saw him. (For "whither" and "whence " see page 102.) The use of the copula {nde, etc., see page 71) with the above constructions gives the meaning of "the reason why ^ (relative) : — e,g, nde potu^ele ^angali masengo, that is why we have no work. nde pingusaka k^awona, that is why I want to see him. 8. The Negative Rblativf. (i) The present has two diflFerent forms according as the relative is subjective or objective. (a) The present subjective (negative) has already been dealt with (see page 52). (b) The construction of the objective form of the present is as follows : the Relative Pronoun (agreeing with the object), the Personal Pronoun (agreeing with the su|3Ject of the sentence), the syllable -&a-, the infini- tive -kU'j the objective pronoun, and finally the stem of the verb : — e.g. chindu chi-tu-ka-ku-chi-manyilila, a thing which we do not understand. mbeju simkakusipanda'mwe, plants which you do not sow. (ii) The negative past has also two forms according as the relative is subjective or objective. The tense prefix in both is -kana-^ but the subjective form requires only the possessive to precede it, while the objective, like the present, takes the relative and personal pronouns : — rtHB VEBB * ?5 e.g. mundu juakanajimajima, a man who has not travelled. ^andu ^akana^a^ WaYao, people who are not Yaos. ng'ombe'syo situkanasiwona liso, the oxen which we did not see yesterday. matete gaakanagasaka, reeds which thsy did not want, (iii) Colloquially, these objective forms, both present and past, are found to be somewhat clumsy, and one often hears the subjective forms used objectively : — e.g, nguo syangawala ^andu msape, clothes which the common people do not wear. ngapagwa chilambo chakaiiapitaga ^ele^o, there is no country (through) which they did not pass. (iv) The copula combined with the demonstrative (see page 47) may be used with the relative tenses to express emphasis : — e.g. chaka'chila ndicho chasamile, that was the year he moved. ngati ^ele^o ndi^vo uA^asoyiye, it was not they who were in error. chelecho ndicho chichili nangolo, that is the best of all (lit. that it is which is the parent). (v) The relative may be replaced by -ana, "having," with the infinitive : — e.g. ^andu ^ana kutenda yeleyi, people who act like this. Exercise 25. Translate into English : — Tinjiwa; wawele; alimkusosa; watumaga; simuli ng^ombe; ngapagwa juapeleche kandu; achalendo uwa- weni ; ngondolo sisijinjile ; uwe utuwechete ; achachanda Pres. Perf., see page 436. 76 * A YAO GRAMMAR uwapite'wo; lijela lingwete ; iiwe utuli achalendo; uti jimwajijigele'jila ; wandu utwawilasile ; njelwa simwa- sityosile ; paawechete ; pomwapite ; pomlembile'po ; paa- gonile'pala; nde pinasasile; paligwile litaka'pala; nguo siwakakusiwala ; indu yangamanyilila'mwejo ; indu im- kanaijigala; mundualijuosejuakanalijiganya; chimanga chitukakuchisaka ; wanache wakanapikana ; nguo simka- nasichapa. Exercise 26. Translate into ChiYao : — We have been ; let him be ; I am learning ; we were passing ; it is not they , were there no crocodiles in the river ? Nobody saw them ; the axe which has fallen ; the words which you spoke ; a boy who is reading ; the game which is passing ; the woman who does not refuse ; youths whom you called; the youths who called you; people who do not come when I call them ; the cloth which came ; children who have bathed ; you who have hoes ; the knives which I wanted ; when you say ; when they look ; where we slept ; that is why I wanted you ; hoes which we do not want; words which we did not understand (hear) ; the chiefs who did not come. Vocabulary. kumkuli, on the shores by land, up stream^ the higher ground, kumikuli, to the huntirtg grounds. kwi^anda, down stream, the lower ground, asono (msonogo), wife, husband. kumlyo, to the right, kumchijiy to the left. lipululu, an uninhabited area, chipolopolo, a bullet. , kuli^alila (-li^alile), to forget. kugomba uti (-gombile), to fire a gun. kukulusya (-kulwisye), to miss. kusoma (-somile), to wound, stab. THE VEBB 77 kusichila (-sichile), to be rich, f kulaga (-lasile), to he poor, unhappy ; to suffer, kuso^a (-so^ile), to he unthout, to lack, kusoya (-soyiye), to do wrortg, make a mistake. kulombela (-lombele), to m^ri'y (of a male), kugopola (-gopwele), to untie, kugopolela (-gopolele), to explain. kuti (-chite, -tite, -tiji), to say, kusuma (-sumile), to huy. kusumisya (-sumisye), to sell, kupanganya (-pangenye), to make. soni, alsOf and then^ again, ugwi ! {an interjection expressing swrprise, exasperation, etc.). eti ? is it so ? ngati ? is it not so ? it is not so. -angali (with cl, char.), without (adv.). kwende, come on!, well (conj,). lyu^a'chi ? chaka'chi ? katema'chi ? when ? Exercise 27. Translate into English : — (1) Mkuganisya ya chichi? Nagapagwa. Unami, ngapagwa juakutama iyoyo, juangaganisya ya chindu. (2) Naganisyaga kuti une juakulaga. Ugwi! mkusowa chichi? Yejinji, une juangali nguo, juangali chindu. (3) Ngapagwa juakusowa yosepe nambo melepe. Atugopo- lele. Mnndu akusowa chindu ligongo juangali mbiya, eti? (4) Elo. Kwende, akusowa mbiya ligongo nga- kupanganya masengo. Iyoyo. Basi, mkapanganye ma- sengo mpela uwe. (5) Mkawilanje Che Juma, ajigale uti jangu. Ngwaula ku mikuli. Tajigale uti jachi? Ja nyama, na jine ja ijuni nombe najo. (6) Nyama'jo ! Jili kwapi ? Apo, jitemi pasi ; mgombe chitema jikana- jitupikane. Mkulwisye, mgombe soni, nganijitile. Chambone, mjisomile sambano. (7) Asono wenu ali kwa'? Ajile kwiwanda kukulola achikuluwao. Ana mwalombele chaka'chi? Lijusi'lila; nalombele alumbu wag Che Ali. (8) Mkwete upile, Juakusichila juelejo. 78 A YAO GBAMMAR Kusyene, nambo lilyolyd^ nganawa ligongo lyakwe kuti nalombele alumbu wakwe. (9) Ugwi ! nginisala yati*yoyo. Elo, nambo mbesile kuti mate gakwe gelego. Exercise 28. Translate into ChiYao : — (1) You must not come into my house like that. I was wrong, Sir, I forgot. (2) What is that noise outside there? There are a lot of people who have come to buy maize. (3) Tell them to come back to-morrow, is it not evening now? They say they have travelled {kwenda) where there are no villages, and are hungry {tr, hunger has them). (4) Let them borrow some food; I can't give them any this evening. All right, but they will suffer. (5) Where did you wound the buck? In {pa) the left leg. Did you kill it afterwards? (6) Yes, I fired three times, the first bullet wounded it, then I missed, and the third killed it. (7) Untie this rope. Nobody could untie it, somebody (mundu) has tied a difiicult knot (tr. which is difiicult). (8) Who told you to throw that plate away ? Nobody, but it was broken, and I thought that [it was] useless now {tr, without work). (9) Which way shall we go ? There are no vil- lages up-stream; let us go down stream and see your brother. CHAPTER XL 1. The Verb {contimced). (i) The Conditional Mood. (a) Present, or Future. This tense, having the meaning of "if so-and-so be done," is formed by prefixing the syllables na-, ni-, etc., to the subjunctive. This prefix is really an abbreviated form of naga, etc., " if" : — e.g. na akasose 'chenene, if he search carefully. natujaule, if we go. The Future Tense may be used instead of the subjunctive when it is desired to refer the action to a more remote period : — e.g. nataiche, if he should come. The same syllable na is often used with the infinitive : — e.g, nakwika ula, if rain come, {b) The Past Conditional is formed by infixing the syllable nga to the subjunctive : — e.g, ningawone, */ 1 had seen. angajaule, if he had gone, mungalole, if you had looked. tunga^e, if we had been. (c) The Negative^ both Present and Past, is formed by prefixing the past conditional of kwiba to the negative relative, or the negative subjunctive may be used : — > (79) 80 A YAO GRAMMAB e,g, akaika lelo, should he not come to- day. jikapagwa uti jao, had it not been for ki$ gim. ninga^e juangajaula, if I had not gone, if I do not go. munga^e juangatenda, if you had not done, etc. singa^e syangatuwona, if they {game) had not seen us, etc. (d) The simple tenses may be used with anaga, naga, naiba, etc., but the above forms are more idiomatic : — e.g, anaga mkuwona, if you see, na^a nganaiche, if he has not yet come, (ii) The Contingent Mood. (a) Present, This is formed by prefixing the subjective pronoun to- gether with the syllable nga to the stem, and suffixing -ga. It implies a necessary sequence to an action : — e,g. ningajaulaga, I should be going {if so-and-so were the c<ise), tungatamaga, we should be sitting. Another form frequently heard is similarly derived from the past imperfect tense : — e,g, ningalijimkwaula, I should have been going, tungalijimkutama, we should have been sitting, (ft) The Past Contingent is formed from the present perfect by infixing the syllable nga: — e,g, ningajawile, I should have gone, tungatemi, we should have sat, (c) The Negative Contingent is formed by prefixing ngikini {ngakana, ngukunu, etc.) to the pronoun and stem. The first person singular is irregular: — e,g, ngingininyaula, I should not have gone, ngakana^ajoga, they would not have bathed, ngikinisitila, they wovid not have run away. THE VEEB 81 Examples. Ningamauyilile kuti mwajile kwine, nginginiika. If 1 had known that you had gone elsewhere^ I should not have come, Tungasume buku'jo liso, tungalijimkuwalanga sam- bano. If we had bought that book yesterda/j/y we should have been reading it now. Najiiche ula chilo, tutujaule ku migunda. If rain comes to-night, we shall go to the gardens, 2. The Adjective (continued). (i) In addition to the true adjective roots already noticed, others may be formed from verbs in the follow- ing ways : — (a) By the use of the relative tense of verbs describing a condition: — e.g. mundu juakukalamuka, a clever man (lit. a man who is clever), ng'ombe jakuganda, a thin ox. The kU' of the infinitive is often omitted before g or fc, thus: ng*ombe jaganda. (b) By changing the final a of the stem into e^ and using it as an ordinary adjective : — e.g. nyama jajiuwe (from kuuwa, to die), dead game. nyumba jajita^^e chile, a house ready built. (ii) A noun may be used as an adjective by means of the possessive : — e.g, mundu jua ulesi, a lazy man. ulalo wa maganga, a stone bridge. * -ana "having," and -angali, "without," "not having," may be similarly employed : — e.g, mchanda juana machili, a strong boy. mchanda juangali machili, a tveak boy. 6 82 A YAO GRAMBiAB (iii) If in qualifying one noun by means of another, there be any suggestion of locality implied, both the pos- sessive and the locative must be used : — e.g, nguo ja mwibweta {not nguo mwibweta), the cloth in ths box. ^andu ^a ku musi {not ^andu ^a musi), village- people, (iv) Comparison is expressed by means of a simple statement. If, of two or more things, one is said to pos- sess a certain quality, it is implied that it does so in a greater degree than the others : — e.g, ni nyumba sya ku musi'kuno, ajino jambone, this is the best house in the village. najiji najojo, ajino jangulungwa, this is the larger. The verb -punda ("excel") is very commonly used, especially with verbs or verbal adjectives : — e.g. nachichi ni chelecho, chakusalala chapi? Chipundile aoho. Which is the prettier of these ? That one. ni ^osepe ^akuuta galeta, apundile kuutuka i^ani? Apundile Juma. Who is the best runner among the rickshaw men ? Juma. The intensitives kusyene, mnope, etc., may be similarly employed : — e.g. Pane mbwa jangu jigandile, nambo jenumwe jigandile mnope, my dog may be thin, but youis is still thinner. Exercise 29. Translate into English : — (1) Nakajoje ; nangumbuchile ; namsache ; nasitile. (2) Ningamanyilile; angajase; chingajasiche; ingamale. (3) Tungawe wangapikana ; chingawe changamala ; THE VBBB 83 ningawe juangamanyilila. (4) Tungawonaga; munga- lijimkulola ; ningapelaga; angalijimkujigala ; munga- weni. (5) Ningampele; tungawandichile ; angajasile; ngikiniimala ; nginginijiulaga ; ngukunumkulusya. (6) Nginginiliwalila ; mundu juakulaga; libweta lya chis- yano. Exercise 30. Translate into ChiYao : — (1) If you come ; if we see ; if he miss ; should you marry. (2) If you had known ; if I had seen it [box] ; if it [gun] had come; if he had bought it [cloth]. (3) If I had not done wrong ; if you had not forgotten ; if we had been rich ; if the rain had not come. (4) I should be sending ; you would have been finishing ; they would have been making. (5) He would have forgotten; I should have remembered ; you would have died ; they [hoes] would have been lost. (6) We should not have left ; I would not have given him ; it [thing] would not have been diflScult. (7) A rich man ; a worn out (finished) cloth ; a wooden chair ; lost money. Vocabulary. chemwali (1), a girl, sister, usume (14), a price, mbote (9), reward, {hence) wages. liuto (6), a place, room. lichinga (5), a cattle krc^al. chitundu (7), a hen-hovise. chiteletele (7), a basket for carrying fowls. lipesa (5) an opening, opportunity. panono, panandi, a little, rather. kuujilila (-ujilile), to turn back, to come ba^k again. kulinda (-lindile), to wait. kulindilila (-lindilile), to await , watch. kulipa (-lipile), to pay. kuleka (-lesile), to leane, stop {neutsry 84 A TAO GRAMMAB kulekasya (-lekasisye), to stop {trans.), prevent* kukula (-kusile), io grow, grow up, kunandupa (-nandwipe), to be few, he too few, kuchuluka (-chulwiche), to he many, he too rMiny. kutwichila (-twichile), to put (a load) on the head, kutula (-tusile), to put down (a load), to alight {of a bird), kusechelela (-sechelele), to be plea^sed, rejoice. kutola (-tosile), to fetch. kwangali chindu, ) . , kwangali kandu, | »<*«•* "o« «"»««<"•• pakuti, seeing that (conjunctio7i). kala, some time ago, formerly, katasi, recently, not long a^o, namose, even if, although, and even, also» kwene, really {with verb). -ene {with cl. char,), real, genuine. Exercise 31. Translate into English:— (1) Ningamanyilile kuti mwalijimkwisa, ningamlindi- lile'mwe. Kwangali chindu, nasoyiye namsyene ligongo ngininduma mundu amsalile'mwe. (2) Mwasalile alinde pasa, tiiche pangakawa. Wajigele nguku welewo? Elo, wajigele likumi kwisa jimo. (3) Ana wasijigele uli? Syasitawe pa chitela. Ugwi ! nginisala mowa gosepe kuti akasasijigala iyoyo? Ligongo chichi ngakutawa chiteletele asiwiche m'momo? (4) Kwalini, achimsyene. Ngati'mwe Capita© ? No masengo genu kwalekasya wandu ngatenda yati ii. (5) Elo bwana, naliwalile ; nganingola malowe gane. Chaij^bone, pakumlipa'mwe mbiya syenu, none tindiwalile mbote jenu, nipo tindi- pe'mwe msanope. Nambo . Basi mjauleje. (6) Ana ng'ombe sijinjile mwichinga ? Ngwamba, nginisi- jinjile ; pakuti sine'syo siiche lelo, sambano sichulwiche. (7) Kwangali liuto kwakwinjila syosepe ? Elo, kwangali. Chambone, kwa lelo muwiche ng'ombe syosepe mwichi- nga'mo, sya kala namose sine sisyaiche lelo. (8) Mku^ pikana? Elo. Kwende; ngondolo nambo sijinjile THE VERB 86 m'nyumba jine ja kala'jo ; soni 'mwe mulindilile kwe- leko chilo chose, ni uti. Nakwika chisui mchiulaje. (9) Malawi tututume wandu akatole mitela, tutawe lichinga line lya ngondolo, Chambone, bwana, mbikene. Exercise 32. Translate into ChiYao : — (1) If you had come earlier (katasi), you would have seen your younger brother. I should have got here some little time ago, had I not forgotten my mat; I went back to fetch it. (2) Ate they all quite well (chitoela) at home ? Yes, quite well. What about here {kwalini kwe- kuno) ? Che Bula has come back. (3) Oh ! I suppose (kuwona) he is grown up now ? Yes, he is very pleased to be back. He worked at Halale (Salisbury) [for] two years, and he is quite rich. (4) If we had known that you wanted workers, we should have come some time ago. Why did you not wait for us? (6) You would not be pleased if a leopard killed your fowls before you had finished building the house for them {tr. their). (6) No, I am waiting for the reeds, my sister has gone to fetch them ; with your permission {tr, if you consent) I will leave them here in your house to-night. (7) There is no place in which {ir, where) to put them. It does not matter. I will leave them in their basket for to-night. (8) How many Europeans are coming here for dinner {tr, to eat) ? Four. I don't think there will be enough food for four {tr, I think the food is too few). (9) You had better kill {subj.) another fowl, and fetch a tin {chitini) of fruit. (10) What are you putting that load on your head for? I thought that we were to start now. Put it down again, and wait for the others. CHAPTER XII. The Verb {contintisd). 1. The Future Tenses. (i) In addition to the future tense already given there are two others in use expressing degrees of delay in carrying out the action. The first of these expresses the idea that the action is to be performed at a distance, or after some delay, and is formed from the simple future by infixing the syllable ka : — e,g, talole, he ivill look. takalole, he loill go and look, or, will look presently. tingajoje, I will go and bathe, or, I shall bathe ^presently. tutukajoje, etc. The other, more emphatic, implies that the action will be carried out at some unspecified date, more or less remote. It is formed by prefixing chi to the stem, to- gether with the usual ti- {ta-, tu-, etc.), and the pronoun. •It should be noted that the final -a does not change to •e in this tense : — e.g. tachijaula, he tbill go. tinjiika (ti-n-chi-ika), I will come {later on), etc. (ii) In any of these Futures the letter s may be sub- stituted for the initial t. This implies obligation (*' must "), or necessary consequence : — (86) THE VBEB 87 e.g. tindeche kutenda yeleyo, I ioill stop doing that, sindeche kutenda yeleyo, I must stop doing that, nakuwika mbale apo, sijikasiche, if you put the plate there, it ibill he broken. (iii) There is only one negative for all forms of the Future, viz. that given in Chapter VII., page 50. 2. There are two tenses which greatly resemble these future tenses in formation, though their function assigns them to the Conditional Mood. They both differ from their prototypes in prefixing m- (wa-, etc.) instead of ti- {ta-, etc.), and also in that the suflBx ^muno forms an integral part of the tense. That formed from the ha future tense has the meaning of " might." It always implies doubt and often nega- tion. It may be used either with a present (future) meaning or with reference to past : — e.g. ningajaule'muno, I nakajaule^muno, he natukajaule'muno, we nimkajaule'muno, you na\^akajaule'muno, they might go (but quite likely will not) ; or, might have gone {but did not). The other ia formed in a similar manner from the distant future. It is an emphatic conditional : — e.g. ninjijaula'muno, nachij aula'muno, natuchij aula'muno, nimchij aula'muno, nai^achijaula'muno, Although I {he, you, etc.) go, or, even if I go. This tense also may have reference to the past : — e.g. 'tuchaumbasya'muno (na - tu - chi - ^a - umbasya 'muno), ngamanya, although we have in- structed him, he knows nothing. 88 A TAO GBAMMAR This might equally mean, " although we may instruct him, he will know nothing." The first of these may be used as a negative of the second : — e»g, ningaiche'm\mo kumangwao, namsimene kum- sika, I might have got to his home (but) I m^t him at the m^rketj i.e. although I did not get to his homey I met him at the m/irket. These forms are rapidly becoming obsolete, and in their stead this mood of the verb kwCba is used as if it were a conjunction : — e,g, nachi^amuno nyaule, although I may go {even if I go). Even this is becoming corrupted into namuno, which may be used with any tense : — e,g, namuno najawile, although I went. It is probable that the conjunction namose has a similar origin from a verbal form such as na-(chiy'(ba*mo8e. 3. The expression " since I (he, you, they, etc.) did so- and-so " is rendered by changing the final -a of the stem into 'ile, or -efe, and prefixing chi-. This form is the same for all classes and persons : — e.g. chipagwile, nginimbone {or nginimbona) yati ii, since I was porn, I have seen nothing like this, chita^ile, nganitugona m'nyumba'mo, we have not slept in the house since it v^as built. In the above examples the change in the stem is the same as that which takes place in the Perfect ; care must be taken not to use the Perfect form of such verbs as kutama, kuwona, etc. Thus : chitamiley not chitemi ; chiwonile, not chiweniy and so on. As a rule, verbs whose penultimate vowel is a, i, or -w, change the final -a into -ile ; where this vowel is e or o into -ele. This rule is, however, open to exception ; e.g. -gonile is heard as often as 'gonelf. THE VBEB 89 4. The use of appropriate tenses of the auxiliary verb ku^a with the above construction, gives the meaning of " still doing so-and-so " : — e,g, ndili chilolele, I am still looking. \^aliji chitamile, they were still sitting. Note. — (i) The simple chi- form (par 3) without the verb kuwa may have a similar meaning. (ii) Compare the use of the eontinuative suflfix -ga (p. 36). 5. The construction "merely" or "just doing so-and- so" is expressed either by means of the verb -gamba^ preceding the infinitive of the verb qualified, or by use of the suflBx 'pe, or both : — e.g. akwamba kutama, he is just sitting (doing nothing). ngwamba kulolape, I am merely looking. agambile kwaula, he just went. mgambe kuchiwika apo, just put it there. tingambe kt^apa, / shall merely give them, atemipe, he is merely sitting. Exercise 33. Translate into English : — Tachiika; tingalinde; sinyaule; sachipita; satukalipe; chiichile; chikamulile masengo; ali chigonile; naliji chimlindilile ; yaliji chitamile; tukwamba kusosa; na- gambile kumsalila; mgambe kumpa; nimchichuluka 'muno ngingumjogopa ; ningasache'muno tingasumeje; ana timkaujep Ningauje'muno ! Exercise 34. Translate into ChiYao : — He will pay (sometime); we will go and draw water; you must return (sometime) ; they will go and put down their loads ; since they saw us ; since you fetched ; he is still growing; we still want; I merely called you; we 1 The infinitive of this verb (and therefore the present) is ir- regular — kwamba. Its literal meaning is "to speak" (cf, maga- mho), and it is ofteii used in the sense of " to mean," 90 A YAO GBAMMAR are only looking ; they were merely bathing ; even if you turn back you will not find him ; although he has not paid us (yet) he will pay (sometime) ; although I searched everywhere I could (did) not find it. Vocabulary. mwanja, goivig (I am — , you are — , indecL). ^ . ' I that one. he, him. that same person. we'mwanja'wo, f jele'mianja'jo, \ A 1 , .^ l they, those same people. wele'wanganyao, j ^ampingo, j mwanja*mwe, ^anya'mwe, you there ! kanga, pane, either, or, perhaps, whether. nyono, '' WhaVs-his-nameV, '' What-d'you-calUitV jualakwe, he, that one. ^alakwe, you (polite), they. panjipa, perhaps. -a cheni, whose ? kwa cheni ? pa cheni ? to who^n ? at whose home ? kugwa (-gwile), to fall, to occur. kuteleka (-teleche), to cook. kutanda (-tandite), to begin. kupechesya (-pechesye), to accompany. kulongana na (-longene), to accompany. kulanga (-lanjile), to keep animals, to say good-bye. kulanjila (-lanjile), to point ovtt. kulangana na (-langene), to arrange vnth, to agree. kukangamala (-kangamele), to make haste. kukulumisya (-kulumisye), to hasten (trans.). kwaula kwimajima, to ^^ go for a walk.'' kula^^a (-labile), to start early in the moiming. kula^ala^a (-la^ala^ile), to wander about. kusimongwa (-simongwile), to be puzzled. kusimonjeka (-simonjeche), to be puzzling. kumanya (-manye), to be acquainted with (a person). kulonjela (-lonjele), to stay sometime at orie place. kukunguluka (-kungulwiche), to converse, pay a call^ THE VERB 91 Exercise 35. Translate into English : — • (1) Che Nyono ajile kwa? Wani? Lina lyakwe nali- walile ; Nyono — , jualakwe juakulawalawa mowa gosepe. (2) Kwalini, ngongwamanyilila. Aw ! mkummanya kus- yene ; Nyono, jualongene nomwe pomwajawile ku Zomba. (3) E-e! Che Juma! Elo, mwanja'wo; ali kwa? Namb- weni katasi, kumsika'ko. Ana walijimkutenda chichi? (4) Ngapagwa, wagambile kukunguluka ni wandu. Ana mkuwona ali chiwela sambano? Panjipa, wampingo wakwendajenda mowa gosepe, katema kane wakwamba kwimajima, kane wakulonjela kweleko. (5) We'mwanja 'wo wakusimonjeka, akuwala mowa gosepe mpela juaku- sichila, nambo masengo ngakupanganya kose. (6) Nimbilanje? Elo, nambo mkangamaleje ligongo nga- nimtande kuteleka yakulya, none ngupikana sala sambano'jino. (7) Sampechesye'mwe pakuuja. Elo ngumanyilila, timbuje najo pangakawa. (8) Sambano tulonjele akuno, malawi mwanja ulendo wetu. Yam bone, nambo tulawe kundawi-ndawipe, ligongo musi lyuwa lyakogoya. (9) Wanganyao wakutwichila akatundu, sachilaga nalyo. Elo, nambo tukwamba kuja kwa Che Chiwalo, kwangatalika. Exercise 36. Translate into ChiYao : — (1) My house fell down last night. Really? Yes, I must build another now ; it does not matter though, it has lasted well {tr. it has delayed). (2) When will you begin to build the new one? I came here to arrange with somebody to work for me {tr. enter my work). (3) Building the house? Yes, what about it {ambi uli)? I cannot, but I think that what's- his-name — Bula, would consent, because he wants work. (4) Where is he (tr. that one) ? He has gone for a walk, but he will be back soon. [There he] he [is] ! He is coming now. (6) Point him out. That one who is walking with tli^ woman, 92 A YAO GRAMMAK All right, I will go and talk to {tr. with) him. (6) Hi ! You ! do you want work? What kind of work? Building a house. Yes — whose house though? Mine, of course. (7) Can you write on people for tax-work ^ ? No, but my master (ir. European) will write you on to work for him {tr, for his work), so that you can pay 48. only. (8) If he will do that, all right, I will come and build your house. Come on, let us go to the European, [so that] he can write you on to-day, and you can begin work early on Monday ^ morning. Come on, then. (9) [Please] Sir, I want this man to build my house at the village. Yes, I hear you, what about it? Wovdd you write him on (subj.) as if in your employ, because I can't go to the village and do it myself, being your boy. All right, I will write him on. * Tax, msoko. * Monday, lyuwa lyakulemha. CHAPTER XIII. 1. The Derivative Forms of the Verb. (i) The Applied Form. This is formed from the simple stem by changing the final -a into -ila, or -ela after penultimate e or o (cf. Chap. XII, Par. 3). The effect is that of adding a preposition ("to," ^'for," "with," etc.) to the simple meaning: — e.g. kuteleka, to cook. kutelechela, to cook in, for, etc. kulola, to look, kulolela, to look for, to hope. kwika, to come. kwichila, to arrive. Examples : — ngusaka mwakutelechela, I want {a place) to cook in. tutwichile (tutuichile) kweleko malawi, toe shall arrive there to-morrow. tin'embe i^andu ^akundawila nyumba, I will lorite on some people to build a house for me. (ii) The Causative Form. (a) As a general rule the Causative is formed by changing the final a of the stem into -isya (or -esya, after penultimate e or o), or by changing the final syllable into 'sya. It has the meaning of "to cause to — " or "to permit to — ." (93) 94 A YAO GKAMMAB e.g. kutenda, to do, kutendesya, to cause to do. kupita, to pass. kupisya, to caiise, or allow to jyass. kutyoka, to go away. kutyosya, to take away. (b) A more emphatic form is obtained by using -ichisya or -echesya instead of -isya, -esya : — e.g. kumala, to finish; cans., kumalisya or kumalichieya. (c) A few verbs take their causative in ^ika : — e.g. kwimika, to set upright {from -jima). kutamika, to put down ( from -tama). kugoneka, to lay down (from -gona). (d) All verbs ending in -ana form their causative in -any a : — e.g. kusongana, to gather together ; caus., kusonganya. kuta^ana, to tie together ; caus., kutawanya. A few verbs ending in -na and -wa form their causative in a similar manner : — e.g. kunguna, to stoop ; cans., kungunya. kutojima, to be startled ; cans., kutojimya. (e) Some verbs in -ukaj -pa, and -owa form their causa- tive by changing the final syllable into -ya. e.g. kuchuluka, to be many, kuchuluya, to multiply. kuleupa, to be lotig. kuleuya, to lengthen. kogopa, to fear. kogoya, to frighten. THE VERB 95 kutondo^a, to be slack. kutondoya, to slacken, kunyo^a, to be wet, kunyoya, to wet, kunonopa, to be hard. kunonoya, to harden. Note, — Kulima (" to hoe '') takes a semi-causative form in -ya {kuUmya)y having the special meaning "to hoe for food, beer," etc. Kwima, in the sense of "to refuse," takes its causative in a similar manner — kwimya — in contradistinction to kwim-ika, " to set upright." (/) The causative forms should always be used with the objective pronoun, to distinguish them from the intensitive form (see following paragraph). (iii) The Intensitive Form of all verbs is the same as the causative, and is distinguished therefrom partly by the context, and partly by the absence of the objective pronoun : — e,g, kupikanichisya, to listen closely {from -pikana). kugumbalichisya, to be too full (from -gumbala). Note, — Compare kuwechetesyaj " to be garrulous," with ku- mbechetesya, "to cause (him) to speak." 2. The Passive Voice. (i) The true Passive is formed by changing the final -a into 'Wa or -ilwa. It is rarely used, the more direct active voice being preferred : — e,g, kutuma, to send ; kutumwa, to be sent, kuulaga, to kill; kuulajilwa, to be killed. (ii) A form of the Passive in common use describes a condition without reference to the agent. It is formed 96 A YAO GBAMMAB by changing the final -a into -ika or -eka ; verbs ending in 'Ula take -uka : — e,g, kuwona, to see, kuwoneka, to be visible, kutuma, to send, kutumika, to act as servant, kupapula, to tear, kupapuka, to be torn. Note, — This form may also have the meaning that the state is potential rather than actual : — e.g. kuwalanga, to count, kuwalanjika, to he countable, 3. Recency of action is expressed by prefixing na- (with or without the Possessive) to the stem of verb, and suflBxing -pe : — e.g. masengo ganamalape, work just completed, ^andu i^analembape, people only just tvritten on, naikape, as soon as I {yoUf he, etc.) arrived. Exercise 37. Translate into English : — (1) Kuulajila ; kuutuchila ; kutechela ; kulindila. (2) Kukanisya ; kugwisya ; kuutusya ; kutisya ; kulosya. (3) kuganichisya ; kutumichisya ; kuuchisya ; kupan- ganichisya. (4) Kusumika ; kusomeka ; kugombeka ; kwiniika;* kutawika ; kupikanika. (5) Waliji. juanaji- mukape. (6) CheNampanda uwawilangwaga kuti Che- Msamati. Exercise 38. Translate into ChiYao : — (1) To carry to ; to wound with ; to walk with ; to build for. (2) To set down ; to cause to go ; to puzzle ; to weary ; to obey implicitly. (3) To be missed ; to be possible ; to be lendable ; to be washable (of a cloth) ; THE VEEB 97 to be untied; to be stolen. (4) A house just built; I had only just arrived. • Vocabulary. namyaka, this year, mwacheso, last year, mwachejusi, the year before last, pachaka, chaka chine, ^lext year, chau, the hot season, masika, the harvest season, soni (9), shame, chitukuta (7), sweat, heat, mtutu (3), fish-poison, mlila (3), a watershed, mtambala (3), a bundle, lulele, gratuitously, for no apparent reason, chiko (7), a ford, a landing-place, komboka (-jombweche), to cross (a Hver), kusyo^ekana na (-syo^ekene), to be friendly (with), kupapula (-papwile), to tear, kujuga (-jusile), to beg, kwembecheya (-jembecheye), to wait, have patience, kwalusya (-jalwisye), to be insolent, disrespectful, kukuya (-kuyiye), to pursue, follow, kwi^a (-ji^ile), to steal, kutapika (-tapiche), to vomit, kudandaula (-dandawile), to grumble, to be sorry. kukamula*(-kamwile), to seize, catch. kutandilila (-tandilile), to repeat, do again, kulokota (-lokwete), to pick up, kulepela (-lepele), to fail, kulinga (-linjile), to try, measure, weigh. Exercise 39. Translate into English : — Wapali mundu juine wajile kukuulaga nyama, nipo wauleje, nekutawa^ mtambala, nipo wapite litala lya mlila lyangali mesi, nipo jamkwete njota. Nekutula ^ See page 41, par. 6. 7 98 A YAO GRAMMAE mtambala wakwe petala kukusosa mesi, nipo asimene mesi gamajinji. Akanang'we mesi'go wasiweni somba syasijinji silimkwendajenda m'mesi'mo, nipo jual%kwe watite, '* Tingasose mtutu mbulaje somba'si." Nipo wajawile kukusosa mtutu nekujigala, nekutaga m'mesi 'mo. Katema kakoko wasiweni somba'syo silimkwenda pachanya pa mesi, nipo jualakwe wakumbuchile kuti, "Tingatole mtambala wangu, mbiche panopano, ngasi- ulaje somba'si 'chenene." Nipo wajile kukutola. Kweleko wasimene mtambalaVo wajiwile wandu wane, nipo jualakwe wakuyiye litala lyosepe. Nganambona juaji- gele. Chitema chitema wausile soni kukamula somba 'syo, nipo somba'syo wasisimene sitapiche mtutu'wo, silimkwenda pasi mnope. Nipo mundu'jo walijimku- dandaula mnope, kuti, " Nyama jangu wajiwile wandu, soni somba nganinisikamula. Nawa ningang'we mesi'ga nekwaula, nyama ngakanajiwa wandu. Ngisindandil la soni kutenda yeleyi." Mundu'jo wajawile kumangwa- kwe juangali kandu kakujigala. ExEKCiSE 40. Translate into ChiYao : — (1) That man, who is sitting over there, has given me a cloth for nothing, and I have nothing to give him [in return]. (2) Please, will somebody who has got a shil- ling, lend it me? I will give it him back. (3) We haven't got [any either], we are as poor as you. What shall I do, because the man is going ? (4) Tell him to come back at the end of the month. All right, I will tell him [so that] he can go. (5) There has been very little rain this year. There were good rains last year and the year before, we cannot hope for good rains every year. (6) No, perhaps next year the rainy season will not be [so] late. You must not make [so] much beer that is all. (7) Why are you late ? I could not cross the river at the ford, and I went to Manyama's to borrow a THE VEEB 99 canoe. (8) Your cloth is torn. Yes, I have tried to borrow another, but failed. You are always begging, I suppose you came here to see what you could pick up. (9) Do you think I want to steal ? Why do you want to insult me (tr, to be insolent) ? I don't know, but I don't make friends with people who beg and do no work, as if they had no sense of shame {tr. as if without shame). (10) It is very hot to-day, I could not {tr. I failed to) sleep last night. Yes, the hot season has begun now. CHAPTER XIV. 1. Derivative Forms of the Verb (contd,), (i) The Beciprocative Form, This is formed by adding -na to the stem. By its use two or more persons or things are brought into mutual relation, or the action is made mutual : — e.g. kuta^a, to tie. kuta^ana, to tie together. kuwecheta, to speak. kuweehetana, to converse. A more emphatic form is obtained by substituting -ngana for -na. It implies that the action relates to a number of people (or things) : — e.g. kusongana, to gather. kusongangana, to meet together. kuleksma, to he different. kulekangana, to he mutually different. Some verbs change the final -a of the stem to -igana or -egatM : — e.g. kulolegana, to look at each other. kuwonegana, to see each other. (ii) The Beversive Form. The meaning of a verb may be reversed by changing the fiLnal -a into 'Ula^ -ukula, or 4kula : — e.g. kwinama, to stoop. kwinamukula, to straighten oneself. kusakama, to hang up. . , kusakamula, to take down. ''- '' (100) THE VBBB 101 kuBweka, to put in, kuswekula, to pull out kusajika, to put on top, kusajukula, to remove from the lop. kumata, to smear on. kumatula, to peel off. (iii) The Reflexive Form of the verb is obtained by pre- fixing -li' to the stem : — e.g. kuliwona, to see oneself. kuliulaga, to commit suicide. 2. Adverbs. In addition to the adverbs given in the vocabulary, others may be formed in the following ways ^ : — (i) By intensifying the verb by the use of mnope or Jcusyene, or merely by using the intensitive form of the verb, or both : — e.g. kwenda mnope, to walk fast, kulolechesya, to look carefully. kuwechetesya kusyene, to speak at great length. (ii) From nouns by the use of cha or ya r — e.g. cha ukali, fiercely. ya unami, deceitfully. The root of a verb may be similarly employed : — e.g. yakalamuka, cunningly. yakolelwa, drunkenly. (iii) Occasionally an adverb is formed by prefixing kwa- or pa- to the infinitive of a verb : — e.g. kwakutalika, /ar at(;ay pakuwandika, near. 1 See also Appendix IIL, p, 125. 102 A YAO GBAMMAB (iv) "Whence" or "whither" (relative) are formed by the use of hu-^ with or without the locative suflBx 'A;o, ^kula. The appUed form of the verb is sometimes used : — e,g. nganinimbona kwajinjilile, I did not see which way he went, alolite kwaumile'ko, he looked hack to where he had come from. waujilile kwagonile'kula, he turned hack to where he had slept. Similarly, " wherein " is rendered by mu : — e.g, m'nyumba'mo m'mwagonile'mula, that house wherein you slept (v) Note that while kumbujo always means 'in front," it cannot always be so translated. The European always thinks of an object as facing him, and therefore anything beyond it must be behind it: the native, on the other hand, pictures an object as facing the same way as he is, and therefore more distant things are in front of it (kumbujo kwakwe). If a person is facing him, however, more distant things are behind that person (kunyuma kwakwe) as in English. 3. Quite apart from the dative forms belonging to Class XV. (see page 32), a verbal stem may be converted into a noun of any class. The prefix will vary according to the shade of meaning to be assigned to the word — e,g, mu-, living ; ch% instrumentality ; Zi, roundness or large size ; lu, length ; and so on (see Chap. II., par. 7), though these prefixes are not used with much exactness — and the final letter of the stem is usually, but not al- ways, changed to o, i, or e. THE VERB lOB e.g. mlongola, a guide or superior {from kulongola, to go before), chipowo, a rent or hole (from kupoola, to bore). One class of such nouns deserves special mention owing to freedom with which it is used ; it has aflSnities with the abstract, on the one hand, and the Dative, on the other. The prefix is always u- (abstract), and the final a is always changed to e ; any verbal stem may be used at will. e,g, wiche (u-iche) {from -ika, coming), waule, {from -jaula, going) y etc. Idiomatically, these forms are preceded by wose, and followed by a demostrative : — e,g, wose wiche'uno icheleje alakwe^ (lit.) all this coming I came for you^ i.e. I came on purpose to see you, wose waule'ula ajaulileje chelechi? Is this what you went to fetch ? Or they may be treated as nouns pure and simple, e,g, wakanatande wele usyane'u, before they commenced this forging, au ujogoye'u, this frightfulness, au utende'u, this way of daing, (hence) in this manner. Vocabulary. kusajika (-sajiche), to place on top. kuunika (-unichile), ) kuunichila (-unichile), / *^ ^^^'^' '^* ^^'^' « ^^«')- kuugala pa (-ugele), to shut (e.g. a door or window), kusyenga (-syenjile), to coil, wind round, hind, kulumbikana (-lumbikene), to he conjoined. 104 A YAO GBAMMAB kwanika (-janiche), to spi'ead out (e.g. clothesy flour, etc.). kwegama (-jegeme), to lean against, kota (-jotile), to warm oneself {at the fire, etc.). kung^anda (-ng'andile), to play, kuumula (-jumwile), to he dry, kukoleka (-koleche)^ to hang up, kuumila (-umile), to come from, kupanda (-pandile), to sow, plant, kupamba (-pambile), to light (a lamp), kukolesya (-kolesisye), to light (a fire), kugowola (-gowele), to reap (maize), kutega (-tejile, -tesile), to set (a trap), to cock (a gun), kutanjila (-tanjile), to he caught (in a trap), kuwituka (-witwiche), to go off (of a trap). ngwime (9), a kind of field-mouse, mbugu (9), munjilo (2), a hole (of a mouse, rat, etc.). lili^a (5), a rat trap (consisting of a fiat stone), matimbe (6), a stream garden, lutumba (11), a corner (of a house, etc.). chigwenembe (7), a rat trap. Exercise 41. Translate into English : — (1) Tujendane; wamenyene; twamanyigene kusyene. (2) Msajukule; mkasaunukula ; tutusyengukule. (3) Mkulikwesya chichi ? Nalitawilile nyumba'jo namsyene ; twalijigalile chelecho. (4) Mjaule kumwachiweni'ko ; akachiwiche chelecho soni mwachisimene'mula. (5) Nawakuyiye kwatisile'kula ; kweleko kumkwima'ko no kunapandile mbeju. Exercise 42. Translate into Chi Yao : — (1) We have not seen each other; let them sit together ; you always oblige each other (tr hear each other). (2) We will unfasten ; gather up those clothes ; take away that stick. Which one? That one which is leaning up against the wall ; open the door. (3) I have been warm- ing myself at the fire ; don't stand like that, straighten THE VERB 105 yourself; I have cooked that food for myself. (4) Do you know which way so-and-so went ? He went to the village yonder where you bought the bananas ; he went back to the village where he was bom ; look in the hole in which you fell. Exercise 43. Translate into English : — " Ngwime syangajendajenda chuku, nambo chau. Naga kuika chuku nekwinjila mu mbugu mwakwe, kuliugalila mwelemo, chigonele mowa gosepe rapaka kwika chau. Nekutanda kwendajenda kusa kukulokota yakulya ikusigalila m'migunda katema ka gowola ; nipo syelesyo sikupita mwelemo kulokota yakulya'yo kuji- galila m'minjilo mwakwe kusalasya." " Nambo une chitandilile, ngwime nganinijiwone upagwe wakwe." ** Nambo kanga umwe mkusaka kujimanya, kwende tulongane none kumigunda, kweleko natejile maliwa gawili liso. Pane tutukasimane sitanjile." "Elo, une ngusaka kulongana nomwe.'' Nipo wajawile wosepe pamo, nipo pawaiche kweleko wasimene maliwa'go gali gawitwiche gosepe, mwelemo syatanjile ngwime siwili. Nipo juelejo wamlanjile kuti, " Lolani, ngwime'sila asi." Juelejo watite, ** Sambano nisimanye." Exercise 44. Translate into ChiYao : — (1)1 think it is going to rain, shut the door and gather up those clothes. (2) Where shall I put them, as they are not dry yet ? Put them on the top of that box. (3) When you ai'e speaking to a European you must not lean up against the door like that. (4) Shall I light the lamp now ? Yes, then light the fire so that I can warm my- self. (5) The children are playing together outside. What are they doing ? (6) They are winding wire on to a stick. (7) Where has this maize come from ? From the stream garden at Msusa's, they always plant there 106 A TAO GRAMMAR every year. (8) When do they reap it? In the middle of the rainy season and at the beginning of the dry season. (9) The rats have been eating this cloth [during the] night. We wiU make a trap and set it in the comer there. (10) Shut that box and put it under the bed. Then hang up these clothes. Do not hang them up by the little string, but on their hangers (itela). CHAPTER XV. 1. Some Special Tenses. (a) By prefixing -husa-, or -kuja-, to the stem and adding the subjective pronoun, a tense is formed having the meaning of " usually — ," or " be in the habit of — ^" : — e.g. akusajaula, he usually goes, ngusawala, I usually wear, nde potukujajimba, that is why we sing. The negative syllable (nga) may be used with this construction : — • e,g. ngakusajenda, he does not usually go, (6) If the syllable -ta- be prefixed to the infinitive and the pronoun added, the meaning " lest I (he, etc.) — " is obtained : — e,g, mkasajenda kweleko, mtakugwa, don^t walk there lest you fall. ngutujaula lelo, jitakwika ula, we won't go io-day lest it rain. (c) The addition of the continuative suffix -ga to the preceding entirely changes the meaning, and indicates that the action should (or will) be carried out, or con- tinued, only after an interval, not immediately : — e.g. mtakumalaga kanyuma'kano, ligulo'lino, finish {this) later, this evening. atakwaulaga ligulo, they may go later in the evening. (107) 108 A YAO GBAMMAB (d) The syllable -pa- prefixed to the stem of the verb denotes ability to perform the action indicated by the verb ; it may be used with any tense : — e.g, nganapaika lelo, he covldnH come to-day. tingapalembe 'chenene pangakawa, I shall soon be able to write well. 2. Auxiliary Verbs. Apart from the verb ku{ba, the use of which has already been noted, there are two auxiliary verbs in common use, viz. kutenda and kuti. (a) The verb kutenda is used with the Infinitive of the verb, in two meanings, according as the present or perfect form is used. The present has the meaning of " be in the act of — ," " be getting — ." e.g. tutenda kusosa, we are looking for {it) turn. sitenda kuwola, they are getting rotten. It will be noted that the ku of the present is omitted, thus : — Tutenda for tukutenda, ndenda for ngutenda. The use of the perfect, present or past, gives the meaning of really having done something, having done it finally, or of having become so and so : — e.g. ndesile kupela, I am quite tired out. jatesile kunyowa, it had become wet. The perfect is often abbreviated, thus: — Nde^kupela, jate^kunyowa, etc. Similarly, twate^kumsalila, **we told him once and for all." (6) The verb kuti is used to give the meaning of " to be about to — ," **to be just going to — ." The perfect tenses, present and past, are used, with the subjunctive of the verb governed : — THE VERB 109 e,g, njite {or njiteje) ndye, I am just going to eat (i.e. about to eat), achite {or achiteje) ajaule, he is just going, nachite ndole, I was just going to look, twachite tujoje. we were about to bathe. Note, — It is necessary to differentiate between " just " mean- ing "about to — ," and "just" meaning "only": e.g, njiteje ngalole, I am just going to look ; but, ngwamba kulola, I am just looking {doing nothing else), (c) The verb kuja, " to go," may be used as an auxiliary, especially in old Yao : — nganya'kawa, I shall not be long. Similarly, mkaja'kawa, donH be long. Note. — These examples seem to indicate the origin of the emphatic negative forms of the subjunctive and future, j being sometimes softened to s. Compare also the following : — ngemkaja mlola ! why donH you look {where you are going) I Sometimes euphonic changes take place, as : — ngemkajo mpikana ! why donH you listen I pakajo mbilanga, when I call you. {d) Other verbs may also be used as auxiliaries, e.g. 'pata, " get " ; tupateje kwimanyilila, so that ive may under- stand {something as yet incomprehensible), kuu^ya, " to ask," is used in an idiomatic form, in reply to a question. It indicates that the reply or statement is an obvious one : — Ana ku ^Nyasa kwambon^? Kweleko kwangalum- bana akausya lyui^a lyejinji, is everything all right at the lake ? {Of course) it is bad there because of the drought. 110 A YAO GRAMMAB wachite uli? Nganimbecheta najo akambusya nganinimbona, what did he say ? I did not speak to him, for as you know I did not see him. tujaule kweleko, akausya msyene'jula juambone, let us go there, it is well known that he is a good man. 3. The Participles. (a) There are two forms of the present participle : — (i) The locatives pa or mu may be prefixed to the verbal noun : — e.g. pakuichila kweleko, twagonile, arriving there^ we stayed the night. ^ajimi apo, mkupumasika, they stood there, panting. This form of the participle is used alone when it refers to the subject of a sentence but the appropriate tense of the verb kutba must be added if it relates to the object, thus forming the imperfect tense (page 71) : — e.g. nambweni walijimkwaula, I saw him going. tuti^asimane ^elei^o alimkulya, ive shall find them eating. (ii) Another form is in common use, viz. the sub- jective personal pronoun with the syllable -chi-, prefixed to the stem and the continuative suffix. The pronoun m- is used for all classes, either singular or plural, except the first, which is regular : — ^ njilolaga, (i) looking. achiutukaga, {he) running. tuchijimaga, {we) standing. mchiwechetaga, {you) speaking. i^achijimbaga, {they) singing. mchitilaga, {it or they) running away. ^ The regular connective pronoun is occasionally used for other classes than the first : e.g. chatemi chichilolaga (for chatemi mchilolciga), " it sat looking." -THE VBEB 111 e,g. twajimi tuchidodomaga, we stood hesitating. syapite mchiutukagaj they {game) passed running. (6) There is no true past participle, the present per- fect or verbal adjective being used in its stead : — e.g. twamsimene auwile, we found him dead. More iditomatically the verb kwCba is used in such constructions : — e.g. twamsimene ali auwile, tbe found him dead. So also twaiche ali ajawile, we cams after he had gone (i.e. we found him gone). Vocabulary. kutemangula (-temangwile), to break. kupilipita (-pilipitile), to wriggle ahoutj struggle. kutandika (-tandiche), to spread out. kunyo^a (-nyo^e^e, -nyo^ile), to be wet. ku^eluka (-^elwiche), to stop work. kusulula (-sulwile), to leak. kuwimba (-wimbile), to thatch. kuutala (-utele), to be overgrown (with grass). kupuga (-pujile), to blow (of wind). kupepesya (-pepesye), to inflate. kunya (-nyele), to fall (of rain). kucha (-chele), to dawn, clear up (after rain). kuswa (-swele), to set (of the sun). sal, thus, chipo^o (4), a small hole, opening (in a fence). lutenje (6), a fence. * liundika (5), catarrh, bronchitis. Exercise 45. Translate into English : — (1) Mkatandika nguo'syo pelepo, sitakunyowa. (2) Wandu wakusatenda iyoyo mowa gosepe nambo. (3) Aweluche sambano, watakulimaga soni lyuwa lyati sai. (4) Tukasume utande kwa Mandala, weula utenda kumala. 112 A YAO GRAMMAR (6) Njiteje nyaule sambano, nauweni unandwipe. (6) Ngetugopola soni kweleko, nde'kutawa. (7) Po namlo- lite umwe po mwaikaga nipo natiji nyaule kumangwetu. (8) Libeketi'li {bucket) likwete chipowo, litenda kusulula. (9) Ngulwala liundika. None juakwe ngusalw^ala chnku. (10) Nambweni Che Bula alimkulima m'mgunda mwao. (11) Wakongwe waiche wachijimbaga, wanache mkukuya munyuma. (12) Sambano kuchele, kwende ku masengo. Exercise 46. Translate into ChiYao : — (1) Thatch the roof carefully lest it leak. (2) Go and hoe the road, it is getting overgrown. (3) Come for a walk with me. I am just going to have some food {tr. to eat). (4) I was about to pay the people when I saw you coming. (5) We have really finished. (6) I usually get up very early, but I was tired to-day. (7) Looking care- fully everywhere, I saw the elephant standing near a tree breaking off the branches. (8) Tie that bunch of bananas carefully, lest it fall ; there is a high wind to- day. (9) Have you built that fence? We have not finished yet. (10) Why are you just sitting here, then ? We will continue to build it later, we are just going to have a drink. (11) The buck fell struggling on the ground. (12) It is sunset now and it is raining, let us sleep here. r CHAPTER XVI. THE PERFECT TENSE. As already stated, the changes which take place in the stena of the verb in the formation of this tense are best learnt empirically, each form with its stem and meaning. There are, however, indications of a general rule, especi- ally in roots having more than two syllables, and all can be arranged in groups with only a few exceptions. It has seemed worth while, therefore, to attempt a classi- fication as an aid to memory. 1. Most verbs of more than two syllables form their perfect in the same way, modified only by the usual euphonic changes. The last syllable -'a {-la, -na, -ka, 'Sya, etc.) changes to -i'e (-i7^, -ine, -ichCf -isye, etc.), or -e*e after i enultimate e or o : — e.g. -jigala (can-y), = -jigaile = -jigele. -kongola {borrow), = -kongoele = -kongwele. -sagula (choose), = -saguile = -sagwile. -manyilila (know), = -manyiliile = -manyilile. -dandaula (grumble), = -dandauile = -dandawile. -pikana (hear), -pikaine = -pikene. 'dodoma, (hesitate), = -dodoeme = -dodweme. -kopoka (go out), = -kopoeche = -kopweche. -jimika (set up), = -jimiiche = -jimiche. -papuka (be torn), = -papuiche = -papwiche. -poteka (huH), = -poteeche = -poteche. -kumbusya (remind), = -kumbuisye == -kumbwisye. -sichita (cut), — -sichiite =» -siehite. -panganya (make), = -pangainye = -pangenye. (113) 8 114 A YAO GBAMMAR Notes, — (a) Only a few verbs of more than two syllables form their perfect by changing the final -a to -tie. These include : — (i) Some roots adopted from other languages. (ii) Onomatopoetic forms : — e.g. -mumunya, -mimina, etc. (iii) A few verbs in -nda, -nga, -nya : e.g. -salamanday -simongay -lumenyaf etc. (6) A few multisyllabic words in -nga and 4a form their perfect in -sile: — * e.gf. -chelenga (go fast), -cheresile. -jonanga (spoil, waste), -jonasile. -jamila (scream), -jamisile. 2. The majority of verbs of two syllables form their perfect by changing the final -a to -ile. Those whose final consonant is g, change this to j : — e.g. -tai^a (tie), -ta^ile. -longa (pack), -lonjele. Notes. — (a) Those which end in -ga, -la, and -nda (and a few in -ka) soften their final consonant, or consonants, to s : — e.g. -jenda (walk), -jesile. -mala (finish), -masile. -laga (he poor), -lasile. -leka (leave), -lesile. (b) Verbs- of two syllables in -aya .change this syllable to 'Sisye : — e.g. -usya (ask), -usisye. -isya (sigh), -isisye. Some verbs of more than two syllables ending in -sya also follow this rule : — e.g. -ganisya ("think") -ganisisye, and some others. (c) Some verbs in -ya and -wa change to -yiye, -wiwe (or -wewe) : — e.g. -kuya (pursue), kuyiye. -nyo^a (be wet), -nyowe^e. (d) The following are common exceptions to the above rules : — -wala (wear), -wete. -lola (look), -lolite. THE PERFECT TENSE 115 -kola (have)y -kwete. -jima (8tand)y -jimi. -tama (sit), -temi. -wona («ee), -weni. -ti (sayjf -chite, -tite, or -tiji. 3. Practically, the difficulty of these Perfect forms is in determining the stem from a given Perfect, rather than vice versa. The following " tips " may be useful : — In the final syllables of a Perfect form : — 'We- has usually been -o-. -e- „ „ -e- or -a-. 'te „ „ -la, 'Sile „ „ -nda, -ga^ -la^ or (rarely) -ha. Final -e or -i has always been -a. e,g, -papwile : — wi = u, final e = a ; = -papula, -songenye : — e = a, final e = a ; = -songanya. -lokwete :-^we = o, final e = a ; = -lokota. -sasile : sile = -la, = -sala. ndesile : sile = -nda, -ga, or -ka ; d = t or 1. = -tenda, -tega, or leka. Exercise 47. Give the Perfect tense of the following verbs (stem only) : — (1) -wika ; -wanganya ; -pisya ; -pokosola ; -soya ; -wola. (2) -tenda ; -kodola ; -tuta ; -tawila ; -pindika. (3) -swekula ; -nyenga ; -pitikusya ; -ng'wa ; -matula. (4) -papula ; -pakama ; -lya ; -nunga ; -nyosya. Exercise 48. Give the stem of the following verbs : — (1) -liyiye ; -limbiche ; -lewipe ; -lasile. (2) -tojime ; -pochele ; -pindwiche ; -galawisye ; -pangenye ; -tokwete. (3) -lindilile ; -patwile ; -komweche ; -pasisye ; -nokwele. (4) -kusile ; -Iwasile ; -mosile ; -ngwiye. APPENDIX I. FORMS OF ADDRESS. 1. The use of the plural in Yao for the sake of ttchimbe- chimbe ("politeness") is so common, and, moreover, so apt to be puzzling to a beginner, that it deserves special notice." It extends to all the variable parts of speech, nouns, adjectives, verbs, and pronouns. Nouns. Relationships are always put in the plural. Thus : akulu ^angu, my elder brother, alamu ^enu, your brother-in-law. As a rule the prefix acha, achiy is reserved for the true plural, but even this is open to exception. Thusjuamkongwe ('* a woman ") is rarely heard except in the meaning ** female," the plural form tbakongwe being preferred. Achakongwe (or achambumba) is used for the plural," women." ApjECTiVES, of course, agree with the noun. Verbs. As has already been noted, the 3rd person, singular or plural, is often used in place of the more direct 2nd person. Thus degrees of politeness may be employed in the following order : — Imperatively : — (1) 2nd person sing. Subjunctive (familiar, and to children). (2) The singular Imperative. (3) The plural Imperative. (116), FORMS OF ADDEESS 117 (4) The 2nd person plural Subjunctive. (5) The 3rd person Subjunctive. (6) The Subjunctive form in n — . (7) The Subjunctive form in n — , with the applied form of the verb. For other tenses : — (1) The 2nd person singular (familiar). (2) The 2nd person plural. (3) The 3rd person singular or plural. Pronouns. Here again the 3rd person is often used for the 2nd, -akwe, or -ao, for -enu; waoy {balakwe^ or even hweleho, for umwe. 2. Polite forms of address are : — atati, achimwene, equivalent to " Sir '^ (irrespective of relationship). bwana from Swahili, equivalent to "Sir." ambuje, in adressing an old man or chief. husyeto, ambuje, in addressing an old woman. chemwaliy in addressing a young woman. Che-, prefixed to the name, is an honorific never omitted by the Yao; indeed, among natives, it is an insult to do so. This prefix is occasionally used for women, near relat- ives of chiefs. The Swahili (Arabic) custom of using the father's name is very general now : wadi, or bin (son of) ; biti, or binti (daughter of) being prefixed. The son of a chief is often greeted by his father's (tribal) name. 3. In seeking admittance : — Hodi ? (Ans,) Hodini {Swahili), Amo ? „ E-e-e ! or apite. 118 A TAO GBAMMAB 4. Greetings: — Ana mkwimukaga ? How do you do ? Are you quite well ? {Ans.) Kwimukaga. Ana kutusimana? or Ana tusimene? How are you? (Ans.) Kwasimana, nowe kumangwetu twaliji chigonele, or licheje kumlola, or Eti, twaBimene, tutite tupite mchijendajenda, or Eti twasimene, tutite tukakunguluche, or E-e-e ! {and gives the news). ' kwatyochele ? Ana kwambone Ana kuchele Ana ukotope kwaumile ? kumusi ? kumangwao ? ^ kweleko? (kwambonepe. kuchelepe. . ukotope. u / kwangalumbana, ° ' \ nganikuwa kwambone. To a 2nd person : — Ana kutenda iyoyo ? (ans.) E-e-e ! On leaving : — Asigaleje, sambano ngwaula kumangwetu. or Ambuje, tukungulwiche, tukuujila panyuma. or Tusimaneje. or Twalesile, tukunguluche malawi. or Tinimsimane kuridawi. (ans.) E-e-e ! or Ajauleje, kwe'tusindi- chisye. or Jaulagani. 6.' A man who is going to tell a story says : " Tele " {i.e. full), and the people answer, " Lokote, loJcote, haseh ndi I FORMS OF ADDRESS 119 Lakata / " ^ He then proceeds with the story. When he has finished, he says, ^^Nganimba 'ne nyimbile, ajimbile Che Lisimu {i.e. the old people)." The audience replies, " Ajokole chitolo, chitakununga / " ^ A man who is going to propound a riddle says, ^^Ndawi" His hearers reply, ^' Jiiche,'^ He then asks the riddle. * "Pick it up, the basket is full, heaped up to overflowing! " Compare the English, " He was full of his story." « Literally, " Take the rat off the fire, lest it cause a smell (of burning)." The origin of this is obscure. APPENDIX 11. KELATION SHIPS. It is difficult to find English words by which one can translate the Yao terms describing relationships, as the whole system is different. A reference to the application in Yao of the word atati (generally translated "father") will be quite suflBcient to illustrate the diflBculty {v, infra), (1) The children of two brothers or of two sisters are regarded as too closely related for marriage ; they regard each other as own brothers and sisters. The children of an elder brother or sister are all regarded as seniors by the children of the younger, whatever the respective ages of these children, It follows, then, that a man (or woman) will regard, and refer to, the children of his brother (or sister) as mwanangu (**my child"). On the other hand, the children of a brothenand sister are regarded as cousins {asiwani), and not only are per- mitted to marry each other, but are encouraged to do so. So far it is fairly straightforward. A complication arises, however, from the rule that the husband or wife of an aZaww must be a "brother" or "sister." For in- stance, the wife of a brother-in-law of one's brother is regarded as a " sister. *' So also the wife or husband of an msi'Cbani is called "sister" or "brother." (2) A man's heir is his sister's son (usually the eldest son of the eldest sister, but not necessarily) ; any sister's (120) RELATIONSHIPS 121 child may be called chipwa changu ("my nephew" or '* niece "), though often the term is reserved for the man's heir only. The man's heir is referred to as mtuipwagwao. A chipwa refers to his maternal uncle as akwelume ; on succeeding to his name and possessions he may marry his uncle's wife or wives, but not if he has already married one of their children (i.e. his msiibani), (3) (a) "BROTHER" (i.e. achimwene, akuluwangu or mpwanga of a man ; achimwene or alumhu of a woman ; see note (i), infra) includes : — own brother (by the same father or mother), and the husbands of his wife's "sisters"; son^of paternal uncles and maternal aunts, and the husbands of their wife's " sisters " ; husbands of female asiihani {q,v,) ; male asiibani of wife (or husband) ; husbands of wife's (or 'husband's) own sisters; husbands of the daughters of the paternal uncles and maternal aunts of wife (or husband); husbands of a "sister's" husband's "sisters." (b) "SISTER" (i.e. chemwali or alumhu of a man, chemwali or mpwanga of a woman, see note (i), infra) in- cludes : — own sister (by the same father or mother), and the wives of her husband's "brothers"; daughters of paternal uncles and maternal aunts, and the wives of their husband's ** brothers " ; wives of male asiibani (q.v,) ; female asitbani of wife (or husband) ; wives of wife's (or husband's) own brothers ; wives of the sons of the pater- nal uncles and maternal aunts of wife (or husband); wives of "brother's" wife's "brothers." (c) AT ATI includes : — own father, paternal uncles and aunts (the latter distinguished as atati 'Cbakongwe ; a pa- ternal uncle older than one's father is distinguished as atati ibakulungwa, one younger, as atati ^anandi) ; wife's (or husband's) father ; wife's (or husband's) paternal uncles and aunts, — distinguished as above; husbands of own 122 A TAO GBAMMAB and wife's (or husband's) aunts, both paternal and maternal. In addition, though the relationship is really akwego, the following are usually termed atati : the husbands of female achiwana and achiwesukulu (q^v,), and husbands of own daughters. (d) AMBUJE ("grandfather") includes all grand rela- tions of self and of wife (or husband), and their wives. Great-grandparents may be defined by means of com- pound terms, such as achikuluibao ambuje, ambuje woo ambuje, etc. (e) A MAO and achikulu- {-wangu, -ibao^ etc.) refers to one's own mother or her sisters ; the latler are usually defined as amao ibanandi, or ibakulungwa according to age (cf. atati). (/) MSI'^ANI is the best defined of all terms; it re- fers only to the children of paternal aunts or of maternal uncles. (g) ALAMU IB the term used for the wives of " brothers " {q»v,)y and the husbands of " sisters " {q.v,). Note, — " Brothers " and " sisters " of wife (or husband) are therefore alamu since their wives are " sisters," and their hus- bands, "brothers*' respectively. {h) AKWEQO is the general term for relationships by marriage which are more distant than alamu. The term is, strictly speaking, reciprocal. It includes : wife of an uncle, both maternal and paternal, or the children of wife's (or husband's) "brother" or "sister"; wife's (or husband's) " amao,^^ " daughter's " husband or " son's " wife (see also atati, and a^hi'(bana) ; wife of wife's (or husband's) uncle on both sides, or husbands and wives of the children of a husband's "brothers" and "sisters"; wives or husbands (but see atati) of achiwesukulu, and lastly, the wives of male a^hiibana {q-v,). (The ambuje of RELATIONSHIPS 123 a wife or husband is usually called ambuje, and the pa- ternal uncle of a husband is usually called atati), (i) MWANANGU {-pi, achi'(banangu) maybe translated as *' my * son ^ " or " my ' daughter ' " ; it includes : own children, and children of "brother" or " sister" (q,v.). (j) CHISUKULU {pi, achiwesukulu) or mwisukuluwangu ("my grandchild") includes: own grandchildren, and grandchildren of " brother " or " sister." Notes. (i) The term mlumhu is used only by a " brother " of his " sister/* or (rarely) vice versa ; a woman will use the term c/t«- mwali for an elder " sister," and mpwanga or amwali for a younger one. A girl usually refers to her " brother " as achimwene even if he be younger than she ; in defining relationship she calls the youngest " brother ' ' achimwene 'Cbanandi, the second of three " brothers," achimwene iba chilikati, and so on. A boy refers to his elder " brother " as achimwene or akuluwangu, and to his younger as mpwanga. These terms imply seniority, and may be used among (Mhalongo irrespective of age. A boy refers to his " sister " as chemwali or alumhuwangu ; to his " sisters " collectively mwanjawo chemwali, (ii) The youngest of a family is often referred to as juaku- maligya maibele; the eldest as jua kwitiibo. The children of one man or one woman are known as ^ana kajumo, (iii) The founder of a family is known as likolo ; this term may also be used of a great-grandfather. (iv) The term chisukulu (mioisukuluwangu, " my grandchild *') is, properly, only used as already defined. Great "grand- children " should be referred to as chisukulu cha munyuma or cha m*mauja, though in practice these terms are merely defini- tive. A grandson is often addressed as mpwanga and a grand- daughter as asonowangu, (v) Achiibawako comprises all degrees of relationship not per- mitted to marry. It includes all those given, except asi^bani and achiwesukulu (but see also par. (2)). 124 A YAO GBAMMAB (vi) Nangolo ("a parent," pi. achinarMfolo) includes father and his " brothers " and " sisters " (o. wa chilume), mother and her " brothers *' and " sisters ** (a. wa chikongwe), (vii) Wese may be used as synonymous with atati, but it is more often used to denote " own father." It will never be used for the complimentary " atati " ( = akwego), (viii) Asonogo (Asono-wangUj -wao, etc.), or wamkwangu (wam- kwaoy etc.), are terms used only for a man*s own wife or potential wife. Kusyeto is a term of respect, and may be used of any woman. « (ix) Ulongo is equivalent to the English word " family." Mlongo is the abbreviated form of mu ulongo, " in the family " ; that is the reason that it requires mjakwe, ^^ his companion " (pi. ajoko)y instead of the possessive pronoun,— miongfo mjakwe {mjangu, etc.), " his (my, etc.) relative " (pi. achalongo ajao). For a fuller account of the Yao system of relationships the reader is referred to the author's paper in the " Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute," 1921. APPENDIX III. 1. Adverbial Nouns. There is in Yao a part of speech which has no parallel in English, but which is most* nearly defined by the term Adverbial Noun. It has the form of a noiin, but is used to qualify the verb. It may have the prefix of almost any class of noun, but chi- is the most common. e.g. watemi chinamile, he sal hanging his head (i.e. mournfully), kwenda chisyeu, to walk loitering, i.e. to loiter, meno gatenda ululu, my teeth are on edge, natipe lupwapwa, it is fiat-sided. Note, — It is often difficult to decide whether a word should be classed as an Adverbial Noun or as an onomatopoeic form (see following paragraph). 2. Onomatopceic Forms. The picturesqueness of the Bantu languages is almost entirely due to the wealth of onomatopoeic forms, and to the freedom with which they are used. What could be more expressive, for instance, than the term ngwihwi for " hiccough," or chwee ! for the sound of hot iron dipped into water? The native, however, goes beyond the mere dictionary meaning of the word " onomatopoeic " ; not only does he express in words impressions produced on the sense of hearing, but also on all the other senses. Witness : njo I expressive of prominence ; nyanyi, of stalking ; tililili, of (125) 126 A TAO GRAMMAR smoothness (satiny); lyolyolyo, of sweetness; and a hundred others. The Bantu illustrates his meaning by means of these expressions, accompanied by a wealth of gesture, and, indeed, they form the base of his articulate speech. The majority of them, however, are used at the fancy of the speaker, and it is therefore impossible to give arbitrary meanings to all of them ; their very nature, expressing as they do, the impression produced on the individual, precludes any hard and fast meanings being attached to them. When these forms are used for the purpose of descrip- tion, as opposed to illustration, the auxiliary verb kuti is employed in conjunction : — e,g, nguo jati pyu ! red cloth. nyama siluwimwile kuputu kuputu! the herd went off at full gallop. atemi mwipenu, pe-e ! chilambo chosepe cha- woneche mpela musi, mwesi natipe mbe ! Mwitiwi nipo wapikene t^andu kwa CheKalino t^alijimkuwina ung'asi wao, di ! di ! di !, kwa ! kwa! he sat in the verandah all ahne, the country as plain as day in the bright moonlight^ and in the valley below he heard Kalino's people dancing, the beat of the drums, and the clapping. APPENDIX IV. TABLE OF CONCORDS. Compound with copula ndi- d 1 d o d •rH d a d d o 73 d o * ^"^ 73 d O >> 1— 1 73 d Sd •f-i 73 d O d • >-( d O •i-i o d 73 d O • «-( 73 d .3 d 1 • f-l 73 d •f-i 73 d d o a 73 d Compound with na, "and, with." o d 1 o d o d 0) a o d 1 d 1 d o 'cQ* d I. d 1 d o -§ d 1 d o d 1 d o 1—1 cd d 1 a 1 d 1 cd d cd d a cd d o a cd d 1^ J 1 m e 1 0) d P 1 o d 1 a d 1 i o I. 13 1 o o o CD o l8 S Cd o cd i o a cd o d Cd 1 d 1 ^ 1 d 1 a d •r- » •f-i Sd •rH • iH •d QQ d d +3 cd d d 44 cd d a 1 4i 00 5 08* c3 c8 •«-( IS jS •>-( o c3 •3 •«-( OQ d Cd Cd cd Id -3 cd 1 cd 1 cd cd d a cd i J2i d •5? i •1-1 •1-4 Is ■1-1 •1-4 • «-( •5? • «-( QQ 5- cd 1 cd g d 1 d a cd Adjectival Prefix. d •r— » 1 1 O 1 a C8^ 1 ..-1 13 E 1 •rH 1 1 •i-i •1— » d ■r-» 1 •«-( QQ cd QQ 1 d >> QQ 1 d 1 1 d 1 •4A 1 cd 1 1 ,24 1 cd 1 1 d a cd a 1 c3 ^ ^ •r— » !> S) ^ •r— » CS >> QQ •4A cd Cd a a « d t-5 d •1— » •«-( c3 tie •f-i • iH • r-l •1— ^ OQ d d cd d S a. d .•» 1 • 1 1 d a a 1 a ,d , s 1 I" r a 1 •1-4 a 1 •f-i 1 a •f-i 1 1 1 d d d 1 d 1 cd M 1 d i a 1 a 1 • • • I— 1 • > • l-H • • 1— 1 M >< • 1— 1 • l-H 1— 1 m l-H 1— 1 1— 1 X • • I— 1 • l-H l-H (127) APPENDIX V. THE DEMONSTRATIVES. • O g 8 i 1 o P ¥ •1— » o 1 1 O P i O P •r- » o p I P -§ o p O P • i-H QD o p p 1 +3 c9 0) o p p p O P oe P s • 1 o a t O P o p o p O P c6 o p o p cQ o p •5- O P • •-H o p p IS o p p 1q O P o p i O P P s ce o p p e ce 1 P a • • S3 1 ■p c3 c8 f IS iS .P • 1-4 • l-H •1— » • F-4 00 • l-H CO c8 3 9 c8 "P +3 ce 2 1 p OS P 1 s ce 1 1 o o H 1 o •o 1 o i p o ■1— » o- ■1— » •1— » 1 •1—1 1 .P a O -P o .P « o o • I— » o • 1— » o 00 .^H 00 o o o p o o i p M M 5 8- 1 a 1 P a .^ « « • ^i4 p This same < !3 p •1— » .P o si • •-4 • l-H • l-H 00 • r-t 00 p p p -t-3 P ce c8 p P P 1 s p cd cd cS c8 c3 cd ee cS CO ce cd ce ce oe ce rt i o ••a J6 ¥ 1 1 03 P c3 '? So •1-4 • l-H GQ •^ p 1 -4J ce 15 ce p OP ce •^ ce •— ^ ce I— H S a P o ^ 5z; o •2L 1 1 o •1— » o I 1 be o 0) 13 .2. •r— » 0) •— ^ QQ o 13 •4A 13 13 o a a; I— H s a • 1 p t-5 OP 1 1 >> 1 • l-H ¥ •r- » • ^H QQ a> 1— H 0) QQ p P 1 -*3 ce 2 P 1— H 1 1 1 •^4 1— H a 1— H a 1 • I— 1 • • 1— 1 1— 1 • > l-H • > • l-H > • 1— 1 • Hi l-H • • HH • HH l-H • l-H t-H HH X l-H • • l-H > • HH l-H > (128) ^ APPENDIX VI. VERBAL PREFIXES. 1. Nga- {ngi-, nge-, ngu , ngo-), (1) Neg. Relative, juangalola, one who does not look, (2) Neg. Present, ngalola, he does not look. (3) Neg. Future, ngalola, he will not look, (4) Incomplete, nganalole, he has not yet looked, (5) Negative Past, nganalola^ he has not looked, (6) Past Conditional, angalole, if he had looked, (7) Pres. Contingent, angalolaga, he would be looking, (8) Past Contingent, angalolite, he would have looked, (9) Neg. Contingent, ngfakanalola, he would not have looked, (10) The 1st Person Sing, of :— (a) Neg.Subjunct., ngalola., lest I look, ngfasalola, I must not look, (b) Emphatic Subj., ngalole, I must look, (c) 2nd Future, tingalole, I will go and look, (d) Present Indie, ngulola, I look, (e) Habitual Present, ngusalola, I usually look. (/) Incomplete, nginindole, be/ore I looked, 2. Chi-. (1) Distant Future, tachilo^a, he will look, (2) Present Participle, achilolaga, looking, (3) Continuative, (ali) chilolite, {he is) still looking, (4) Retrospective, chilolite, since he looked, (5) Agreement with 5th Class, ■ chilolite, it [has) looked, (129) 9 M if he look. 130 A YAO GRAMMAR 3. Na- (1) Pres. Conditional, nalole, nakulola, nalolaga, ^ (2) Imperative, nalole, look I (also nale). (3) Ist Person Sing, of: — (a) Past Imperfect, nalolaga, I was looking. (b) Past Perfect, nalolite, I looked. APPENDIX VII. IDIOMS. 1. It is not proposed to attempt to give a list of the many true idioms which occur in ChiYao, and only a few of the more common are given as examples, such as: — nginingola ponyawile, / have not been there at all, nginingola ponambweni, I have not seen him at all, ngapagwa ponamputile, I have never struck him, nganimugwa mwa mundu, he is very ill, umwe mwangali umundu, you are as obstinate as a mule, iwele ya chanasa, or une juangali chilapo, I am sorry {on hearing bad news), kwana ukulu'kula, all this time ; these many days, timkole gakola, you are '* looking for trouble,'^ lose luno, up to now, hitherto, tinimpe lichakapitu, III give it him (or you), after many years (i.e. nev&r), umwejo mbepulo sya wandu, you are the sweepings of the earth, yachi une ? What do I care ? ambi papi ? I told you so I itakupagwaga patauje asyene, we shall see what hap- pens when the master returns, kuliwona uleu msingu, to get " a swelled head," kuHnonyesya ujete, to force one's company {friendship, etc.) on anybody, nale (nalole), look I (131) 132 A YAO GRAMMAR 2. In common with other Bantu languages, there are, in ChiYao, a large number of expressions which may be classed as idioms, but which are mostly used equivocally, so as to veil the meaning from anyone overhearing them. This is known as " kuwecheta chining' a^*^ and some natives are extraordinarily quick in catching the meaning, even if they have not heard the expression before. For example, I once heard a native say to another, on leaving, *' Che Ndumundu agonile m*mapanje," The word mapanje might mean the hill of that name, or "the gardens." Literally, then, this remark would mean nothing more than that a certain man had slept at the gardens, or at Mapanje, whereas mapanje is here used as a derivative of -panga (" fix a day," " agree on a course of action"), and so the meaning conveyed to the hearer was, " Come and talk over the matter with me." On another occasion, when passing some natives who were chatting together, I heard one say, '* Gagogo gagwiUr^ (literally, "those same things have fallen"). The man to whom he spoke at once lapsed into silence, and on enquiry I found that the word to which gagogo referred was mapwetechela (" tomatoes "), which, being red, indicated a European. The expression was, therefore, intended as a hint that a European was present, and discretion was-advisable. Occasionally one hears a word completely inverted (by syllables), as ndkau for ukana; it is obvious that examples of this expedient might be multiplied inde- finitely. 3. Another tjrpe of idiom is more of the nature of a proverb, and is usually derived from folklore. For example: "e/a Mchochoma jawosile mkuinila mak- walu^' (here the word nyama is understood), "Mcho- IDIOMS 133 choma's meat went bad through the mdkwalu dance." Moral against delay. Another saying is, ^^ Anamhawala wawilile galausya" the verb -wila meaning " lay the blame on an innocent person," galausya being used adverbially ; hence, " Mr. Bushbuck sufiered for the fault of another." Often used to point a moral against interference. REVISION EXERCISES. 1. Translate into English: — (1) Ngusaka wandu wajinji wakulima m'mgunda'mo. (2) Ana umwe mkuja kwapi? une nguja ku lusulo ku- koga. (3) Ana chichi chikununjila m'nyumba'muno ? Jikununjila nyama, asono wangu alimkujiteleka. (4) Ali Utuku'li litenda kupoteka. (5) Mapemba gatenda kumala njuwa ni ijuni. (6) Lelo kukusisima 'chenene, kwangali chitukuta. (7) Une ngwaula ku Chiwambo kusuma wonga. (8) Uwe tukusaka kwaula ku Mangoni ; nambo une ngengusaka. (9) Ana mkusaka yakulya? Ngwamba, ngusalya kundawipe. (10) Masimba gaku- saichila ku musi pakati chilo. (!}) Ana umwe mkuku- mbuchila yitwawechete liso^yila? Ngwamba, ngongu- manyiUla. (12) Une nguganisya kuti mkutenda melepe, ligongo mkumanyilila 'chenenepe. (13) Libweta'li ku- sitopa, ndenda kulepela kujigala. (14) Sambano une ngusaka gona, ndenda gwesela. (15) Mbatata syangu sitenda kuwola ni kupukuswa. Mkusalasya syenu mwapi? Ngusawika m'lukole, pampepe petaka. (16) Mesi gajumilile sambano pachisima'po, nipo wandu watandite kusola chine cha sambano. (17) Ana mwi- bweta'mula mtasile chichi ? Mwangali kandu. (18) Lelo kutesile bata, mbungo ngijikupuga; jichesisye ula chilo chosepe mpaka kucha. (19) Awa akusaka kumenyana none, nambo une nginimbecheta malowe gakusakala. (20) Napo pana mowa mcheche pakutyochela pa Zomba pakujs^ ku Chisyungule. (21) Ngosyo sipali papajinji, syasimale likumi. (134) EEVISION EXERCISES 135 2. Translate into ChiYao : — (1) They do not want work, they always stay in their villages. (2) But those who are used to working do not stay long at home. (3) This is very good grass, it is ex- cellent for thatching. (4) What is the matter with you ? My back hurts me. (5) I don't quite understand what you say, because I do not speak [your language] often. (6) What are you always thinking about? Nothing; I am just sitting by myself. (7) This man puzzles me; he looks like a Zomba man. No, he does not belong to Zomba, but to Mlanje. (8) Hyaenas live in this cave. (9) What are you laughing at? (10) I don't want the cassava, it is bitter. (11)1 am suffering from bronchitis, I am always coughing; I am going to ask for some medicine. I usually get ill in the rainy season. (12) Those reeds are all quite burnt up now. (13) My wife has gone to the gardens to gather some pumpkins. (14) Who has uprooted this tree? Nobody, it was blown down during the night by the wind. (15) There are only a few people, where are the rest? (16) There is water in this stream only during the rains ; there is nothing but sand in the hot weather. 3. Translate into English: — (1) Une tiiche kumangwenu kukujuga nyama. (2) Chambone, timusimane tingamkatile chiiga. (3) Une ngingokowa, tiiche sambano. (4) Ana mesi'go gatokwete ? Ngwamba, nginigatokote, gatenda kutanda. (5) Mkusaka kujuga mtela kuti m'ngVe? Jugani, pane tampe; li- ndililani, asyene mtela nganaiche. (6) Mtela'u mtaje mlisolosololi, mjigale ; nambo patimkamale mtela, mkauje nalyo. (.7) Nyumba jangu jimasile, tingone lelo.' (8) Wandu awa watasile chichi mungalala'mo ? Wata- sile any^ioi (onions) jua malonda. (9) Ana mtengo wakwe 136 A YAO GRAMMAB uli ? Mbiya sitatu lukalala lumo. Une tisume lukalala luine. (10) Namyikaga kumasikusiku, une tingagonej^. (11) Ana mikalo'jila mpukwite? Elo, mbukwite josepe. (12) Kuchele, kwende ku masengo. (13) Sambano waku- lima wawelwiche, lyuwa liichile pepenga. (14) Ana wani wamenyeneje lelo mwitala'mu? Kwalini wandu wakwe, une ngingwamanyilila. (15) Mumjigale mwana- che, mkagoneche pa chindanda. (16) Mbugale pa hema,^ jitakwinjila ula. (17) Walakwe, kwende, tukakate mi- swache. Chambone tiiche, nambo ngawale nguo jine, ngasajipapula ajino. (18) Mwanache waliji chiimile pa mlango, kujilola ula, nipo katema kakoko wajiweni ula jilirakucha. (19) Pakuuja nasimene nyumba jangu ja- jitawe, nipo msonogo mchiteleka yakulya, nambo wa masengo waliji chisyasyajilile mapupa. (20) Nipo na- chite, *•' Ngutupagona m'nyumba'muno lelo, tukasalwala; ligongo matope nganagajumule." (21) Kusowela nde kuwika, kusuka nde kulijasa. 4. Translate into ChiYao :— (1) If I had known that you were coming, I would have cooked more food. Never mind, I left after having had some food at home. (2) It has been raining ever since we arrived. (3) I don't want this cloth but that one over there ; no, that one [which you have] just tied up. (4) When they saw me on the path, I was just sitting there, doing nothing. (5) Call the children [and tell them] to come here, and yourself as well, let us go to the other side together to buy some flour. (6) My elder brother is going to Zomba, and I shall go with him to see the old lady. (7) Other people have begun to reap the maize, [so] we will also begin [to do so]. (8) I bought these beads for myself at the store of the Banian 1 Hema — tent (Swah.) BEVISION EXEBCISES 137 with whom we always deal. (9) I am going to the bush, and you may as well come with me. (10) Beckon that man to come here. (11) Bring some fresh leaves for us to sit on. The red ants are biting here. (12) Where are the others ? They have been left behind. (13) Show us the way to Chikala, I am going to see my brother. (14) Haven't the rickshaw men come yet ? Not yet, they are on their way ; they will turn up this evening. (15) Let some of you go and hurry up the rest. There is nobody here, they have gone to cut firev/ood. (16) Have they all gone to cut firewood ? No, some of them are washing clothes at the river. (17) Send those people away, they must not come here. 5. Translate into English : — (1) Tujesile kusyene, sambano tupumule. Elo, tusose uwilili wambone, wangali lyuwa. (2) Walakwe, mjendeje chenene apano miwa tijimsome. (3) Une mbulele chala changu, chilimkupoteka. Ana mbulele ni chichi ? Naku- wele petala'po. (4) Ana kumangwao kwambone ? Ngini- mbikane malowe ga kweleko ligongo natyosile kalakala, nipo indu ya kweleko ngingwimanyilila chenene. (5) Lelo tutulonjele panopano, tugone mowa gawili. (6) Ana pakutyoka akuno pakuja ku Blantyre, akugona igono ilingwa mwitala ? (7) Akugona chigono chimo ; wanga- pajenda, igono iwili. (8) Akusaka watengatenga wakuja ku Zomba. Ana walingwa ali? Makumi gawili kwisa jumo. (9) Chambone, atame, mwalembe mena gao, twape misigo chenene. (10) Mjende mkawalanje misigo'jila winji wakwe. Mbalasile josepe, jipali makumi gawili kwisa msano na jiwili. (11) Ajende Mahmadi akasose wandu wane ; awawa alindilile kuno- kuno. (12) Pataiche wane'po tajigalile pamo ligongo ngusaka kuti jijaule josepe'ji pampepe. (13) Sambano wandu'wa ajime ajile ndandanda, tuwalanje ichenene. 138 A TAO GRAMMAR Ate winji mnope. (14) WanduVa waichile kupochela malipilo. Mwasalile ajauleje, akauje malawi kundawipe, sinalipile. (15) Munanjile pasikutama ngose, ngasilole. Kwende, aga makau'ga ga ngose. Sipite mchiutuka. Elo, likumbo lyakwe ali, sipite syasijinji ; nambo sine'si mbunda, site kuwanganichila. (16) Wani wakungola- nga'ne? Ngapali akumkolanga, uwe tukuwecheta yetu. (17) Ku Blantyre mbwanda sambano sikomele ; nasiweni lijusi wajigele wandu wane. 6. Translate into ChiYao. (1) How much is this truss of calico? I don't know, I haven't asked its price yet ; were you wanting to buy it ? Yes, I wanted to buy it if I knew how much it was. (2) All right, come back in three days, I will first ask the owner. Right-oh ! I will call again on that day. Good- bye, Sir, till we meet again. (3) All the workers have run away. Have you been knocking them about ? No, they just bolted, without having been hit. (4) What do you want? I want work. What work have you done before? In a forge. There is no such work here, only bricklaying. I have never learnt that, I will go on look- ing for other work. (5) Send some workmen to go and cut four forked trees. Then some of the others may go and get limestone ; let them go to Chilwa, there is good lime there. (6) Did you cover that pot ? No, I didn't, because I couldn't find the lid. (7) Let's go home now, the sun is down. (8) Male gad-flies do not bite, but the females do. There are many varieties, some black, some speckled, and others reddish. There are, however, some big ones the name of which we don't know ; we just call them all gad-flies, though the old people know their names. (9) There is usually some rain from the South towards the end of the harvest season, but this year there was only a little. (10) It was blowing hard y ester- EEVISION EXEECISES 139 day, and the house was full of dust. (11) Look how wide the lake is, the other side is not visible. Small boats do not go there but only steamers; they go far away where we never go. (12) Has all the meat come? Yes. Take and divide it amongst all the people. (13) Here, what's-your-name, tell your sister to come and cook for me, I am hungry. She says she is coming, she is grinding flour. 7. Translate into English: — (1) Une ngukondwa pakupikana kuti walakwe ali ichenene, none ndili chiwela ni umi wangu. (2) Ana wandu wajinji'wa wakuuma kwapi ? Akuuma ku Mlanje, aiche kujigala mbeju syetonji. (3) Umwe, mlindilile akuno mpaka nimsiman'e ; mkisimjendajenda kuja kwine. Ana timkauje katema chi ? Tingauje kuli kuswele. Jendani, timusimane. (4) Liwangali lya kalakala, ana mwaulele chaka chi? Jipite miesijiwili. (5) Tindime matuto, mbande mbeju syangu. Namyaka kwende tukalamuche, tulime migunda jamikulungwa ; ligongo tutenda kulaga najo sala mowa gosepe. (6) Wani waku- saka kwinjila lina lya mchimwene ? Nambo tutumjinji- sye mwipwagwao juamkulungwa. Kwende ku Lukumbi tukawechete yeleyo. (7) Atujasime luulo, tukatechele mesi. Ajigale alu, nambo auje nalo chitema. (8) Une ndile nyuchi lelo, nasisimene mu mtela'mo. Ana sya- ngaluma ? Kuluma kusyene, hgongo ndesileje kupimilila. (9) 'Mwe mwasalile wakugomba lulusilo, aleche, hgongo akutenda lisegwe. (10) Achimwene Che Bakah ! Une ! Ana tajaule kwimajima lelo ? Elo, njiteje nyaule kwalola alamu. Alole nambo, najaulaga kwiwanda kwa mwenye. akalunguchisye kuti akwegwao tiwasimane malawi ku- ndawi. (11) Chambone, tiniwasalile. Nowe sambano tutakwawonaga pakuja mauja. Elo, ambuje, kwende tusindichisye. 140 A TAO GBAMMAB 8. Translate into English: — Pakutanda mgunda wa sambano, manyasi ni luitela wakukata nekocha ; nipo maganga gosepe wakulokotanya nekuunjikanya ikwekwe. Pakumala kuchochola iyoyo, wakusalindila ula jandanda, akapande mbeju, nipo chuku chose wakulima luwila nekuunga matuto. Pati imanga ikomele, wakugowola, nekujigalila mungalala kuja ku ngokwe. Pati wakusaka kwilya imanga^o, wakwiwasa ku ngo- kwe, nekuputukula, isonde nipo wakwamba kwasa. Soni wakutola^ imanga 'yo kuja nayo kwituli, nekupomola ni mesi panandi; ali wamasile kupomola'mo, wakutegula nekutaga m'lukalala. Sambano wakusapula panandi pa- nandi nekuwika m'lupeta, kuti apete nekutyosya masete gakwe ; pati wamasile kupeta msokolo, wakutaga mluka- lala mwangali kandu, kuti utame msokolope wangali masete. Soni nawa imanga ili chiwela masete panandi, wakuwilisya soni kutwa kawili, kuti gatyoche masete gosepe. Mkumala kupomola 'mo, nipo wakutola mesi, kuteleka pa moto kuti gakole mtukuta panandi, nekute- gula kutaga imanga yosepe'yo kuloweka kuti ijolowe. Mkolowa'mo nipo wakuchuula kuwika mlupeta ; ili igo- nile lyuwa limo namose mowa gawili, nekuja nayo ku lusulo kukusuka. Pakuuja nawo, wakuwika pachanya pa msakasa kuti mlowe'wo ulagale, nekuuja nawo ku matuli kukutimbula ni mwisi. Ali wamasile kutimbula nipo wakutegulila m'lupeta nekusenyenda ; pakusenye- nda, lusenga wakuwika m^chiselo, ni utandi wakutaga m'chiselo chine. Pakumala kusenyenda soni wakutola lusenga'lo kuwika mwituh kutwa soni; nipo wakutola utandi' wo, kwanika kuti ujumule. Nakusaka kuteleka ugali, wakutanda kusuka chulugo, kutyosa makokoto, nekutaga mesi kuwika pa mawiga. 'Kanigatokote wakutola utandi panandi, kutaga mu mgao, EEVISION EXEECISES 141 kuunya, nekologanya, kuti usungunukuche, nekutaga m'chulugo'mo. Pati chipile, wakupungula mesi, kuwika mu mbale, nekutola utandi kunyunya, nekuugaga pa- nandi panandi mpaka kulimba ; nekongaga mesi panandi kuti uujiche ichenene. Mkumala kuuga'mo, wakutegula kuwika pasi chulugo'cho, nekupakulila ugaliVo, neku- wika mu mbale, alye. KEY TO EXERCISES. Exercise 1 (page 9). — Ndesile, kundeka, ngusosa, nyaule, tinjilola, akumbona, mbweni, ndesile, nguku, ngwi, kumbona, kambulaga. Exercise 2 (page 9).— Aleche, naiche, ajauleje, mtaje, talaje, ndeleche, nduchile, mbaleje. Exercise 3 (page 10).— Wiche or uwiche, yome, yuku, wonandi, yekulangwa, sulo, sosile, lyesito, jangalungwa, kwisa, kwasima, petala, kwitinji, lyejela. Exercise 4 (page 10).— Nkwete, kujina, yaipiliyu, lya lisimba, nkonji, lya likoka, nwete, npatile, nsichi, tinchiika, nkawone, tinimwone, tinwone, kujinjila, nkulo^a, kujimba, njendege, kujimuka, ntenda, ku likonde, mu lipenu, kujanga, syasinandi. Exercise 5 (page 25).— The words of the people ; the stranger's child ; the chief's village ; the sister's knives ; the youth's bananas ; the neighbour's eggs ; a lion's skin ; reeds for mats ; a fathom of rope ; the father's brother-in-law ; the European's tobacco ; needles from the Banyan's ; a bunch of bananas from the gardens ; mother's arm. Exercise 6 (page 25). — Mkono wa mwanache, mikono ja wanache ; mkalo wa sona, mikalo ja sona ; mchiga wa mtela, michiga ja mitela ; mwanache jwa Mmwenye, wanache wa Amwenye ; mchimwene jua musi, aimwene wa misi ; liwata lya mlendo, mawata ga achalendo ; mgoji wa mtela, migoji ja mitela ; lilowe lya Msungu, malowe ga Wasungu ; mlasi wa kwitiwi, milasi ja ku matiwi ; mseu wa ku musi kwa mchi- mwene, miseu ja ku misi kwa aimwene ; liganga lya litala, maganga ga matala; mkalo wa kwa mmwenye, mikalo ja kwa amwenye ; lisegwe lya mwanache, masegwe ga wanache ; mesi ga mlendo, mesi ga achalendo ; mate ga lilowe, mate ga malowe ; liwago lya atati, mawago ga achatati. (142) KET TO EXERCISES 143 Exercise 7 (page 27).— Many people ; green reeds ; dry trees ; a living root ; the whole village ; all the villages ; large knives ; good tobacco ; useless youths ; a woman ; a man ; white ducks ; many hoes ; more bamboo ; good palm leaves ; a long road ; any path ; many reeds ; all the eggs ; short rope ; much water ; heavy stones ; a bad man ; black soil ; a native ; a heavy tree ; an old person. Exercise 8 (page 28).— (Wandu) wapiliyu; maganga ga- maswela ; mkwamba wa mgoji wambone ; mitela jamileu ; lipende lyejumu ; juamkongwe juamkoto ; musi wokulungwa ; mesi gane ; wandu wachekulu wajinji ; mkalo wamtega ; milasi jamileu ; mlasa wowisi wa migoji ; migwalangwa jine ja mwi- penu ; musi wonandi ; michiga jamijipi ; wajinga wamtega wosepe ; aimwene wambone ; alumbu wajinji ; meno ga- makulungwa; wanache wana wose ; achisingano ali wose ; Msungu juamleu ; lyuwa lyosepe ; masengo gamajinji ; liwata lyamkambako ; juamlume ; masimba gamkolo gosepe ; liwata lyamkolo lyepiliyu ; sona juamjumu ; Wasungu wachekulu wosepe ; litala lili lyose. Exercise 9 (page 34). — Black monkeys ; the whole roof ; a stone house ; much maize ; the youth's hat ; a good path ; a small box ; heavy hoes ; lying words (lies) ; a bad name ; a dry skin ; cold water ; hot water ; short ropes ; much wisdom ; small ants ; green firewood ; white hair ; a heavy net ; a long bridge ; useless sleeping mats ; much fierceness ; all the por- ridge ; more mad ; another small stream ; many small wounds ; a little white patch ; heavy little boxes. Exercise 10 (page 36). — Chipanje chachijinji ; ichili yeleu ; chipewa chachikulungwa ; yaka yejinji ; matala gamanandi ; lichika lya mwipenu ; malowe gambone ; liwata lyamkambako lyeswela ; liu lyejinji ; matete gamawisi ; lisimba lyamka- mbako ; mesi gambone ; mate gamajinji ; ngalala syenandi ; lukonji lua lusambo ; saso syasijumu ; umbo gyasileu sya Msungu ; ulalo wa machili ; ugali wosisisi ; ukana wambone ; matope gosepe ; upile wine ; kanyumba ; tuupa ; tukalala. Exercise 11 (page 43). — I am looking for ; I am going ; 1 am coming ; he does ; they enter ; you speak ; I tell him (or you) ; he is teaching mo; we wear them ; they suppose ; let him look ; 144 A YAO GRAMMAR let me look ; let me call ; let him call me ; let him stand ; you must wash ; let him pass ; I will lie ; he will wear ; I will' go away ; I will call him ; I will bathe ; we will count ; I will come ; they will enter ; I shall want ; I have gone ; I have spoken ; I have looked ; I am tired ; he has gone away ; we have worn ; they have got up ; they sat ; I have taught him ; he has told you {or him) ; they have washed them ; I am tired ; I have built it ; 1 called you ; we took ofiE (clothes) ; he saw ; we called him {or you) ; I wanted them ; we did it ; go and look ; go and wash ; go and call him ; let them go on searching ; you Daay go ; go ; take ; look ; come ; good-bye (lit remain) ; go on wearing ; good-bye. Exercise 12 (page 43).— Nguwona ; ngwisa ; wakwima ; tukugona ; ngwaula ; ngwasaka ; ngusaka kumbona ; ngwaula kumbilanga ; akulijiganya ChiYao ; alole ; asigale ; mjaule ; wagone ; nyimuche ; mukalembe ; akasichape.; mkalole ; ngambilanje ; tasigale ; tinijijigale ; tutuiche ; tajaule ; timsale ; ndolite ; aiche ; mbesile ; walijigenye ; lipite ; syajinjile ; twa- temi ; nawechete ; najawile ; twajosile ; ambilasile ; twasiweni ; yatyosile ; ajityosye mbale ; agalembe ; mkambilanje ; akajoje , mwiche mtame ; najime. Exercise 13 (page 48).— (1) Where are you going? I am going to the stream to bathe. (2) That is a very good house. Yes, it is good, but that one (over there) is a good one also. (3) 1 want to wash my clothes. All right, but you must wash the others belonging to the European also. (4) This man wants work. If he has a good " character," I will write him on. (5) Come here and let me look at your " character." No, sir, his " character " is bad ; he is a good-for-nothing, this one. That will do, he may go. (6) 1 want to see your dog. Which one ? The black one, I have heard it is a very good one. And 1 (also) have a dog, a small one though. (7) Here, you ! what do you want ? 1 came to see you. All right, you have seen me ; what now ? Am 1 to go ? Yes, go. (8) I wanted some people to carry these mats, but they have all gone to their gardens. Go to the chiefs village, and tell him that I want some boys to carry them. Yes, I will go. Exercise 14 (page 49).— (1) Naweni ng'ombe syenu mu mgunda mwangu. Sityosile sambano. (2) Mundu'ju mjinga. KEY TO EXEECISES 145 Akwisa akuno mowa gosepe. Akusaka chichi ? Kwalini. (3) Mjigale lukalala alu. Amsalile juine alujigale, none mbesile. Naga msakaliche, mtame akuno, nambo tinimsalile Msungu. (4) M'mwenye'ju juangalumbana. Akusaka ngachape nguo syakwe, nambo nguwona kuti akambilanje mchanda juakwe, akasichape. (6) Ana mkutenda chichi kweleko? Ngulemba chikalata kwa alumbu wangu. (6) Munyimusye une pepenga. Ngusaka kwimuka ngajoje ku lusulo. Chambone, tinimjimusye. (7) Mbikene kuti mkutyoka. Elo, ngwaula ngamlole alamu. (8) Wandu awa wajigele mikeka, mjilole. Mwasalile apite. Mikeka'ji jamtega, jaminandi. Ajityosye. Exercise 15 (page 52). — I do not hear; he is not coming; we are not bathing; he does not pass; you must not enter; do not call ; I must not remain ; we must not stand ; don't speak ; don't write ; don't think ; don't bathe ; I will not go ; he will not get up ; you will not say ; we will not tell ; he was not tired ; I did not get up ; we did not go away ; you did not take away ; disobedient people; children who are learning; youths who carry ; game which does not lie down. ExEECiSE 16 (page 63). — Ngongujiganya; ngakuwecheta ; ngetukuwona; ngimkupikana ; ngakuika; ngasawona; akasa- wecheta; mkawecheta; tukajaula; mkasajaula; nginyoga; ngasaka; ngutujaula; ngimsalila; ngawawecheta ; hgani- nganisya; nganapikana; nganitujaula; nganawaika; mchanda juakuwalangaga ; nyama syakupitaga; juamkongwe juangajima; wandu wangaika. Exercise 17 (page 54). — (1) Bring the meal; the European is calling for something to eat. All right, I will bring it. (2) Why are you sitting there ? Are you not afraid ? What should I be afraid of ? (3) Don't you know that the European has a big dog? No, I did not know, I will get off now. Oh ! I thought I should frighten you. (4) Where have the people gone ? They are sitting outside. I want them to push the rickshaw, and take me to Zomba. (5) All right, I will call them. One man has not come, but his younger brother told me that he has gone to see his mother. (6) This is a dreadful place, there are many mosquitoes. I have not slept at all. I will go and sleep else- where. (7) Where will you go ? 1 don't know. Because across 10 146 A TAO GRAMMAR (the stream) I saw a large number of flies. Yes, the reason of that is the chiefs cattle. (8) What do you eat here ? Plenty (of different things), maize and millet porridge, rice, fruit, — ^we live very well. (9) But there is no fish here. No, there is none, but (there is plenty) at the Lake. So I shall go some day to my elder brother's and look for some. (10) Who told you you might drink that water ? Why do you frighten me ? I was thirsty, I did not drink your water on purpose, I supposed that it was for anybody. Exercise 18 (page 55). — (1) Mkutila chichi ? najogwepe Msungu. Mbikene kuti jua ukali mnope. (2) Amsalile'mwe wani kuti jua ukali ? Wandu wa pa musi pasyeto'pala wasalile une. Unami, juambone ajo. (3) Mtela'u wosito mnope, nge- tupakombola kuujigala. Wane ante, wane atute, tapakombole iyoyo. (4) Autuche akajigale lijela. Timsimane line pachanya pebweta lyekulungwa m'nyumba mwangu. Nyumba'jila jili pesi ni jangu.^ (5) Ngogopa kwinjila m'nyumba mwenu. Chambone, mjime pasa, mwasalile wakutama mkati kuti mku- saka lijela lyangu. (6) Mbiche chitela'cho pasi, mwiche akuno. Ana chichi sambano ? Tamani pasi, ngusaka kumsalila chindu. (7) Ana mkupikana ChiYao? Ngwamba, ngongupakombola kuchiwecheta, nambo ngulijiganya. (8) Aikumjiganya'mwe wani? Capitao ajo juakwisa akuno mowa gosepe. Nganini- mbona. Exercise 19 (page 60).— (1) He has not passed yet ; I have not gone yet; we have not seen them yet; you have not yet done ; I have not called them yet. (2) Before he spoke ; before we had written ; before I told ; before I told him ; before you taught ; before they bathed. (3) Myself ; this (house) ; these (dogs) ; those (hoes) ; that (hoe) ; this same (house) ; these same (stones) ; that same (hoe) ; that same (place) ; that same (place) ; those same (hoes) ; this (hoe) here ; these (hoes) here ; these (dogs) here. (4) That same one; this same place here; that same place there ; this one here. Exercise 20 (page 61). — (1) Nginindye ; nganasakaliche ; nganawajimuche; nganituwale. (2) Wakanawatile ; mkana- mbilanje; tukanatujaule ; sikanasipite ; jikanajijinjile. (3) * See page 71. KEY TO BXEECISES 147 Twachimsyene ; jueleju ; jwelejo ; syelesi ; gelego ; lyelelyo. (4) Matete agaga ; atati asyene ; ng'ombe jijojo ; chuku chisyene ; mundu ajuno ; majela agano. (5) Silasila ; mwemuno ; kwekula ; syesino. Exercise 21 (page 62). — (1) Is his father dead? Yes, he died before the Europeans came. Who succeeded? The younger brother of Juma. (2) I want to send a man to take this letter to the European. What letter ? That one which is on the table. (3) All right, but the people have gone to draw water. Have they all gone ? One has gone to (get) firewood, and another has not come yet. Send one belonging to your home. (4) Where is your knife ? It is lost. You have no luck ; where did you lose it ? On the other side (of the hill) there at my elder brother's. (5) I think that Yao is a difficult language, because the people do not speak clearly, and I cannot understand what they say. (6) But you are learning quickly, you will soon be able to understand well. (7) Where are the loads (carriers) ? They are in front. I saw them sitting down. Did you see them all ? I did not count them, but I don't think that any are behind, because they dread the heat ; they will walk quickly. (8) I want them to put up the tent before we arrive, because I am tired, and I want to have a bath. (9) What do you mean by acting like this ? Why do you not finish your work nicely like this man ? Do you think I shall give you the same money ? Exercise 22 (page 62). — (1) Ana m'masile masengo'go? Masengo'chi ? Namsalile mkateche mesi ku lusulo, mgataje pa mbeju mumgunda. (2) Nginimbikana. Tiniwawilanje wa masengo sambano. Chambone, nambo mkamalisye chitema, ligongo ngusaka mkatende chindu chine panyuma pakwe. (3) Mpeleche chikalata'chi kwa M'mwenye. Muutuche, ligongo ngusaka nguo'jo pangakawa. Nambo kwa M'mwenye kwaku- talika. Elo, ngamanyilila. Ajendeje. (4) Ana mundu'jo apite ? Ngwamba, nganajaule. Namsalile akatyoche, une nginindye. Elo, nambo akuti apesile. Amsalile ajaule ku- mangwao. (5) Ana wandu nganamale kutawa nyumba jao? Elo, wajawile kukujigala matete. (6) Asyene musi ali kwapi ? Atisile kwikonde. Ligongo chichi akutenda yati'ii ? Kwalini, ngupela kuti akogopa. (7) Masengo'go nganagamale, mkalole 148 A TAO GEAMMAR mwasyene. (8) Mkasajasa matete 'gala. Matete gapi ? Ge- gano. Ngugasaka nambo. (9) Chichi mkusaka kutenda nago ? Tinimpe alumbu. Chambone jigalagani. Exercise 23 (page 68).— (1) 3 lines ; 9 bags ; 7 sheep ; 11 hoes ; 21 people ; 46 shillings. (2) 100 days ; 128 baskets ; 303 trees ; 1087 bricks. (3) I saw him only 3 times ; he often comes ; I will return on 5th day ; write on all the people except the third one ; don't kill that fowl, it is the last one. (4) I came to your house last night, but you had gone somewhere else. What did you want ? I wanted to borrow a hoe. (5) Is your family ac- customed to go into a house at night just to borrow a hoe ? (6) No, but I remembered it on the way, and I wanted to go to work with it early in the morning. I don't think you are speaking the truth. (7) This rope is too short. Do you want some more ? Yes, go and get 3 fathoms. How many ? I did not quite hear. Only three. (8) Go and kill the goat, the black one ; a visitor is coming. When will he come ? This evening. (9) I will go to my young brother's to-morrow, and borrow some money. Will he agree ? I think so, because he has got a great deal, from his work. Exercise 24 (page 68). — (1) Majumba gawili ; ngondolo msano na jimo ; wandu msano na watatu ; mbwa likumi kwisa msano ; mowa makumi gawili kwisa limo ; mbiya makumi gatatu kwisa msano na siwili. (2) Matete makumi msano na limo kwisa limo ; milasi makumi msano na gatatu kwisa msano na umo ; mikwamba makumi msano na mcheche kwisa mcheche ; wandu lichila kwisa msano na jumo ; nguku lichila kwisa makumi gawili kwisa msano ; mandanda machila gatatu kwisa makumi msano na gawili kwisa gawili ; malowe machila likumi kwisa limo. (3) Akwisa akuno kamokamope ; najawile kweleko kacheche mwesi'uno ; mwesi auno wa chi ? Wajitatu. Timjise lyuwa'chi ? Lya kakumi. Lupiya Iwaku- tanda. (4) Kwende, tujaule kumsika lelo. Ngwamba, ngongu- pakombola kuja musi, nambo tinyaule ligulo'lino. (5) Mwa- weni wandu walingwa lijusi'lila ? Kwapi ? Petumbi'pala. Kwalini, mwanda. Walingwa nambo ; makumi gatatu, machila gatatu, uli ? Wapundile machila msano. Elo, winji mnope. (6) Ana mkukumbuchila kuti mwajasime mbiya siwili kwa- ngune ? Ngwamba, lyuwa'chi ? Lijusi, ku msika'ko. Mwasa- KEY TO EXEECISES 149 sile kuti ngamkumbusye *mwe. Oh, E-e ! mjise kumangwetu, nimpe. (7) Ana mkumanyilila kutawa nyumba mpela ajiji ? Elo, tusyowelele kusitawa iyoyo kumangwetu. Syambone mnope. Kupunda. Exercise 25 (page 75). — I shall be ; they have been ; he is searching ; they were sending ; there are cattle (in there) ; no- body has sent anything ; strangers who saw ; sheep which have gone in ; we who have spoken ; the youths who passed ; a hoe which I have ; we who are strangers ; the gun which you carried ; people whom we called ; bricks which you took away ; when he spoke ; when (or where) you went away ; where you have written ; where they slept ; that was why I said ; where the earth has fallen ; clothes which they do not wear ; things which you do not understand ; things which you have not brought ; any man who has not learnt ; maize which we do not want; children who did not obey ; clothes which you have not washed. Exercise 26 (page 76). — Tuwele ; awe; ndilimkulijiganya; twapitaga; ngati welewo; ana ngwena nganisipagwa {or nga- nisimugwa) m'lusulo ? Ngapagwa juasiweni ; liwago liligwile Uila ; malowe gambechete'go ; mchanda juakuwalangaga ; nyama syakupitaga'sila ; wakongwe wangakana; achachanda umwa- wilasile ; achachanda uwambilasile'mwe'wala ; wandu wangaika pingwawilanga ; nguo jijaiche'jo ; wanache uwajosile ; umwejo umwakwete majela ; ipula inaisachile ; pimkusala ; paakulola ; potwagonile'pala ; nde ponamsachile'mwe ; majela gatukakuga- saka {or gangasaka uwe) ; malowe gatukanagapikana {or gatuka- napikana uwe) ; aimwene wakanaika. Exercise 27 (page 77).— (1) What are you thinking about? Nothing. Nonsense, nobody sits like that without thinking about something. (2) I was thinking how poor I am. Keally I What do you lack ? Lots of things, I have no clothes, nothing. (3) Nobody lacks everything unless on purpose. Explain. A man lacks a thing because he has no money, is that so? (4) Yes. Well, he lacks money because he does not work. Quite so. Very well then, go and work like we do. (5) Go and call Che Juma (and tell him to) bring my gun; I am going shooting. Which gun will you take? The, rifle and the shot-gun also. (6) Game ! Where ? There, it is lying down ; shoot quickly 150 A YAO GEAMMAB before it hears us. You have missed, have another shot, it has not run away yet. Good, you hit it this time. (7) Where is your wife ? She has gone down to see her mother. When were you married ? Some days ago ; I married Che Ali*s sister. (8) You are lucky, he is rich. Very, but that was not why I married his sister. (9) I did not say you did. No, but I thought that was what you meant. Exercise 28 (page 78). — (1) Mkasajinjila m'nyumba mwangu iyoyo. Soyiye, bwana, naliwalile. (2) Ana lisegwe kusa'ko mate gakwe chichi? Wapali wandu wajinji waiche asume imanga. (3) Mwasalile auje malawi, ngati ligulo sambano? Akuti waje- sile mwipululupe, nipo sala j'wakwete. (4) Ajasime yakulya ; ngongupakombola kwapa chindu ligulo'lino. Chambone, nambo talaje. (5) Mwasomile nyama'jo kwapi? Pa lukongolo luaku- mchiji. Ana mwajiuleje panyuma pakwe? (6) Elo, nagombile katatu; chipolopolo chakutanda chajisomile, soni nakulwisye, nipo cha katatu chajiuleje. (7) Mgopole lukonji'lu. Ngapagwa juakupakombola kulugopola, mundu atawile chilumbo chakuno- nopa. (8) Ana wani wamsalile mjase mbale'jo? Ngapagwa, nambo jakasiche, nipo mbesile kuti jangali masengo sambano. (9) Tujende litala'chi ? Kumkuli mwipululupe ; tujaule kwi- wanda tukalole akulu wenu. Exercise 29 (page 82). — (1) If he bathe ; if I remember ; if you want ; if they run away. (2) If I had known ; if he had lost ; if it were lost ; if they finish. (3) If we were disobedient {or, if we disobey) ; if it had not finished ; had I not understood. (4) We should see ; you would have been looking ; I should sup- pose ; he would have been bringing ; you would have seen. (5) I should have given you ; we should have been near ; he would have lost ; they would not have finished ; I would not have killed it ; you would not have missed. (6) I should not have forgotten ; a poor man ; an iron box. Exercise 30 (page 83). — (1) Nimjise ; natuwone ; nakakulusye nimkalombele. (2) Mungamanyilile ; ningaliwone ; jingaiche angajisume. (3) Ningawejuangasoya; mungawe wangaliwalila tungawe wakusichila ; ula jingawe jangaika. (4) Ningatumaga mungalijimkumalisya; ^angalijimkupanganya. (5) Angaliwa- lile ; ningakumbuchile ; mungauwile ; gangajasiche. (6) Ngu- KEY TO EXEECISES 151 kunutuleka ; ngingininimpa ; ngikinichinonopa. (7) (Mundu) juakusichila ; nguo jajimale ; mpando wa mtela ; mbiya sya- sijasiche. Exercise 31 (page 84). — (1) If I had known that you were coming I would have waited for you. It does not matter; it's my own fault, because I did not send anybody to let you know. (2) Tell them to wait outside, I will come soon. Have they brought any fowls ? Yes, they have brought eleven. (3) How did they carry them ? Tied to a stick. Have I not always said that they must not carry them like that ? Why don't they mak^ a proper basket to put them in ? (4) I don't know, it's their look- out, not mine. Are you not the capitao ? It is your job to stop people doing this sort of thing. (5) Yes, sir, I forgot. I have no other excuse. All right, I shall forget the amount of your wages when I pay you your money and give you only five shil- lings. But — . That will do ; you may go. (6) Have the cattle gone into the kraal yet ? No, not yet ; there are too many now owing to those which came to-day. (7) There is not room for them all ? No, there really is n't. All right, for to-day put all the oxen in the kraal, the old ones as well as those which came to-day. (8) You understand ? Yes. Then let the sheep go into the old house, and you must watch there all night, with a gun. If a leopard comes you must kill it. (9) To-morrow we will send people to fetch some trees, and we will build another kraal for the sheep. All right, sir, I understand. Exercise 32 (page 85). — (1) Mungaiche katasi, munga- mbweni mpwenu. Ningaiche akuno katasipe, ningawe juanga- liwalila mkeka Wangu ; naujilile ngautole. (2) Ana wosepe ali chiwela kumangwetu? Elo chiwelape. Kwalini kwekuno? Ausile Che Bula. (3) E-e ! nguwona kuti akusile sambano ? Elo, akusechelela pakuti ausile. Wapangenye masengo ku Halale yaka iwili, nipo akusichila. (4) Tungamanyilile kuti mwasachile wa masengo, tungaiche katasi. Ligongo chichi nganimutulindilile uwe ? (5) Nakusiulaga nguku syenu chisui, mukanamale kutawa chitundu chao, ngakanimsechelela. (6) Elo, ngulindilila matete gakwe, chemwali ajile kukugatola. Nakwitichisya umwe, tinisileche m'nyumba mwenu'muno chilo. (7) Kwangali liuto kwakusiwika, Kwangali chindu, kwa lelo 152 A TAO GRAMMAR tingambe kusileka m'chiteletele mwao. (8) Wakwisa kulya akuno Wasungu walingwa? Mcheche. Nguwona kuti yakulya ina- ndwipe. (9) Mkaulaje nguku jine, soni mukatole chitini cha isogosi. (10) Mkutwichila katundu'jo ligongo chichi ? Mbesile kuti tukwaula sambano. Mtule soni, mwalindilile wane. Exercise 33 (page 89). — He will come ; I will go and wait ; I must go ; he must pass (sometime) ; we must go and pay ; since I (he, you, etc.) came ; since I began work ; he is still asleep ; I was still waiting for you ; they were still sitting ; we are merely searching ; I only told him ; just give him ; although you are many, I am not afraid of you ; although I don't really want it, I will buy it ; will you be coming back ? " Not likely I " Exercise 34 (page 89).— Tachilipa ; tutukateche mesi ; si- mchiuja ; takatule akatundu wao ; chitulolele ; chitolele ; ali chikulile ; tuli chisachile ; nagambile kumbilanga'mwe ; tu- kwamba kulola ; wagambile koga ; nimchiujilila'muno, ngi- msimana ; nakatulipe'muno, tachilipa ; ninjisosa'muno, ngani- nichisimana. Exercise 35 (page 91).— (1) Where has what's-his-name gone to ? Who ? I have forgotten his name ? What's-his-name — , the chap who is always gadding about. (2) I don't know him. Oh ! you know him quite well ; what's-his-name, the man who wejit with you to Zomba. (3) Oh ! Che Juma ! Yes, that's the fellow ; where is he ? I saw him a little time ago at the mar- ket. What was he doing ? (4) Nothing, he was just talking to the people. Do you think he is still there ? Perhaps, that lot are always on the move, sometimes they just walk about, some- times they stay there for some time. (6) That chap is a bit of a puzzle, he always dresses as if he were well-off, but he never does any work. (6) Shall I call him ? Yes, but you must hurry up, because you haven't started cooking lunch yet, and I am hungry now. (7) See that he" accompanies you when you come back. Yes, I know, I will bring him soon. (8) We have been here for some time now, we will get on with our journey to- morrow. Right ! Let us get off early in the morning though, because it is v6ry hot during the day. (9) The carriers will suffer from the heat. Yes, but we are only going to Chiwalo's, it is not far. KEY TO EXBBCISES 153 Exercise 36 (page 91). — (1) Nyamba jangu jagwile chilo cha lelo. Eti ? EIo, sambano sinjitawa jine ; kwangali chindu nambo, jikawile. (2) Takatande jine lyuwa chi ? Naiche akuno n'angane na mundu, ajinjile masengo gangu. (3) Gaku- tawa nyumba'jo ? Elo, ambi uli ? None ngongupakombola, nambo nguwona kuti Chenyono — , Bula, tajitichisye ligongo jualakwe akusosa masengo. (4) Mwanja'wo ali kwa' ? Ajile kwimajima, nambo tauje pangakawa. A jo ! akwisa sambano. (6) Amlanjile. We mwanja'wo juakupechesya wakongwe 'wo. Yambone, tingawechete najo. (6) Walakwe ! Ana mkusaka masengo ? Masengo gachi ? Gakutawa nyumba. Elo ; nyumba jacheni nambo ? Ugwi ! nyumba jangu. (7) Ana umweji juakupakombola kulemba wandu apanganye masengo ga msoko ? Ngwamba, nambo Msungu juangu tachimlemba'mwe masengo gakwe, mulipe mbiya mehechepe. (8) Natende yeleyo, yam- bone tingatawe nyumba jenu. Kwende tujaule kwa Msungu, amlembe lelo, mukatande masengo kundawi kwakwe pa lyuwa lya kulemba. Kwende. (9) Bwana, ngusaka mundu'ju akata- we nyumba jangu ku musi. Elo, mbikene, ambi uli ? Amlembe mpela masengo genu, ligongo une juangapakombola kwaula ku musi ngatende yeleyo namsyene, pakuti boi juao. Chambone, tinimlembe. Exercise 37 (page 96).— (1) To kill for, or with ; to run to, for, or with ; to draw (water) with, or for ; to wait for. (2) To forbid ; to cause to fall ; to cause to run ; to drive away ; to show. (3) To think hard ; to send frequently ; to ask repeat- edly ; to make carefully. (4) To be for sale ; to be wounded ; to be fired ; to set upright ; to be tie-able ; to be audible. (6) He had only just got up. (6) Che Nampanda who was also known as Che Msamati. Exercise 38 (page 96).— (1) Kujigalila ; kusomela ; kwendela kutawila. (2) Kutamika ; kujesya ; kusimosya ; kusakalisya kupikanichisya. (3) Kukulusika ; kukomboleka ; kwasimika kuchapika ; kugopoka ; kwiwika. (4) Nyumba janatawape naliji juanaichilape. Exercise 39 (page 97). — (1) There was once a man who went out shooting ; he killed a buck, and made up (the meat into) a bundle. His path lay along a watershed where there was no 154 A TAO GBAMMAB water, and he was thirsty. He put down his load on the path to go and look for some water and he found it in plenty. Before he had taken a drink, he saw a lot of fish swimming about in the water, and he said, "I will go and get some fish-poison and catch these fish." So went off looking for fish -poison and brought some and put it into the water. He noticed then that the fish were floating on the surface, and he bethought himself, "I will go and get my bundle (of meat), and put it here, so that I can catch these fish at my leisure." So he went to fetch it. (When he got) there, he found that someone had stolen his bundle, and he went in pursuit along the path. He did not find (the man) who had taken it. He came running back to catch the fish, and he found that they had vomited the poison, and were swimming deep down (out of his reach)i Then he complained bitterly, saying, " Somebody has stolen my meat, and I have caught no fish. If 1 had had a drink and gone on, nobody would have stolen my meat. I must not act like this another time." The man went home with empty hands. Exercise 40 (page 98). — (1) MwanjaVo juakutama kweleko, ambele nguo ja lulele, nipo une nginingola kandu kakumpa mundu'ju. (2) Chonde, wakamulile lupiya, anyasime! Tinji- wapa luangu. (3) Nowe nganatukola, tulasile mpela umweji. Ambi tindende uli ? Pakuti mundu'ju akutyoka sambano. (4) Mumsalile kuti akauje pakumala mwesi. Chambone, tini- msalile, ajauleje. (5) Namyaka* jaiche ula panandi. Chaliji chuku chambone mwacheso namuno mwachejusi ; ngetupako- mbola kulolela chuku chambone yaka yose. (6) Elo, pane pa chaka chuku ngachikawa iyoyo. Mkasateleka ukana wojinji, basi. (7) Mkawile chichi ? Nginimpakombola komboka lusulo ku chiko, nipo najawile kwa CheMwanyama, ngajasime wato. (8) Nguo jenu jipapwiche. Elo ninjile nyasime jine nambo kulepela. Mkujugajuga mwejo mowa gosepe, nguwona mpela mwaiche akuno kukusosa chakulokota. (9) Ana mpela ngusaka kwi wa ? Mkwalusya'ne ligongo chichi ? Kwalini, nambo ngo- ngusyowekana ni wakujugajuga wangakamula masengo, mpela wangali soni. (10) Lelo chitukuta mnope, chilp nalepele gona. Elo, sambano chitandite chau. Exercise 41 (page 104).— (1) Let us walk together ; they fought ; we knew each other well. (2) Take (it) down j don't open (it) ; KEY TO EXEECISES 155 we will unwind (it). (3) Why are you so conceited? I built that house for myself ; we brought that for our own use. (4) Go to (the place) where you saw it ; go and put it back where you found it. (5) I pursued them in the direction in which they had fled ; where you are standing is where I planted some seeds. Exercise 42 (page 104). — (1) Nganatuwonegana ; atamane pamo ; mkupikangana mowa gosepe. (2) Tutulumbukule ; mkajanukule nguo'sila ; mtyosye chimbonga'cho. Chapi ? Che- chila chakwegamila kwipupa; ugulani pa mlango. (3) Nalijo- teleje moto; mkajima sai, mulijinamukule; nilitelechele yakulya'yo namsyene. (4) Ana mkumanyilila kwajinjilile Che Nyono? Wajile ku musi'kula kumwagasumile magombo'kula ; wausile ku musi kwapagwile'ko ; msose mwisimbo 'mo m'mwag- wile'mo. Exercise 43 (page 105).— (1) "The *ngwime' does not run about during the rains, but during the dry season. When the rains commence, they go into their holes, and shut themselves up in there till the dry season, fast asleep all the time. (Then) they begin to go round picking up the food which is left in the gardens after the harvest. They go (into the gardens) there, pick up the food, and store it in their holes." " I have never seen what an *ngwime' looks like." "If you want to know (what) it (is like), come along and we will go to the garden together; I set two traps there yesterday. Perhaps we shall find (some) caught." "I should like to go with you." Then they both went together, and when they got there they found that both traps had gone off, and two " ngwime " had been caught. Then he pointed and said, " Look, these are those * ngwime' (about which we were speaking)." The other said, " Now I know them." Exercise 44 (page 106). — (1) Nguwona kuti ula jikwisa, mbugale pa mlango'po, nekwanukula nguo'sila. (2) Ana tusi- wiche papi, ligongo nganisijumule ? Msajiche pebweta'pala. (3) Pomkuwechetana ni Msungu, mkasajegamila pa mlango iyoyo. (4) Ana mbambe nyali sambano? Elo, soni mkolesye moto ' kuti nyoteje. (5) Wanache wakung'andana pamo kusa'ko. Ana wakutenda chichi ? (6) Wakusyenga lusambo m'chitela. (7) Ana imanga'i iumile kwapi ? Ku matimbe kwa CheMsusa'kula, waku- sapanda kweleko yaka yosepe. (8) Wakusagowola katema'chi ? 156 A YAO GRAMMAR Fakati pa chuku, soni pakutanda chau. (9) Makoswe galileje nguo'ji chilo. Tutupanganye chigwenembe nekuchitega pa lutumba'po. (10) Mbunichile pebweta, mliwiche pasi pa chi- ndanda. Soni mkoleche nguo'si. Mkasikolechela kakonje 'ka, nambo pa itela yao. Exercise 45 (page 111).— (1) Don't spread those clothes there, lest they get damp. (2) Everybody does like that though, always. (3) Break off now, and start hoeing again when the sun is thus. (4) Let us buy some flour at Mandala, this is getting finished. (5) I was just going, I saw that there was only a little left. (6) We will not untie that again, I have made it up finally. (7) When I saw you coming I was just going home. (8) This bucket has got a hole (in it), it is leaky. (9) I have got a cold. I usually get one during the rains too. (10) I saw Bula hoeing in his garden. (11) The women came sing= ing, the children following them. (12) It is dawn now, come along to work. Exercise 46 (page 112). — (1) Muwimbe 'chenene chitaku- sulula chipagala. (2) Mkalime mseu, utenda kuutala. (3) Mjise tukajendajende. Njiteje ndye. (4) Nachite ndipile wandu pona- mbweni'mwe po mwaikaga. (5) Twate kumala. (6) Ngusa- jimuka kundawipe mowa gosepe, nambo lelo napesile. (7) Mkulolechesyaga mosepe, najiweni ndembo jilimkwima pa mtela, mchitemangula nyambi. (8) Mkoleche 'chenene mko- ngaVo, utakugwa ; lelo mbungo jikupuga mnope. (9) Ana mtawile lutenje'lo ? Nganatumale. (10) Mkwamba kutama akuno ligongo chichi ? Tutakutawaga, tuchite tukang'we. (11) Nyama jagwile pasi mchipilipitaga. (12) Sambano kuswele, nipo jikunya ula, kwe* tugone akuno. Exercise 47 (page 116). — (1) -wisile ; -wangenye ; -pisisye ; -pokoswele ; -soyiye ; -wosile. (2) -tesile ; -kodwele ; -tutile ; -tawile ; -pindiche. (3) -swekwile ; -nyenjile ; -pitikwisye ; -ng'wele ; -mat wile. (4) -pap wile ; -pakeme ; -lile; -nunjile; -nyosisye. Exercise 48 (page 115). — (1) -liya ; -limbika ; -leupa ; -laga. (2) -tojima ; -poka ; -pinduka ; -galausya ; -panganya ; -tokota. (3) -lindilila ; -patula ; -komoka ; -pasya ; -nokola. (4) -kula ; -Iwala ; -moga ; -ngwiya. KEY TO REVISION EXERCISES. - 1. (Page 134). — (1) I want a lot of people to hoc this garden. (2) Where are you going ? I am going to the stream to wash. (3) What is this savoury smell in the house ? Meat which my wife is cooking, (4) This blister is quite sore. (5) The sorghum is getting eaten up by the doves and (other) birds. (6) It's pleasantly cool to-day, not too hot. (7) I am going to Quila- mane to buy gunpowder. (8) We want to go to Angoniland. I don't. (9) Do you want some food ? No, I usually eat very early. (10) Lions often come about the village at dead of night. (11) Do you remember what we were discussing yesterday ? No, I don't. (12) I think that you are pretending not to know, because you remember quite well. (13) This box is heavy, I sha'n't be able to carry it much further. (14) I want to go to bed now, I am getting very sleepy. (15) My potatoes are going bad and (are getting) riddled (with insects). Where do you keep them ? I generally put them in the verandah-room, with some earth. (16) The water has dried up in the well now, and the people have begun to dig a new one. (17) What have you put in that box ? It is empty. (18) It is calm to-day, there is no wind ; it rained all night, till dawn. (19) These people want to have a fight with me, though I have not said anything to provoke them. (20) It is four days' journey from Zomba to Chisyungule. (21) There are many different kinds, more than ten. 2. (Page 135). — (1) Welewo ngakusaka kwinjila masengo, wakutama mowa gosepe m'misi mwao. (2) Nambo -wandu wakusyowelela kutenda masengo ngakutama kwakujinji pa musi. (3) Aga manyasi'ga gali gambone kusyene, gegala gali gakuwajilwa kwimbila nyumba. (4) Ana mkulwala chichi? Ukumbweteka mgongo. (5) Ngingupikana yakuwecheta'yo, ligongo une mowa gosepe nginguwecheta kawili kawili. (6) Ana umwe chichi mkuganisya mowa gosepe? Nginingola kandu (167) 158 A YAO GRAMMAR kinguganisya ; ngwamba kutama namsyene. (7) Ngusimongwa mundu'ju ; kulandana mpela jua ku Zomba. Ngwamba, juelejo nganawa jua ku Zomba, nambo ku Mlanje. (8) Aji mbanga*ji gakutama matunu. (9) Ana umwe chichi mkuseka?" (10) Ngingusaka inangwa'yo, itenda kuwawa. (11) Une liku- mbweteka liundika, ngukosomola mowa gosepe ; sambano nguja kujuga mtela. Ngusalwala ehuku. (12) Sambano matete'gala gamasile kupya gosepe. (13) Asonowangu wajile ku migunda kukukawa mongu. (14) Wani wakachwile mtela'u? Ngapali akaehwile, ukachwiche chilo pajipujileje mbungo. (15) Wandu Va wanandwipe, ana wane wajile kwapi? (16) Alu lusulo'lu Iwakutama mesi ehukupe ; chau mwangatama mesi, lukuwa msangape. 3. (Page 135). — (1) I shall come to your place to beg for meat. (2) Right oh ! see you later, I'll cut off the haunch for you. (3) I won't be long, I'll be there directly. (4) Is that water boiling yet? No, not yet, it is just beginning to, though. (6) You want to ask for some medicine to drink, do you? All right, ask away, perhaps he will give you some ; wait a bit, the doctor hasn't come yet. (6) Pour the medicine into this bottle, and take it with you ; but when you have finished the medicine, you must bring the bottle back. (7) My house is finished, I shall sleep in it to-night. (8) What have these people got in their baskets? Onions for sale. (9) How much are they? Three shillings a basket. I will take one. (10) If you come very early in the morning, I shall be still in bed. (11) Have you wiped those knives ? Yes, all of them. (12) It is dawn, come along to work. (13) The hoers have stopped work now, it is twelve o'clock. (14) Who was that fighting on the path this morning ? I don't know who it was. (15) Bring the child and lay him on the bed. (16) Close the tent, to stop the rain coming in. (17) I say ! come on and cut some " tooth-brushes." All right, I'll come, but I must go and put on another cloth, lest I tear this one. (18) The child was still standing at the door, watching the rain, and by and by he saw that it was clearing up. (19) When I got back, I found my house built, and my wife cooking the dinner, but the workmen were still smoothing off the plaster. (20) So I said, " We can't sleep in here to-night, or we shall get ill ; because the plaster isn't dry yet." (21) Generosity is investment, meanness is ruin. KEY TO EEVISION EXEECISES 159 4» (Page 136).— (1) Ningamanyilile kuti mulimkwisa, ninga- teleche yakulya yine. Pangali kandu, ndyoeile ndili ndile kumangwetu. (2) Chiichile uwe, jitandite kunya ula. (3) Ngongusaka nguo'ji, nambo jejila ; ngwamba, jijojo jauatawape. (4) Po wandolite une petal a, nagambile kutama pelepo, juanga- tenda chindu. (5) Mwawilanje wanache aiehe akuno, nomwe wakwe, tulongane pesi, tukasume utandi. (6) Achimwene wakwaula ku Zomba, namose none juakwe tinongane nao ngalole kusyeto. (7) Wandu wane waitandite jgowola imanga, nowe wakwe tutuitande. (8) Nalisumile ehuma^cho ku sitolo jua m'mwenye ajo jutukusumana najo uwe mowa gosepe. (9) Ngwaula kwitinji, ni walakwe nombe nao alongane none. (10) Umwe mumkodole mundu'jo aiche akuno. (11) Mjigale masamba gamawisi, tutamile. Apano sikuluma salau. (12) Ana wane ali kwa' ? Wasigele munyuma. (13) Umwe mtulo- ngole litala lya ku Chikala, ngamlole mpwanga. (14) Ana wakuuta galeta nganaiche akuno ? Nganaiche, ali mwitala ; taiche ligulo. (15) Nambo ajaule wane akakulumisye achimjao. Wandu nganakugwa, wajile kukutema ngwi. (16) Ana wosepe wajawile kukutema ngwi ? Ngwamba, wane wakuehapa nguo ku lusulo. (17) Mwawinje welewo, ^akaika akuno. 5. (Page 137). — (1) We have come a long way, let's have a rest now. Yes, let's look for a really shady place. (2) I say ! you had better walk carefully here or the thorns will hurt you. (3) I have hurt my toe, it is quite painful. What did you hurt it with ? I stumbled on the path. (4) Is all well at home ? I have not had any news from home, because I left so long ago, and I don't know what has happened. (5) We will stop here to-day, and stay two days. (6) How many days' journey is it from here to Blantyre? (7) One; two easy days. (8) He wants carriers to go to Zomba. How many are there? 21. . (9) All right, let them sit down, while you take their names, so that we can give them their loads properly. (10) Go and see how many loads there are. I have counted them all, there are 27. (11) Mahmadi had better go and look for some more people, while the others wait here. (12) When the others come, they can go off together, because I want all the loads to go in one trip. (13) Let all the men stand in line, so that we can count them properly. There are more than enough, (14) These men have come to get their wages. Tell them to go away and como 160 A YAO GRAMMAB • back early to-morrow morning, and I will pay them. (15) Show me where the hartebeeste are. Well, this is hartebeeste spoor. They were on the run. Yes, it's their spoor all right, there was a large number of them ; some of these were zebra, they were mixed together. (16) Who is calling me? Nobody, we are discussing our own affairs. (17) The beans are ripe in Blantyre now ; some people I saw the other day had some. 6. (Page 138). — (1) Ana au mtumba wa nguo akusuma uli ? Kwalini, nganimbusye usume wakwe. Ana walakwe wasachi- leje kuti asume ? Elo, uneji sachileje kusuma, ningaumanye mtengo. (2) Chambone, walakwe akauje mkucha, tindande kwausya kaje asyene nguo'si, Ee-a-ah ! tingauje lyuwa lilyo- lyo kukulola. Ajende achimwene, sachitusimana panopano. (3) Wandu wa masengo'wala watisile wosepe. Ana mtesileje kwaputa? Ngwamba, wagambile kutila achimsyene, wanga- puta. (4) Ana mkusaka chichi ? Une ngusosa masengo. Masengo gachi mwapanganyaga kala ? Ga chipala. Apano pangali ga chipala, nambo gakuwaka. Gelego nganinilijiganye, timbite mchisosa gane. (5) Mwatume wa masengo akateme mi tela ja mapanda mcheche. Wane ajende akatole maganga ga njelesa ; nambo ajaule ku Chilwa, kweleko niko jili njelesa jambone. (6) Ana umwe mpika'ula mwaunichile ? Ngwamba, nganimbunichila, ligongo liuniko nganiniliwona. (7) Kwe', tujauleje kumangwetu, sambano kuswele. (8) Maguo gami- kambako gangaluma, nambo gakuluma gamikolo. Nambo gelego gapali ngosyongosyo, gane gamapiliyu, gane gamawala-ma- wala, gane gamachejeu panandi. Nambo gapali gane gamaku- lungwa, gelego uwe ngatukugamanyilila lina lyakwe ; uwe nipo tukuti gosepe gali maguope, nambo achakulungwa wa kala, welewo wakumanyilila mena gakwe. (9) Katema pakuwandi- chila kumala masika, jikusaika ula ja mwela, nambo chaka'chino jiiche panandipe. (10) Liso japugaga mbungo jajijinji mnope, m*nyumba'muno mwaliji luundupe. (11) Mlole ukulu wakwe wa nyasa, jangawoneka lisi line. Mwelemo mwangajenda mawato nambo sitima ; sikuja kwakutalika kutukakupita uwe. (12) Ana nyama'jila jiiche josepe? Elo. Kajigalile mwaga- wanye wandu wosepe. (13) Anyone, mwasalile alumbuwenu aiche akuno andelechele yakulya, sala jingwete. Akuti akwisa, atenda kusyaga. KEY TO EEVISION EXERCISES 16t 7. (Page 139).— (1) I am glad to hear you are well, I also am still quite fit. (2) Where have all these people come from? From Mlanje, they have come to get cotton-seed, (3) Wait here till I get back, don't go off anywhere. When will you be back ? After sunset. Go on then, I will meet you. (4) This is an old sore, when did you get it ? Two months ago. (5) I'll ridge up for sowing. Let's be sensible this year and hoe a good big garden, because we are nearly always pinched for food. (6) Who offers himself as a candidate for the .chieftainship ? We are going to instal the eldest nephew. Let's go to Likumbe and discuss the matter. (7) Lend me a pot to go and draw water with. You may take this one, but bring it back soon. (8) I had some honey to-day, I found it in that tree. Weren't you stung? Badly, because I persisted. (9) Tell that fellow who is whistling to stop, he is a nuisance. (10) I say, Bakali ! Hullo I Are you going for a walk to-day ? Yes, I thought of going to see my brother-in-law. Well, look here, if you happen to be going down to the Chiefs, you might let your mother-in- law know that I shall meet her early to-morrow morning. (11) All right, I'll tell her. I'll see you when I get back. Yes, I will see you part of the way. 8. (Page 140). — When starting a new garden, they first cut down and burn the grass and trees ; and pick up and pile to- gether all the stones into heaps. When they have broken up the bush in this manner, they wait for the first rains, plant their seed, and keep the garden free from weeds, during the whole of the rains, by hoeing the soil into heaps. When the maize is ripe, they gather it in, and carry it in baskets to the grain stores. When they want to prepare the maize for food, they take it from the store, strip the grain from the cob, and throw the cobs away. Then they take the grain to the mortar, and husk it by pounding with a little water ; having husked it, they take it out of the mortar and put it in a basket. Now they take out part at a time, putting it into a sifting basket, and separating the husks from the grain ; the husked grain they put into an empty basket. Then if there remain any husks with the grain, they repound it, and remove them. ' When the husking process is finished, they warm up some water, take it off the fire, and 11 4 •^ 162 A YAO QBAMMAB soak the grain in it so as to soften it. When it is soft, they strain it, and put it into a sifting basket ; after a day or two, they take it to the stream to wash it. On their return they put it on the roof to dry partially, take it to the mortar and pound it. After pounding, they pour the flour into a sifting basket, and sift out the coarse grains, putting them into one* basket, and the line-ground flour into another. When all the flour is sifted, they repound ,the coarse grains. Then they take the flour and spread it out to dry. If they want to make porridge, they first wash out the pot to remove the remains of the last meal, fill it with water, and put it on the fire. Before it boils they take a little flour in a gourd- cup, make it into a paste, rub it down thoroughly till it is quite smooth, and add it to the pot. When it is hot, they pour out a little water and sprinkle in flour, stirring gently until stiff, adding a little water so that it can be stirred thoroughly. Hav- ing finished stirring, they take the pot off the fire, put it on the ground, ladle out the porridge, and put it into the plates ready for eating. ABBREVIATIONS Used in the Vocabularies. adj. . . Adjective. adj. pron. . . Pronominal Adjective. adv. . . Adverb. adv. n. . Adverbial Noun. conj. . . Conjunction. conn. pron. . Connective Pronoun. dem. pron. . Demonstrative Pronoun. n. . Noun. neut. . Neuter. num. . Numeral. 0. . . . . Onomatopoeic Form. p., pres. . Present. perf. . . Perfect. pers. pron. . Personal Pronoun. pi., plur. . . Plural. poss. pron. . Possessive Pronoun. prep. . . Preposition. pron. . . Pronoun. sing. . Singular. Swah. . Swahili. Byn. . . . . Synonym. trans. . Transitive. V. . . . . Verb. The numbers in brackets, thus : (1), (2), (6), etc., refer to the class of noun. The Perfect form of all verbs is given in brackets after the stem. (163) YAO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. A- (1), pera, pron, connect, he she, it. -A, prep,y of, for : -a cheni ? whose? -a chi ? what kind of ? -a chiehi ? what for ? ACHA, ACHi, plur* prefix. Class 2, see M'j Mw-, Mu- or the stem to which these prefixes are attached. ACHAMBA (2), women. ACHIKULU (2), mother (always used with the poss, pron, : e,g. achikuluwangu, achikulu- gwe, etc.). ACHiMBUMBA (2), women. ACHIM8YBNE (2), themselves. ACHiMWENB (2), an honorific used among natives, but familiar. Used also in refer- ence to an elder brother. AKAWE, conj,, but, except (^lyiore emphatic than nam bo). AKO, dem. pron.y there (near). -AKO, poss. pron,j thy (familiar or contemptuous) ; one's. AKULA, dem. pron,j there, over there (distant). AKULU (2), elder brother; (syn. achimwene). AKUNO, dem. pi'on., here. -AKWE, poss. pron.f his, her, its ; also. AKWEGO (2), wife's aunt, uncle, or parent ; wife of maternal uncle, etc. (vide Appendix 11). AKWELUMB (2), maternal uncle. -ALAKWE, pron., he, the man we were speaking of ; plur., you, they. ALAMU (2), contemporary re- latives by marriage (vide Appendix IF). ALUMBU (2), brother, sister. AMAO (2), mother, maternal aunt (vide Appendix IT). AMBi, therefore : Ambi uli ? Well, what about it? AMBUJE (2), any grand relation, and those of wife ; a title of respect. AMBUSANGA (2), friend (of same sex), paramour (of opposite sex). XnX ? (indicates a question). -ANA, adj. pron., having, of; Juana machili, a strong man. -ANA -OSE, adj. pron., every one : Mundu juana jnose, every single man.' A NAG A, conj., if. -ANGALi, adj. pro^i., not having, without : Mundu juangcUi machili, a weak man. -ANGU, poss. pro^i., my. -ANGUNE, poss. pron., mine. my own. -AG, poss. pron., their. APA, dem. pron., here. APALA, dem. pron., there, over there (distant). APALi, there is, he is there. APANO, dem. pron., here. -API ? adj. pron., which ? what ? Nyumba japi ? which house ? APO, dem. pron., there (near). ASONo, ASONOGO (2), wife, hus- band, betrothed. ASYENE (2), owner ; Asyene musi, the headman of a village. (164) IfAO-fiNGLlSfl VOCABULABT 16S ATATl (2), father, uncle, paternal aunt ; {vide Appendix II), -ATI ULi ? What kind of ? Nyu- mba jati uli? what kind of house ? B BALALA-BALAtiA, 0., in confusion, " higgledy-piggledy," pell- mell. BATA (9), calm. BUKU (9), book {Engl.y sometimes sing. (1)), plur. mahuku (6). BWANA (1), master, sir, (Swah.), CH -CHA, V. (-chele), dawn ; clear up (after rain) : Satnhano kuchehj it is dawn now ; pe kwacheUy at dawn. CHAJiLA, adv. 71., fertile: Chi- lambo cha chajilay a fertile country. CHAKA (7), year ; festival : Pa chaka, next year ; mwachesOj last year ; mwacheju8% the year before last ; namyaka, this year. CHAKACHi ? when ? CHAKULYA (7), food. CHALA (7), finger, toe : Cha chikongo, thumb, great toe ; cha nyonje, little finger or toe ; chakulanjila, index finger ; cha chilikati, middle finger. -CHALiLA, V. (-chalile), persist, resolve firmly. CHALU (7), insolence. CHA LUGALi, adv.j backwards. CHALUMO, YALUMO, adv.y the same ; together. CHAMCHILEU, adv.^ length wisc. CHAMCHITIPA, adv., crosswisc. CHANACHE (7), derision, ridicule. CHANASA (7), pity, mercy. -CHAPA, V. l'chapile)j wash clothes (by beating) ; {syn. -saula). CHAU (7), the dry season (from August to November). -CHEJELA, V. {-chejele), be red, pink, light brown. -CHEJEU, adv., red, reddish, pink : Juamchejeu, a " white " man. -CHEKULU, adv., old {of persons only). -CHELENGA, V. {-chelesile), move quickly, be in a hurry. CHEMWALi (1), a girl ; (esp.) my sister. 'cHENENE, adv., niccly, well; (for UCHENENE, ICHENENE). CHENi, -A, pron., whose ? Kwa cheni, to whom ? at whose home ? -CHENJECHESYA, V. (-chenje- chesye), interfere, "butt in." -CHESYA, v., (-chesisye), be sleep- less, continue doing anything all night : Lelo jichesisye ula, it rained all night ; tuchesye ung^asi, let us dance all night. CHi-^ prefixed to the name of a tribe signifies an attribute, or the language of that tribe: Lukanda Iwa ChiNyasa, a physiognomy of the type of the Anyasa tribe ; ChiNyasa, their language. CHI ? (with a noun), what? which ? (see also -a). CHiBUKU (7), a large book (Engl.). CHICHI? what? Ana chichi? What is the matter? ligongo chichi? Why? CHiCHiLi (7), a peg, a post. CHiGAMBA (7), a patch. CHiGOMBELO (7), a shaped piece of wood for beating a floor smooth. CHiGONO (7), a sleeping-place (hence a stooge) on a journey : Akugona igono ilingwa petala ? How many days' journey is it? CHiGWENEMBE (7), a rat trap. 166 A YAO GRAMMAR CHiGWiLi (7), a stump of any- thing worn down, e.g, an axe, hoe. CHiiGA (7), the thigh. CHIJUMBA (7), a bird trap re- sembling a ca|<e ; a cage. CHIJUNI (7), a bird. CHiKALAKALA (7), paper. CHiKALAWESA (7), a fingernail, toenail. CHIKAMWAKAMWA (7), gOSSip : Jua chikamwdkamiva, one who is unable to keep a secret. CHiKo (7), a ford, a landing- place. CHiKoi (7), a wooden spoon or ladle. CHIKOKO (7), a wild beast; a weed CHiKOLo^A (7^, the eyelid. CHiKOsiMBi (7>, an oribi. CHiKULA (7), a small ant hill. CHiKULULu (7), copulation. CHiKUMBA (T)y a flood. CHiKUNGU (7), brass, a bracelet. CHIKWEKWE ^7), a heap of grass, leaves, reeas, etc. CHIKWELU (7), a bamboo whistle. CHiLAJA (7), a spud. CHILAMBO (7), a country, a district. CHiLASi (7), a cartridge. CHiLASYA (7), likeness. CHILE, adv., in readiness. CHiLiKATi (7), the middle, centre ; (cf. mkatif inside). CHiLiLi (7), an earthen platform for a bed or seat. CHiLiNDO (7), a watch house. CHiLiNDASi (7), a race. CHiLiSA (7), a house in which a person has been buried; a tomb. CHILD, adv. n., at night : Pakati chilo, midnight ; chilo cha lelo, last nighx. CHiLOLE, adv. n., overseeing : jua chilohy an overseer. CHiLONGO (7), a tobacco pipe. CHiLO^A (7), a needle {esp. of bamboo). CHiLU (7), the body. CHiLUMBA (7), an island. CHiLUMBO (7), a knot. CHiLUMi (7), rheumatism. CHiLWELE (7), a disease, ill- health. CHiMANGA (7), maize. CHIMANYILILO (7), a tokcu, ^ badge. CHiMB£LETA (7), a loop-hole, window. -CHIMBICHISYA, v. {-chimbichi- sye)f honour, treat with con- sideration or respect. CHiMBONGA (7), a walking-stick. CHiMBUNDi (7), a fence sur- rounding a house or houses. CHiMEME, adv. n., stammering. GHiNANGWA (7), cassava. CHiNDANDA (7), a native bed- stead. CHiNDENDE (7), the heel. CHiNDU (7), a thing, anything, something : Kwangali chinduy pangali kandu, it does not matter. -CHINGA, V. (-chinjile), herd (cattle) ; protect. CHiNG*ALANG*ALA (7), ueuralgic pain. chining'a, adv. n. (-wecheta), (speak) in parables ; especially 80 that a third person may not understand what is said. -CHINYINDILA, V. {-chinyindile), pack tightly, ram down. CHiNYETANYETA (7), a fire-fly. chipagala (7), a roof, rafters. CHiPALA (7), a forge. CHIP AND A (7), a peg in the wall. CHIP AN JE (7), wealth, goods. CHiPAPiKO (7, plur. 6), a wing. CHiPEPELA (7), paper (Engl.). CHiPEWA (7), a hat. chIpI (7), darkness. CHiPiNi (7), a metal stud worn in the left ala of the nose. YAO-BNGLISH VOCABULARY 167 CHIPISYA (7), a piece or frag- ment of anything. CHIPOLOPOLO (7), a bullet. CHIPONGWE (7), an insult, de- rision. CHIPOWO (7), a hole (in a fence, etc,) ; a rent (in cloth) ; a window. CHIPULA (7), a knife. . CHIPULUPUTWA (7), a butterfly, a moth. CHIPUTIPUTI (7), the common house-bat. CHiPWA (7), a sister's son. CHiSAGWA (7), a cluster of bananas (contr. mkonga, a bunch), CHISAKO (7), a hut for the sick. CHiSAMBA, -A, odj.y green (in colour, contr. -Wisi). CHI8ANG0 (7), a divining instru- ment of any kind. CHiSAU (7), and adv,, like, like- ness : Chine chisau ehelechi, another like this ; chisau chakwe chati uli ? What is it like? CHiSELo (7), a round shallow basket. CHisiCHi (7), a projecting stump or root. CHisiMA (7), a well. CHisiMOPYA (7), the first rains (contr,y mtuluka), CHisiMU, (idv.j really, truly, indeed. CHisiSA ^7), the fireplace in a native nouse. CHI8I8ILA (7), damp. CHisi<^iLO (7), a stopper, cork. CHISOGOSI (7), fruit (including berriesy etc). CHisoNDE (7), a maize-cob stripped oi the grain. CHisopo (7)j a fish-hook. CHisoTi (7), a cap. cHisui (7), a leopard. CHisuKULU (7), a grandchild (also MWISUKULU). cHisusi (7), a nest. CHISWANI (7), plur, (8), rubbish (withered leaves, stalks, etc). CHiSYANO (7), iron, steel. CHiSYEPELA (Pa), adv,, apart. CHiTAGU (7), a puzzle, parable. CHITANDA (7), a corpse. CHiTANGA (7), a large round mat ; a splint. CHiTELETELE ^7), a crate for carrying fowls. CHITEMA, adv., quickly. CHiTENGU (7), a native stool. CHiTETE (7), a ^sshopper. CHITIPA (7), width : -a ehitipa, -ana chitipa, wide. CHiTUKUTA (7), sweat ; heat. CHiTUMBiLi (7), a species of monkey. CHiTUMBO (7), the stomach (matv/mbo, intestines); a pregnant womb. CHiTUNDU (7), a fowl-coop; a pigeon-cote. CHiTUNGULU (7), the bamboo hoop securing the rafters of a round house in position ; (hence) a wheel, a child's hoop. CHiTUTU (7), a rubbish-heap. CHiuLA (7), a toad. CHiULO (7), froth ; scum ; spume. CHiULU (7), a wild cat. CHiUNiCHiLo (7), a lid, a cover. CHiwALAMA (7), a klip-spriuger. CHiwALAWALA (7), a scorpion, a poisonous centipede. CHiWAYA (7), a frying-tin, a Maxim gun. GHii^LA, adv., same as before ; still there. cHiwiGA (7), an earthenware pot of any kind. -CHOCHOLA, V. (-chochwele), clear the bush ready for a new garden. CHOME (7), a cat. CHONDE, " I beseech you." CHUKU (7), the rainy season (December to April/ 168 A YAO GBAMMAB CHULUGO (7), a cooking-pot {also CHIULUQO). -CHULUKA, V. (-chulwiche), be many, be too many. CHUMA (7), beads. -CHUULA, V. {-chuu)ile)y take out of water. D -DANDAULA, V, {'dandaw%le)y grumble : Ngudandaula, I am sorry. -DODOMAjV. {-dodweme)f hesitate. E ELO, adv., Yes. -ENE (withd, char.)f real, genuine. -BNU, po88, pron,y your. -ENUMWE, po88. pron,y your own. ETi ? Is it 80 ? Is it not so ? (Expecting an affirmative answer), -ETU, posB, pron*, our. -ETUWE, po88. pron.j our own. G -OA is the eontinuative suffix ; it is used with verbs only. After final e or i it becomes -je. 'gala for AGALA. -GALAGATA, V, {-galogatHe) roll about on the ground (espec- ially in salute). -GALAUKA, V, (-galawiche)j be turned round, be overturned, turn back. -GALAUSYA, V, (-galawisye), turn round (cans.). -GAMBA, V. (-gambile), just to — , merely to — (vide page 82) ; speak of ; " mean." -GANDA, tj. (^gandile)f be thin, become thin. -GANISYA, V. ('gani8i8ye)j think, consider. -GaWa, V, (-gaibile), cut up. -GAWANYA, V. ('ga{benye)f divide. GE mo^a'gano, adv., nowadays, latterly. •G o L o K A, V, (-golweche), be straight. -GOLOBYA, V. (-golwesye), be just. -GOMA, V, (-gomele), lose a case at law ; tap (rubber). -GOMBA, 17. (-gombele^ beat, sound (e.g. drww, bugle) ; fire (a gun) : -gomba Itdusi, whistle (with the mouth). -GONA, V, (-gonile), lie down ; sleep : Kugona mHugono, to sleep, be asleep. -GOPOLA, V. ('gopwele)y untie. -GOPOLBLA, V. (-gopolele)y explain. -GOSA, V. (-gosele), preserve, observe traditional prohibi- tions (mipingusi) ; with re- flexive ** it-," refrain from. -G o w o L A, V. (-goihele), reap (maize). -GULUKA, 17. (-gulunche), fly. -GUMA, V. (-gumile), bark (of a dog). -GUMBA, V. (-gumbile), plaster, mould : Kugumba njelwa, to make bricks. -GUMBALA, 17. (-gumbele), be full. -GUMILA, V. (-gumisile), scream. -GWA, V. (-gwile), fall ; occur : Tulole itiigwe, let us see what happens. -GWAGULA, V. (-^wagwile\ strip off bark or skin, nay. -GWALA, V. (-gwasile)^ hide ; dis- appear. -GWE, conn, pron., his (used only with words denoting relation- ship). -GWESELA, 17. (-gwesele)y be sleepy, ** only half awake." ICHENENE, adv.j nicely, well. iCHo! "Let me pass," "May I come in?" YAO-BNGLISH VOOABULABY 169 -IKA, V. (-iche), come, arrive, reach. -IMBA, V, {'imbile), swell. -INA, V, (-inile), dance. INGA (8), rations, food for a journey. INOINO, adv.j in this manner. -ISYA, V, (-isisye), sigh ; Kwisya uled, to be " bored." -ITUKA, V. (-itwiche\ go off (of a trap). iTUNGuu (8), onions. lYOYO, adu., thus. -JA, V, i'jile), go. -JALUCHILWA, V. {'jaluchilwe), be light (in weight). -JALUKANGANA, V. (-jalukangene), be nimble, active. -JALUSYA, V. (-jalwisye), be inso- lent, disrespectful. -JAMBUCHILA, v. ('jambuchile), infect, be infectious (of dis- ease). -JAMILA, V. (-jamisile), scream. -JAM UK A, V. ('■jamwiche)^ scold, rebuke. -JANQA, V. {-janjile), answer, reply. -JANGUYA, V. i'jangwiye), make haste. -JANIKA, V. ('janiche)j spread out (to dry). -JA8A, V. (-jasile), throw away ; lose ; bury. -JASAMA, V. (-jaseme), gape, yawn : 'jasama mwaju, yawn. -JASIMA, V. (-jasime), lend ; borrow (temporarily, cf. -kongola). -JATU8YA, V. (-jatwisye), dry by heat (fire, as opposed to sun, cf. -JANIKA). -JAULA, V. (-jawile), go. -JE, continiiative suffix, used only with verbs (see -ga). -JEGAMA, V. ('jegeme), lean against. jele'mianja'jo (pron.), those, ** that lot " (refers to a number of people collectively). -JELUSYA, V. (-jelwisye), advise. -JEMBECHEYA, V. (-jembecheye),^ wait, have patience. -JENANILA, V. (-jenanile), suffice. -JENDA, V. (-jesile), go, walk : 'jendajenda, go for a walk. -JENELA, V. (-jenele), spread (e.g. a flood, rumour) ; suffice. -JENJELA, V. (^-jenjele), prepare medicine, dispense. -JEPEPALA, V. (-jepepele), be thin (of cloth ^ etc.). -J E s E M u L A, V. (-jesemwile), sneeze. -JIGALA, V. (-jigele), carry, bring. -JIGANYA, V. ('jigenye), teach. JIKA, JiKAPE, adv., alone. -JIKUTA, V. (-jikwite), be satisfied, have eaten enough. -JiLA, V. (-jile), say. -JILANA, V. (-jilene), agree to- gether, match. -JIMA, 17. (-jimi), stand ; refuse. -JIMBA, V. (-jimbile), sing. -JIMBALA, V. (-jimbele), be fat (of a person). -JIMIKA, V. (-jimiche), set up- right. -JIMUKA, V. (-jimwiche), get up (from a recumbent position) ; be in good health. -JIMUSYA, V. (-jimwisye), caus. of 'jimuka ; (hence), rouse. -JINA, V. (-jinile), dye black. -JINAMA, V. (-jineme), stoop. -JINICHIX.A, V. (-jinichile), bless ; pass., prosper. -JiNJi, adj. pron., much, many. -JiNJiLA, V. (-jinjile), enter ; suc- ceed (to a position) : Ngo- ngumanyilila kwajii^ilile, I don't know which way he went. -JiPi, adj., short. -JISA, V. (-jisile), come. -JITA, V. l-jitile), pour out. 170 A YAO GllAMMAtl -JiTiCHiSYA, r. {-jitichisye)y con- Bent. -JIULA, t\ ('jiwile)^ become ripe (fruity abscess). -JIWA, V, ('ji{bile)j steal. -JOCHA, V. {'jocheh)j burn. -JOGA, V, {'josile), bathe. -JOGOPA, V, (-jogwepe)y fear, to be afraid. -JOGOYA, V. {'jogweye)j frighten ; be frightful. -JOKOLA, V, {"jokwele^ take out of the fire. -JOLOWA, V, (-jolwevbe)f be soft. -JOMBOKA, t;. ('jomhweche)y cross (a river), -JONANGA, V. ('jonasile)y spoil, waste. -JONGA, V, ('jonjele)^ suck. -JONGOLA, V, (-jongwele), straight- en. -JONJECHESYA, V. (-jonjechesye), increase (quantity), -JOTA, V, {'jotele), warm oneself at the fire ; (-lijota is more tmial), JUALAKWE» pron,', he, that one (referring to a person already mentioned), JUAWii (1), a thief (for JUAUWii). -JUGA, V, (-jusile), beg for, or from. -JUMi, adj.y living. -JUMILILA, V, ('jumilile), dry up. -JUMU, adj,, dry. -JUJJULA, V, (-jumwile^ be dry. "JUWA, V. (-juibile^ hide. -JUWILILA, V, (-juibilile), lie in wait for, ambush. K KA (diminutive prefix), -KACHULA, V, (-kachioile), split up ; tear of! (e,g, a branch) ; tear up. -KAGULA, V, (-kagvnle), follow. KALA, adv.y formerly, sometime ago : Kalakala, long ago. -KALAMUKA, V. (-kalamwiche), be cunning. -KALAKGA, V, (-kalanjile), fry. KALiLOLE (13), a looking-glass. KALINGWA, cidv.y how often? how many times ? -KAMUGHISYA, V. (-kamuchisye), help. -KAMULA, V, ('kamwile)j seize, catch, hold ; be in possession of. KAMWA, PA (16^, the mouth. -KANA, V, (-kan%le\ refuse ; deny. KANGA, conj.y wnether; either ... or; perhaps. -KANGA, V, ('kanjih), fell (a tree), -KANGAMALA, V, (-kangamele), make haste. KANUNDU (I), a cigarette. KAPOLO (1) (plur., achikapolo)y a slave. -KASA, V, ('ka^ile)j smash, break in pieces, ravage. -KATA, V, (-katile), cut. KATASI, adv,y some time ago ; katasipe, quite recently ; k<Ua- sVkakty that time. KATEMA (13), time, occasion ; katema*chif when? KATUNDU (1) (plur,, achikc^ndu (2), ntiwndM (10)), a load. Often u>sed to denote the carriers; MSIGO is a better word for a load, -kXwa, V, (■'kaib%le)y pluck (fruit), gather (vegetables^ etc), -KA^A, V, ('ka{bile)y delay; last a long time. KAWILI, adv,y twice ; kaHbili- kaibiliy often. -KOCHELA, V, (-kochele), or intens, -KOCHESYA, come to anchor, reach the shore. -KODOLA, V, (-kodwele), beckon, summon by a sound or ges- ture. -KOKO^A, 17. ('kokwe'Cbe)y loiter, linger. -KOLA, V, ('kwete)y have, possess. TAO-ENGIilSH VOCABULABT 171 -KOLANGA, V, (-kolosUe), summon, invoke, mention. -KOLEKA, v. (-koleche), hang up. -KOLELWA, V, (-kolelwe), be drunk. -KOLESYA, V. (-kolesisye), light (a frre). -KOLOGANYA, V, (-kologenye), stir, mix by stirring. -KOLQMA, V. (-kolweme)y snore, snort. -K o M A, V, (-komilej -komele), hammer in, strike with an instrument ; reach, extend. -KOMALA, i\ {'komeleY be ripe. -KOMANGALA, V. (-komangele)^ come to maturity, be full- grown, become ripe. -KOMASYA, V. ('komasisye)^ greet, salute. -KOMBOLA, V. {-komhwele)y be able {also -pakombola). -KOMBOLEKA, V. (-komboleche)j be possible. -KONDWA, V. {'kondilweY be happy, cheerful, pleased. -KONGOLA, V. {-kongwele)j lend, borrow {for some time; cf, -jasima). Ngongole (9), a debt. -KONG WE, adj,j female {of persons only). -KOPA, V, {-kopele), hook out of a hole {especially of catching crabs), -KOPOKA, V, {'kopweche), come out, go out, emerge. -K O 8 O M o L A, V. {-kosomwele)j cough. -KOSYA, V, {'kosisye), reheat, warm up. -KOSYA, V, {-kosisye)j care for. -KOTO, adj.y beautiful, pretty. Ku, prep, J to, from, at. -KULA, V, {-ktf^ile), grow, become bigger : Samhano akusile, he is full-grown now. -KULULUCHILA, V. {'kululuchile)^ forgive. -KULUMiKA, V, {-kulumiche)y be on point of departure. -KULUMISYA, V. trafis, {'kulu- misye), hasten, cause to make haste ; make or get ready. -KULUNGWA, adj.j big, large, grown-up. -KULUPILILA, V, {-kulupilile)j trust, believe in. -KULUPUKA, V, {-kulupiviche)j escape. -KULUSYA, V. {-kulwisye)y misa. KUMANGWETU, KUMANGWAO, etc., home. KUMASIKU8IKU, adv,, before dawn. -KUMBUCHILA, V, {-kum^chUe), remember. KUMBUJO, adv.y in front, in the future. -KUMBUSYA, V, {'kumhvnsye)y re- mind. KUMCHIJI, adv,j the left, to the left. K u M K u L I, adv., upstream ; ashore; to the higher ground. KUMLYO, adv.y the right, to the right. KUMPOTO, adv., the north. KUMWELA, adv.y the south. -KUNDA, V, {-ktindile)y consent, allow. KUNDAwi, adv,y in the morning : Kundaibi kwakwey next morn- ing. ^ KUNDAWIPE, adv., early in the morning. -KUNGA, V. {'kunjile)y string (a how, bed, or musical instru- ment). KUNGULO, (16), the throat. -KUNGULUKA, V. {-kungulwi-che), converse, chat, pay a call. KUNOKUNO, adv.y nere, in this very place. KUNYUMA, adv.y behind, in the rear. KUSA, adv.y outside. KUSI, adv.y down, on the ground ; kusi kuy below, beneath. 172 A 7A0 GBAMMAB KU8YENE, adv., Very; kusye- «YENE, extremely. KU8YET0, adv.j to the other side (of an obstacle) ; (n.), a head wife ; a term of resplect used to old women. KUTi, conj.y that, so that {lit.^ saying). -KUWALA, V, (-kuibele), stumble, trip up {over a root, etc). -KUWULA, -KUULA, r. (-kuwile), tap out a hoe or axe from its handle. -KUYA, V. (-kuyiye)^ pursue, fol- low about. KW-, for words beginning thusy see also J., /., X., W. (vide Chap, I). KWA, prep, J to, for, from, at (used with names of persons). KWA CHENi? adv., at whose house? to whom? KWAKUJINJI, adv.y very much, very often. KWAKUTALIKA, adv., far. KWAKUWANDIKA, adv.y near. KWALi, KWAUNi, adv., perhaps ; " I don't know." KWALIKO, ctdv., possibly (implies doubt). KWAMNOPE, adv., extremely. KW AN AULA, adv., far away. KWANGALi, "there' is not," ** there are not." KWAPi ? adv., where ? KWASWELE, PE, at suusct (past) ; kuli kv>swele, at sunset (pres.). -KWA^A, V. (-kwaibile), crawl. -KWELA, V. (-kwesile), climb. KWELEKO, adv., there. -KWJ^MBA, V. (-kwembile), smoke (tobacco, Indian hemp) ; suck. KWENDE, interject, Come on ! ; .conj., well . . . KWENE, adv.f really (with a verb). -KWESYA, V. (-kwesisye), raise ; re/?., boast, oe conceited. -KWEWA, V. (-kwetbile), curdle. KWIMAJIMA (KWAULA), (to go) for a walk. KWiNANi, adv., above, in the sky ; kwinani ku (or kwakwe), prep, and adv., above. -KWINDIMALA, V. (-kwindimele), be hard, stiff, firm. KWITINJI, adv. (for kulitinji), in, or to the bush. KWIWANDA, adv., down stream, to the lower g^und. •LAGA, V. (4asile), be poor, un- happy, unfortunate. -LAGALA, V. ('lagele), dry par- tially, drain (neut). ■LAGUSYA, V. (-lagwisye), give a present ; accuse. ■LAJISYA, V. (4ajisye), "order" (of goods) ; give a commis- sion. ■LALIKA, V. (-laliche), gather an army or caravan j subsidize. -LAMB A, V. (-lambile), pay obei- sance ; lick. •LAMBUSYA, V. (-lambwisye), tell lies. -LAMULA, V. (-lamwile), judge ; decide a case-at-law. ■LANDANA (na), V. (-landene), re- semble. -LANGA, V. ('lanjile), take leave (say good-bye) ; keep (tame animals). •LANGANA (na), V. (-langene), agree (to do anything), arrange (a course of a^ition). -LANJILA, V. ('lanjile), point out to. •LAPA, V. (-lapile), be surprised. •LAPITA, V. (-lapite), lick. -LAW A, V. (-laihile), start early in the morning. •LAWALAWA, V. (-la'Cbalaibile), wander about. -LECHELELA, V. (-lechelele), for- give. Syn. -KULULUCHILA. YAO-BNGLISH VOCABULAET 178 -LEKA, V. {-le»ile)j leave, stop {neut,\ let alone. -LEKANA, V, (-lekene), be dif- ferent. -LEKASYA, V, (-lekasisyejj stop (trans,), prevent. LELO, ddv.j to-day. Ghilo cha lelo, last night. -LEMALA, V. {'lemele), be steep. -LEMBA, V, (-lembile), mark, write. -LEMWA, V, ('lemwile)j sin, do wrong. -LEPELA, V. ('lepelejj fail. -LEU, adj,, long. -LEUPA, V, (-levnpe), be long, be too long. LI-, for words beginning thus, see also LY-. -LI, -LIJI (see ^A). LI BAN DA (5), a gable-ended house. LiBWETA (5), a box. LicHiKA (6), a reed mat. LiCHiLA (5), a hundred. LicHiNGA (5), a cattle-kraal. LIGA8A (5), the palm of the hand. LiGOMBO (6), a banana. LiGULO (6X and adv,, the even- ing, in the evening. LiGULU^E (5)^ a bush-pig. LiGUO, LiGUWO (5), a gad-fly (Tabanus, spp,). LiJANi (6), a baboon. LiJELA (5), a hoe. -LIJIGANYA, V, (-lijigenye), learn. Lijusi (6), and adv., the day be- before yesterday : Majusi *gala, those past times. LiKAU (6), spoor. LiKOKA (5), a drag-net. LiKONDE (6), long grass ; " the bush." LiKOSA (6), an ivory bracelet. LiKOYO (S), the shoulder. LiKULE (6), a jackal. LiKUMBO (5), spoor. LiKUMi (b), ten. LitowE (5), a word. LiLUNQO ^6), the knee. -LIMA, V, (-limile), hoe. LiNA (6), a name. -LINDA, V, (-lindile), wait. LiNDANDA (6), an egg, -LINGA, V, (-linjile), try, measure. -LINGWA, pron, adj,, how many ? LINO (6), a tooth. LIPENDE (5), the skin. LIPESA (5), an opportunity, open- ing. LiPULULU (5) an uninhabited area, desert. LiPWETECHELA (5), a tomato. LiSEGWE (6), noisy talk. Lisi (5), the side of a stream or lake : Lisi alino, on this side ; lisi alila, pesi, on the other side. LisiMBA (5), a lion. LisiMBO (6), a hole. Liso, adv,, yesterday. Liso (6), the eye. LisoGO (5), a wild dog. LisoLOSOLO (5), an earthenware bottle. LisuGULU (6), an ant-hill. LiTAJi (5), an egg, LiTAKA (6), soil, earth. LiTALA (5), a path. LITAMANDA (5), a pond. LiTANDA (5), a pool, a stream. LITANGA (5), a door. LiTA^ALE (5), a pool of Water in a plain. LiTEKENYA (5), the "jigger" (Sarcopsylla penetrans). LiTENDE (6), a kind of hornet. LiTETE (6), a reed. LITEWO (5), a cobra. LiTiKA, adv. n., unfilled, "half," not fully grown. LiTiNJi (6), long grass, (hence) the bush. LiTit^i ^5), a valley. LiTi^o (6), the married women's initiation ceremonies. LiTOGA (6), the liver. (Theplur, MATOGA is generally used,) 174 A TAO GBAMMAB LiTONJi (6), cotton. LiTUKU (6), a blister. (Syn. litusa). LiTULi (6), a large wooden mor- tar in which grain is pounded. LiTUMBi (6), a hill, mountain. LiTUNU (6), a hysena. LITUSA (6), Syn. LITUKU. LiTUTO (6), a heap or ridge of soil. LIU (6) {no plur,)j ashes. LiUNDE (6), a cloud. LIUNDIKA (5), catarrh ; bron- chitis. LIUNGU (5), a pumpkin (phir., mongu). LIUNIKO (6), a lid. LiuPA ^5), a bone. LiUTO (6), a place ; " room," ac- commodation. LiV^AGO (6), an axe. Li^ALiLA, V, (-liibalile), forget. Li^AMBA (6), cause of quarrel ; a reason. LiWAMBA (6), a fish-scale. Li^ANGA (6), a sore, wound, ulcer. Li^ATA (5), a duck or drake. -Li^ATA, V, {'li{bete)y tread, trample on. -LOGA, 17. ('lo8ile)j bewitch. -LOKOTA, V. (-lokwete)j pick up. -LOLA, V. {-lolite)f look, see. -LOMBELA, V, {'lomhele)f marry. -LONGANA (na), V. (4ongene)j ac- company, go together. -LONGOLELA, V, (-Ton^olele), pre- cede, guide. -LONJELA, V. (-lonjele)j stay some time in one place ; prolong one's stay. -LOSYA, V, (-losisye)j show. -LOWEKA, V, (4o'Cbeche)j steep, soak (trans,), -LO^ELA, V, {'loihele), be foolish ; be weak ; be plentiful. LUAMBi (11) (j>l,y nyambi), a branch. liUAU (11) (p^., nyau)j a net. LUCHANAMILA (11) (j)l,j njana- mila)f a verandah post. LUGOMO (11) {pi., ngomo)j a lip, beak. LUGONO (11), sleep. LUGWA (11) (pl,f ndugwa), a crack. LUJUCHi (11) (pi,, nyuchi), a bee ; pi. honey. -LUKA, V, {'luchile)y wef ve (hask- ets), LUKALALA (11) (pi,, ngalalo), a basket. LUKOLE (11) (pLj ngole), a veran- dah room. LUKOLOMA (11) (pi,, ngoloma), a drain, a trench. LUKONGOLO (11) (pL, mdkongolo, ngongolo\ the leg. LUKONJi (pi,, ngonji), string, rope. LUKOSi (11), the neck. LUKOSYO (pL, ngosyo), race, tribe, clan. Ngosyongosyo, different kinds. LUKOWO (11), desire for some- thing "tasty" ; " a tasty bit." LUKUJU (11) (pl.j nguju), a fig. LUKWAMBALA (11), I'ope of palm leaf. LUKWi (11) (pi., ngwi), a piece of firewood. LULAWO (11) (pi., malaibo), the first camp on a journey. LULELE, adv., gratuitously, with- out good reason. LULIMI (11) (pi., ndimi), the tongue. LULUSI, -GOMBA, V,, whistlc. -LUMA, V. (-lumile), bite, sting ; taste. -LUMBANA, V, (-lumbene), be-good. -LUMBIKANYA, V. (-lumhikenye), fasten together, conjoin. -LUME, adj., male (of persons only), LUMEMBE (11) (pL, memhe), a fly. LUNDA (11), wisdom. -LUNGU8YA, V, (-lungwisye), de- liver a verbal message. YAO-ENGLISH VOCABULAET 175 LUNo (11), site of new village ; a new village. LUfAMBA (11) {pi, mbamha), a small brown ant. LUPANDA (11), a conical mound made at the boys' unyago; hence the unyago itself. LUPANGA (11), a large knife, - sword. LUPETA (ll)(pi., mheta), a sift- ing-basket. LUPiYA (11), a shilling ; pi, , mhiya, money. LUPUKUSO (11), a swizzle-stick. LUPULA (11), the nose. LUPYO (11) (pi., mbyo), the kid- ney. LUSAMBO (11) (pZ., «am6o), wire. LU8A8A (11) (pZ., 5<wa), a parti- tion wall. LUSASU (11) (j)L, 8asu)y a piece of fire-wood. LUSENGA (11), dregs ; coarse grains in nour. LusuLO (11) (pL, sulo), a stream. LUTANDO (11), watershed, rising country between streams. LUTENJE (11), a fence. LUTUMBA (11), a corner. LUULO (11) (pi. , ulo)y a water-pot. LUUMBO (11) (pl.,\mbo\ a hair. LUUNDU (11), dust. LUWiLA, adv., n.j hoeing or weed- ing a planted garden. LWALA (11) (pi, , malwala), a rock. -LWALA, V. ('lwadle)y be ill. LY-, for words beginning thus^ see also LI-. -LYAj, V. (-lile)y eat. LYUWA (11) (pL, mo'Cba), the sun, a day. M M , prep., in. MACHILA (6), fine paid by losing side. (Port.), a palanquin. MACHiLi (6), strength. MAKALA (6), charcoal MAKANi (6), dispute, argument. MAKASi (6), scissors. MAKOKOTO (6), the scrapings of a pot. MAKOMBO (6), food left over after a meal. MAKWELELo (6), a ladder. -MALA, V. (-masile), end, finish (neut.). MALAWI, adj., to-morrow. MALEKANO (6), a road-fork ; cross-roads. MALiLE (6), a boundary. MALiLO (6), a mourning. MALiNDi (6), treachery ; plots. MALiPiLO (6), pay, wages. -MALISYA, V. (-malisye), finish (trans. ). MALO (6), place, room. MALONDA (6), barter: Ya ma- londa, things for barter. mang'omba (6), feathers ; hair of animals. -MANYA, V. (-manye), be ac- quainted with. MANYASi (6), grass. -MANYILILA, V. (-manyiUle), know, understand. MAPEMBA (6), sorghum. MASAME (6), a deserted village or house. MASENGO (6), work. MASETE (6), husks. MASiKA (6), the harvest season (April to end of Jun^). MASOKA (6), madness ; the spirits of the (lead. MATA (6), saliva. -MATA, V. (-matile), smear. , MATALILA (6), hail. MATE (6), meaning, sense. MATiMBE (6), alluvial soil (a stream ga/rden). MAKALA (6), spots, stripes. MAWELE (6), breasts ; mother's milk ; a clan. MAWiGA (6), the fire-stones ; also MAIGA. MBALAPi (9), a sable antelope. 176 A YAO GRAMMAB (9\ a plate. (9), the side ; pa mhalif MBALE MBALI aside! MBANGA (9\ a cave. MBANGO (9), a wart-hog. MBA^ALA (9), a bush-buck. MBEJU (9), seed, a plant. MBELA (9), a rhinoceros. MBENDU (9), a genet-cat. MBEPO (9), cold, wind. MBESi (9), the end. MBEU (10), cockroaches. MBOLEMBOLE, adj., carefully, gently. -MBONE, adj,j ^ood. MBONi (9), a witness, testimony. MBOTE (9), hire, wages, pay ; mbote ja chilo^ a bribe. MBUGU (9), a cavity {in a tree, etc) ; burrow {of an animal, Syn. MUNJILO). MBUJO, KU, adj.y in front, in the future. MBULA (9), the nostrils. MBUMBA (1) {pLy acha'\ a woman {lit, pot-maker). MBUMU (9), panting, gasping, {hence) asthma. MBUNDA (9), a zebra. MBUNGO (9), wind. MBUNJU (9), an eland. MBUSi (9), a goat. MBUTU (9), small bundles of grass for thatching. MBWA (9), a dog. MBWANDA (9), beans. MBWANi (9), the sea coast. MCHANDA (l), a youth. MCHECHE, four. MCHiQA (S\ a root. MCHiLA (3), a tail. MCHiMWENE (1), a chicf, {pi, ain^wene), -MELA, V. {-mesile), grow (of plants). MELE, MELEPE, adv,, ou purpose. MEMBE {pi. of LUMEMBE, a fly). MENEMA, conj.f therefore. MENYA, V, {-menyile)y beat ; peel (fruit). -MENYANA, V. {tnenyene), figlft. MESA, V. {-mesile), pluck (a bird). MESi (6), water. MGAO (3), a gourd cup. MGOJi (3), bark rope. MGOMBA (3), a beam. MGONGO (3), the loins. MGULUGULU, adv., near. MGUNDA (3), a garden. MGWALANGWA (3), a Borassus ' palm. MI-, for words beginning thuSf see also MY-. MiKULi (3), the hunting grounds: Kwaula ku, to go . shooting. -MILA, V. {-misile), swallow. -MINYA, V. {-minyile), squeeze ; milk. MJAKWE (1), his companion, its fellow. MJANGU (1), my companion ; mjao, their companion. MJENGWE (3), the bank of a stream. MJENU (1), your companion. MJETU (1), our companion. MJiNGA (1), a fool. MKAKA (3), milk. MKALO (3), a knife. -MKAMBAKO, adv., male (of animals). MKATi, adv., inside. MKEKA (3), a sleeping-mat made of palm-leaf (Swah.). -MKOLO, adj. . female {of animals). MKOMELO (3), a mallet. MKONGA (3), a bunch of bananas. MKONO (3), the arm ; a cubit {pi. makono). MKUCHA, adj., two days after to-morrow. MKULi (3), the higher ground ; {see also KU mkuli, mikuli). MKUO {no pi.) (3), rust. mkuti, conj., when {rel.), as for ; seeing that. YAO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 177 MkWamba (3), a fathom. MLAMBE (3), a boabab tree* MLAMU (1), a brother-in-law, etc. {vide Appendix IT), MLANGO (3), a doorway : Vgula pa mlango, open the doon MLASA (3), palm-leaf. MLASi (3), bamboo. MLENDO (1), a stranger, a traveller. MLiLA (3), a watershed. MLONDA (1), a watchman. MLONGO (vide Appendix 11), MLOWE {see mnowe). MLUMBU {vide Appendix 11), brother, sister. MLUNGU ,(3), sugar cane ; a week ; God. m'mwenye (1), a Banian trader. -MNONO, adj., little. mnope, adv., very. MNOU (3), flesh {of meat) ; pulp {ofjruit), MNOWE (3), maize which has been husked and steeped, {also mlo^e). -MOGA, V, {-mosile), shave. MONGU {see LIUNGU). MOTO (3), fire, heat. MOWA {see lyuwa). mpIka, adv., until, as far as. MPELA, adv., like, as if. mpIka (3)^ a boundary. MPiNGO, WA, a number of people associated together. MPiNGUSi (3), traditional pro- hibition of a tribe. MPiNi (3), the haft of a tool. MPOTO, KU, adv., the north. MPUNGA (3), rice. MPWANGA, MPWAO, eto, {vide Ap- pendix IT), younger brother {of man), younger sister {of woman). MSAKA8A (3), the roof of a house. MSAKU (3), a bag. MSAMiLO (3), a pillow, cushion. MSANGA (3), sand. MSANO (3), five. MSAPE, adv., merely ; {with noun), mere. MSATi (3), centre pole of a house ; a mast ; a present. MSELA (3), a line. MSENGo (3), a horn. MSESO (3), a wood. MSEU (3), a hoed road. MSiGO (3), a load. MsiKA (3), a market. MSiNDA (3), a large village. M8INGU (3), height. MSOKO (3), a tax. MSOKOLO (3), husked grain. MSOMALi (3), a nail ; a peg. M80N0, MSONOGO (1), husbaud, wife {usually plural), MSUNGU (1), a European. Msusi (3), gravy. MSWACHi (3), a piece of fibrous wood used as a tooth-brush. MTAMBALA (3), a bundle. MTAU (3), perseverance. -MTEGA, adj., useless, futile. MTELA (3), a tree ; medicine. MTEMBO (3), a corpse. MTENDELE (3), pcace. MTENGO (3), custom ; price. MTEPA (3), the end, tip. MTBSA (3), ground-nuts. MTIMA (3), the heart ; pa—, the chest. MTiNDi (3), kind; nature ; (colour). MTONDO, adv., the day after to- morrow. MTUKUTA (3), heat, warmth. MTULUKA (3), the early rains. MTUMBA (3), a truss of calico. MTUTU (3), a plant used as fish- poison. MTWE (3), the head. MU, prep., in. MULUNGU (1), God. MUNDU (1), a person. MUNJiLO (3), the burrow of a rat or other animal. MUSI (3), a village. MIJSI, adv., the day-time. 12 178 A YAO aBAMMAR MW-, jor words beginning thus, see also J, i, L, w (Chap. I). -MWA, V, {-mwele), drink (modem Yaofor -ng'wa). MWACHEJUSI, adv., the year before last. MWACHE80, adv., last year. -MWAGA, V. (-mwajile), scratch. MWANACHE (1), a child. MWANASi (1), a neighbour. MWANDA, a large number. MWANGALi, there is not, there are not (in). M WAN J A, going. mwanja'mwe, pron., you there. mwanja'wo, they, that fellow. MWAYi (3), the poison ordeal. MWENYE (1), a chief, {pi. achi- mwenye). MWE8I (3), the moon, a month. -MWETULILA, V. {'inwetulile), smile. MWiPWA (1), a sister's son or daughter (vide Appendix IT). MWisi (3), a pestle. MWiWA (3), a thorn. MYA8I (4), blood. -MYOLA, V. {-myosile), shave. N NA, conj., and, if; prep.^ with. NACHi'^AMUNO, conj., although, even if. NAGA, conj., if. NALWii (1), a chameleon. NAMBAYA (with suhj. of verh), " I had better — ." NAMBO, conj., but ; though ; except. -NAMi, adj., false, lying. NAMLONDOLA (1), a large kind of hornet. NAMOSE, conj., also, even. NAMUNO, conj., also, even. NAM YAK A, adv., thij year. -NANDi, adj., little. -NANDUPA, v. (-nandiuipe), be few, be small. NANGOLO (1), parent. NA^A, conj., if. -NAWA, V. (-TM^bile), wash the hands. NDA-NDA-NDA . . . (o.), in line. NDALAMA (9), moucy. NDANDA, PA, adv., in the begin- ning ; in the first place. NDANDALA (9), a koodoO. NDANO (9), a story. NDAwi (9), distance. NDAwf (9), a conundrum. NDEMBO (9), an elephant. NDEO (9), a quarrel. NDEU (9), a beard, moustache. NDOGOLO (9), a water-buck. NDOMONDO (9), a hippopotamus. NDONDWA (9), a star. • NDOPE (9), a reed-buck. NDUMBA (pi. of LUTDMBA, a corner of a house). NDUNDU (pi. of KATUNDU, a load). NEMBO (9), tribal marks. NGALA (9), a fresh -water crab. NGANi (9), a saying ; pi. news. NGANYA, PA, the meeting-place of a village ; a courtyard ; compound. NGAPAGWA, nothing (see page 67). NGATi, Is it not so? It is not (copula), NGOKWE (9), a grain-store. NGOLOMBWE (9), a duiker. NGOMA (9), a drum. NGONDO (9), war. NGONDOLO (9), a sheep. NGONGO (9), a staff. NGONGOLE (9), a debt. NGOSE (9), a hartebeeste. NGUKU (9), a fowl. NGUMBi (9), flying white ants. NGUNDA (9), the domestic pigeon. NGUO (9), calico, cloth ; pi. clothes. NGWAMBA, adv., UO. NGWAPA (9), the armpit. NGWASi (9), the fish-eagle. NGWENA (9), a crocodile. YAO-fiNGLlSH VOCABULARY 179 NGWlME (9), a species of field- mouse. -ng'ambila, V, (-ng'ambile), swim. -ng'anda, v. {-ng^aiidile), play. ng'ombe (9), an ox, cow ; cattle. -NG*WA, V, {-ng'wele), drink: Ang'welBj he is drunk. Ni, conj., and ; prep.y with ; copula, is, are. NiMKWE, " Let me try " ; " Let us have a look." Nipo, conj., and, and then. NJASi (9), lightning. NJATi (9), a buffalo. NJELESA (9), lime. NJENGWE (9), the water's edge. NJETE (9), salt. NJiNGA (9), a wheel ; a bicycle. NJOTA (9), thirst : Njota ji- ngwetcj I am thirsty. Njrsi (9), a serval. NJUWA (9), a dove. NO, copula, is, are. -NOLA, 1'. {-nosile\ sharpen. NOMBE NA-, adv,, also. -nong'a, V, (-nonyile), be sweet to taste ; pleasant to experience. -NONONO, adj,; hard, difficult. NONOPA, V, {-nomwepe)j be hard, difficult. -NONYELA, V. (-iwwjele), like, love. NUMKWE (see NIMKWE). -NUNGA, V. (-nunjile), stink. -NUNJILA, V. {-nunjilile), have a pleasant smell or taste. NU8Y.V, V. (-nusisye), sniff at, smell (act.): Sona jtutkunusya, snuff. -NYA, r. (-nyele), defaecate ; fall (of rain). -NYAKULA, V, (-nyakwile), lift, raise. -NYALA, «. (-nyoMle), wither. NYALi (9), a lamp. NYAMA (9), meat, game ; a buck. NYAMBO (9), bait, -NYANYA, V. (-nyanyile), itch. NYASA (9), river, lake. -NYENGA, V, ('nyenjile)j deceive, cheat. NYONO, so-and-so, "what's-his- name," " what-d'you-call-it"? -NYOi^A, V. (-nyo'(hile)j be damp. NYUCHi (9), bees, honey. NYUMA, KU, adv,, behind, in the rear ; panyuma pakwe, after- wards. NYUMBA (9), a house. NYUNDO (9), a hammer. -NYUNYA, V, (^-nyunyile), sprinkle with the hngere. PA, prep. J at ; adv., when (also PE, PO, Pi). -PA-, verbal prefix, denotes ability or possibility. -PA, V. {-pele)j give. {The Obj, Connect. Pers. Pron. is always inserted) : Nimpe, give me ; ambele juelejo, he gave that man. PA CHAKA, adv., next year. PA CHANYA, adv., on top : Pa chanya pa, on top of. -PAGWA, V. {-pagwile)j be lx)rn ; be present ; (Perf. form in the sense of " there was once," -^ce^t). PAJii, adv.y alone. -PAKA, V. {-pachile), smear, paint on. pakang'wa (16), the mouth. PAKATi, adv., in the middle. -PAKOMBOLA, V. {-pokombwele), be able. -PAKULA, r. {-pakwile), ladle out ; serve (food). PAKUTi, conj., seeing that ; since. PAKUWA, conj., because (lit, being). PAKWE PAKWE, adv., here and there. -PALASA, V, (-palasile), paddle (a canoe) ; beckon. 180 A YAO GRAMMAR -PAMBA, r. {-pamhile), light {a lamp) ; dip a handful (mbamu) of ugali in the relish {mboga)» PA MBESi, at the end. -PAMBULA, V. {^ambwile), put to- gether, add. PAMO, adv. J together ; at one time. PAMPEPE {see PAMO). PA MTIMA (16), the chest. PANANDI, adv,j a little. Panandi- panavdij a little at a time, slowly. -PANDA, V. {'pandile), plant. PANE, adv., perhai)s ; some- times ; conj.y if. PANGAKAWA, adv., SOOU. PANGALi, there is not, there are not. -PANGANYA, V. (-pangenye), make. PANJIPA, adv.y perhaps. PANONO, adv. J a little. PANOPANO, adv., here, in this very place. PANYUMA, adv., behind. Fa- nyuma pdkwe^ adv., immedi- ately afterwards. -PAPULA, V. {-papwile), tear. PASA, adv.y outside. PASi, adv,, on the ground ; prep.^ below. -PASYA, v. (-pasisye), taste. PASYETO, adv.y on the other side. -PATA, V. {-pdtile)j acquire {especi- ally unexpectedly). -PATA, V. {-pdtile)j rub, especially the stomach when drinking beer (cw a compliment). PATIPO, conj., since, because. PAUJO, adv.. in front ; in the future. PAUSYO (16), the forehead. PE-, adv.j when, where (rel.). -PE (suffix), only, quite. -PECHESYA, V. (-pechesye), accom- pany. PEE, o., silent, still. -PELA, V. {-pesile), suppose ; be tired ; be like. -PELEKA, V. (-peleche), convey. -PELENGANYA, V, (-pelengcnye), go further on. PELEPO, adv., there. PENANi, adv., above, up alx)ve ; prep, (pa), alx)ve, over. -PENDAMA, r. (-pendeme), slant, heel over. -PENGA, r. (-penjile), " blow the nose." -PEPELA, V. (-pepesele), blow (with the mouth). -PEPESYA, V. (-pepesye), inflate. PESi, adv., on the other side (of a river, etc.) ; pesi pa (prep.), across. -PETA, V. (-petite), sift. -PI, pron., adj., which ? 'what ? -PIKANA, V. (-pikene), for -PILI- KANA. -PiLiKANA, V. (-pilikene), hear, understand, obey. -PILIPITA, V. (-pilipite), wriggle about, struggle (on the ground). -PILIYU, adj., black. -PIMILILA, V. (-pimilile), endure, persist, persevere. -PiNDA, V. (-pindile), bend, fold. -PiSYA, V. (-pisisye), allow to pass, put in. -PITA, V. (-pite), pass, pass along, go away (neut.) ; pass (come) in. -PITIKUSYA, V. (-pitikwisye), turn upside down. PC, adv., when, where (rel.). -POCHELA, V, (-pochele), receive. (Also applied form of -poka, q.v.). -POKA, V. (-pochele), enjoy one- self (as in a dance, wearing "new clothes, etc.) -POLA, v. (-posile), be healed ; cool. (See also -POO LA.) -POMOLA, V. (-pomwele), husk (maize, etc.). -PONDA, V. (-pondile), pound. -PONYA V. (-ponyile), throw, throw at or to. YAO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 181 -POOLA, V, (-powele), pierce, bore. -POPELA, V, (^-popele)j pray ; dance ceremonially. POSEPE, adv.j everywhere. -POTA, V, ^-potele), twist threads into string. -POTEKA, V. {-poteche), hurt, pain. (Also -PWETEKA.) -PUGA, V. {-pujile)j blow (of the wind). -PUKUSWA, V. {-pukwisye), be bored by insects. -PUKUTA, V. {-pukwite), wipe ; shed leaves. -PUKUTULA, V. {-pukutwiU), strip grain off the maize-cob. -PUMULA, V. ('ptimwile)j breathe, rest. -PUNDA, V. (-pundile)f excel, sur- pass, exceed. . -PUNGULA, V, (-pungioile), pour into another vessel. -PUTA, V. (-putile)j strike, beat. -PUTUKULA, v. ('putukwile)y strip the grain off a maize-cob. -PWELELA, V, {-pwelele)j be fright- ened, anxious. -PWETEKA, V. (-pweteche), see -PO- TEKA. -PYA, V, (-pile), be burned ; be cooked. -PYAJILA, V. ('pyajile)^ sweep. S -SAGAMA, V. (-sageme), go aground (of boat). -SAGAMILA, V, ('Sagamile), dream. -SAGULA, V. (-sagwile), choose, sort out. 8AI, adv.y thus. * -SA JIKA, V. (-sajiche\ place on top. -SAKA, V. (-sachile), wish, want ; hunt. -SAKALA, V. (-sakele), be bad. -SAKALTKA, V. (-scikaliche), l)e tired, be six>iled. -SAKAMA, /". (-mkeme), be sus- pended. 8ALA (9), hunger : Sola ji- ngwete, I am hungry. -SALA, V. ('S€tsile), say. -SALALA, t?. ('Salele)j be nice, pretty. -SALASYA, V. (■'salesye)j put aside for future use. SALAU (9), red ants. -SALILA, V, ('Salile), tell. -SAMA, V, (-samUe), change one's residence, "move." SAMBANO, adv. J now : Sambano ^jinOj at once ; ckindu cha ^ samba/nOj a new article. -SANGALALA, V, (-sangalele) , re- joice. -SANGUSA, V, ('Sangwise), shake. -SAPANGULA, V, (-aapangtoile)^ un- fold, spread out (e.g. cloth) ; unravel. -SAPULA, V, (jsapwile), take part of anything. SAPULi (9)y brass (Swah.) ; heiice bracelets or anklets of brass. -SAULA, V. (-sawile),w8,Qh (clothes), -SAUSYA, V. (-saimsye)f punish, give trouble. SAi^At^A (9), peas. -SECHELELA, V. ('Sechelele)^ re- joice. -SEJELA, V. ('Sejelele)y move to one side (neut). -SEJESYA, t?. (-sejesye)^ move to one side (c«ua.). -SEKA, V. ('Sechile)j laugh. -SEMA, V. (-semile), adze. -SENYENDA, V. (-senyendile), sift finely. -SEPUKA, V. (-8epwiche)ytuYn aside, leave the path ; (Enphem,) re- lieve nature ; appl.j avoid. -siCHiLA, V. (-sichile), be wealthy. -siOHiTA, V, (-sichite), cut with a sawing motion, esp. the throat (of a perso^i), Cf, -SiNGA. -siGALA, V. (-sigele), remain. siLiKATi, adv,y the middle. -SI LI LA, V, (-silile)j fill in (e.y, a hole). 182 A YAO GRAMMAR -SIM A, V, (-simile), go out ; put out {of a lamp or fire). -SIMANA, r. {'Simene), meet, find. -SIMONQWA, i\ (-fnmongwile)j be puzzled. -SIMONJEKA, V. (simmijeche), he puzzling. -SIMOSYA, V. (-aimodsye), puzzle. -SINDA, V. ('8indile)f espec.y trim the nails (ikalawem). siNDi (9), a gnu (wildebeeste). -SINDICHISYA, V. {-sindichisye), put a visitor on his way, " see off." -SING A, V. {'8injile)j cut the throat {of an animal) ; twist- thread. -SINGALILWA, V, {'Singalilwe), l)e in trouble ; be at a loss. siNGANO, (1) {pL, acha-)y a needle. siNGWA (9\ a pad for the head, worn wnen carrying a load. -siSA, V. {'8i8ile)f hide. -SisiMA, V. ('sisimile^ be cold ; be insipid, -sisisi, adj., cold. -SITA, V. {-siUle)j iron {clothes). -siTO, adj.y heavy. -siTOPA, V. {'sitwepe^ be heavy. -SOGOLA, V, {-sogwele), bear fruit {chisogosi)^ -SOGOSYA, V. {'Sogwesye), grow {trans. ) {of a planter). -SOLA, V. {'Sosile), dig. -SOMA, V. {'somile), pierce, wound. SONA (1), tobacco : Kulya, or hihwemha, sona, to smoke ; kunusya sona, to take snuff ; sona juakunusya, snuff. -SONG AN A, V. {-soiigene), assemble. -SONGONA, V. {-song we n e), whisper. s^Nf, adv. J again. soNi (9), shame. -sosA, V. {-sosile)y search for, want. -SOWA, V. {'sowile), lack. -SOYA, V. {-soyiye), do wrong, make a mistake, -sCka, V. {'siichile), wash (an article). -sCka, v. {'S&chile)j be mean, stingy. -SUKUSULA, V. {'suhisyjile), wash the face. -SULULA, V, {'sulwile), leak. -SUMA, V. {-sumile)j buy, sell. -SUMBA, V. {-8umbUe)y jump. -SUMISYA, V, {-sumisye), sell. suNGULA (1) {pi. acha-), a hare. -SUNGUNUKUKA, V. {-sungunu- A;t(;ic^e),dissolve ; be thorough- ly mixed. -susA, V. {-siisile), hitch up {esp. of a child on the hack). -SUSUKWA, V. {'susukwile), be gluttonous. -SWA, V. {-Steele), set {of the sun, etc.). swALA (9), the roy-buck. -SWEJELA, 1?. {-swejele), be white, become white. -SWEKA, V. {-swechile), insert. -SWELA, adj., white* -SYAGA, V. {-syajile), grind {corn). -SYANA, V. {-sy anile), forge {metal). -SYASYA, V. {-syasisye), imitate. -SYASYAJILA, V. {-syosyajile) , smooth off {in pla^siering). -SYENGA, V. {'Syenjile), coil round. -SYO^EKANA, V. {-syoibekene), be intimate. -SYOWELELA, V. {-syoibelele), be accustomed to. -8YUKA, V. {'Syuchile), be changed. -SYUNGULA, V. {-syungwile), go round. T -TA, V. {'tele), name {the Oh}, Pers. Pron. is always inserted), -TAGA, V. {-tasile), pour, place, apply. -TAGULILA, V, {-tagulUe), tell. -TAJILA, V. {-tajUe), lay (eggs). -TALIKA, V. {-taliche), be far ; difficult. TAO-ENGLISH VOCABTJLAEY 183 -TAMA, V, {'temi), sit, stay, dwell. TAMBALA (1) (pi. OCha-), & COCk. -TANDA, V, (-tandite)y begin. -TANDiKA, V, (-tandiche), spread out. -TANDILA, V. (-tandile), provoke. -TANDILILA, V. {-tandiUle)y re- peat^ do again. -TANJILA, V, {'tanjile), be caught (in a trap), -TAPIKA, V. (-tapiche), vomit. -TATALA, r. l'tatele)y be blind. -TATu, three. -TAUNA, V, {-tawine)f chew. -TAWA, V. {'taibile), bind, build (a native house), -TEGA, V, {'tejile), set (a trap) ; cock (a gun), -TEGULA, V. {-■tegwile)y take a pot off the fire ; take grain out of the mortar. -TEKA, V, {'techile), draw (toater). -TELEKA V. {'teleche), put on the fire (hence the usual word for cooking f hrevoing beer, etc) -TELESYA, V, ('telesye), be slip- pery. -TEMA, V. (-temile), cut down (reedsj etc) ; be sharp. -TEMANGULA, V. (-temangwile), break off. -TEMEKA, V, (-^mec^e), be broken. -TENDA, V. (-tesile), do. -TENGANYA, V, (-tengenye)^ shake. -TEPETA, V. ('tepete)j be " sloppy " (of porridge f etc) ; adv, n., ndepete ! -TETEMELA, »'. (-^etemeie), tremble. -TEUCHILA, V, ('teuchile)y be late in starting. -Ti, V. ('Chitey 'tiji, -tite), say. -TICHITA, V. I'tichite), rub. -TICHITILA, V, ('tichitile), dry the hands. -TiLA, V, (-tisile), run away. TILISYA V, (-tilisye), smoothe, plane. -TIMBILISYA, V. (-timhilisye), splice (rope). -TIMBULA, V, (^'timhwile)y pound steeped maize. -TINDANA, V. ('tindene), differ. -TiNDi^ALA, V, (-tindiibele), kneel. -TiNiKA, V, ('tiniche)fhe scorched, burnt. -TITIMILA, V, ('titimile)y sink. -TOJiMA (-tojime), be startled, "jump." -TOKOTA, V, (-tokwete)y boil. -TOLA, V. (-tosile), fetch. -TOMASYA, v,('tomasisye),psA^Atey test by feeling. -TON A, V. ('tonile)y pinch. -TONDOWA, V. (-tondwe'Cbe), be slack ; become less acute (of pain), -TONGOLA, V, (■-tongwele)^ roar (e,g, lion), crow (cock), etc -TOPOLA, V, (-topwele), drive away, . -TOTA, V, (-totile)y sew. -TUGALA, V, ('tugele)y walk quickly. -TUKANA, V. ('tukene)f swear, use abusive language. -TULA, V. (-tv^sHe), put down (a load) ; alight (of a bird), -TULUKA, V. (-tulwiche), descend. -TUMA, V, (-tumile), send (a person), -TUMBiLA, V. (-tumhile), be angry, become angry. -TUMBULA, V, ('tumhvnle)y gut, incise. -TUMISYA, V, (-tumisye), -TUMI- CHISYA (-tumichisye), send (a thing), -TUNDA, V, ('tundile)y micturate. -TUNDAJILA, V, ('turidajile), limp. -TUNGA, V, ('tunjile), string (heads), -TUPA, V. ('•t'upile)y be many. -TUTA, V, ('tutile)y push. TUUPA (1) (pi. achi'), a file. -TWA, V, ('twele)y pound in a mortar. -TWANGA, V, ('twanjile), strike with the fist ; pound (grain). 184 A TAO OBAMMAB -TWICHILA, V. (-twichile^ put (a load) on the head. -TYOKA, V. {'iyo8ile)f go away, start. -TY08YA, V, {'tyosUye), take away, remove. U UCHECHE (14), white ants. UCHENENB, odv.j well, nicely. ucHi (14), honey. UCHILI (14), MACHiLi, Strength, power. -UCHILILA, V. {'Uchilile), be smoked {of food), ucHiMWENE (I4J, majesty, royalty ; qualities of a chief. -UGA, V, I'Uaile), stir (ugali), -UQALAj V. (-ugele), shut. UGALI (14), porridge. UGANJA (14), friendship. UGONO (14), a reed sleeping-mat. -UGULA, V. (-ugwile), open (a door, etc, ; of. -unichila, -gopola), See mlango. UGWE, pron,f thou ; one {speak- ing imper8<ynally). UGWi! interject, {expresses sur- prise, exasperation^ etc.), -UJA, V. {-usile), return. -UJANGANYA, V. {-ujangenye), go and return the same day. -UJILILA, V, {-unlile), turn back. UKALi (14), fierceness, bravery. UKANA (14), fermented beer. UKULU (14), size; greatness {of time or size) : Kwana ukulu ^kvXa, all this time ; (mwsi) wana ukulu'ula (a village) as big as that. TTKUNGWi (14), skill. UKUNJE (14), a bow. IT LA (9), rain. Kunya ul^, to rain. -ULAGA, V, {-uleje), kill. -ULALA, V, {-ulele), be hurt. ULALO (14), a bridge. ULAAiRA (14), deceit. ULAMBi (14), submission, re- cognition of authority. ULEMWA (14), sin, fault. ULENDO {fMt " Yulendo ") (14), a journey, a caravan. ULESi (14), laziness. ULi ? How ? What ? Ahuti uli ? What does he say ? -ULiKA, V, {-%Uiche)f burst. ULiLi (14), a mat made of split reeds. ULOMBELA (14), marriage ; a wedding. ULONGO (14) {see Appendix IF), ULUsi (14), thread. ULU^A (14), a flower. -UMA, V, (-umile)t come from ; possess in great degree. UMANA (14), quarrelsomeness. -umbXla, V, {-umhele)y pass through the initiation cere- monies ; {often tued, hy as- sociation of ideas, in the more limited sense of ** he circum- cised "). UMBO {pi. of LUUMBO), hair. UMi (14), life, health. -UMILA, V. {-umile), come from, come out of. UMWE, UMWEJU, proM., you. UMWEMWE, |?ron., you, yourself. UNAMi (14), lies, deceit.' UNANDi (14), smallness : Lib- wetaHi unandi, This box is too small. -UNDA, V. {-undile), teach man- ners {esp. at unyago), UNE, UNEJi, pron,, I, me. UNENE, pro7i., I myself. -UNGA, V. {-unjile), hoe into a heap. UNGO (9), a civet cat. ung'asi (14), a dance. -UNICHILA, V, {-unichile), cover, cover up. -UNIKA, V, {-uniche), turn (a pot, etc.) upside down ; cover. -UNJIKA, V, {-unjiche), gather into a heap. YAO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 185 -UNYA, V, {-^nyile), mix with water. UNYAGO (14), the initiation ceremonies. UNYOLO (14) (pi. J nyolo)y a chain. UPAGWE (14), nature, dispo- sition. UPANDE (14) (pi, mhande)y the side of anything ; a yard (measure), UPASANi (14), trade. upiLE (14), good luck. usANGWALi (14), a (fixed) pole- bedstead. USANJE (14), a kind of millet (" Cyprus grass "). USAU (14), a platform for drying meat or fish. U8AUCHI (14), poverty. usA^i (14), witchcraft. usi (14), thread. usuMA (14), insipidity, lack of flavour. USUME (14), price ; trade. -USYA, V. (-usisye), ask. -USYA, V, ('Usisye)y give back, take back. -UTA, V, (-utile), pull. -UTALA, V, ('Utele)y be overgrown (e.g, with grass). UTALE (14), iron ore. UTANDi (14), flour. UTENDE (14), manner, way: Au lUende^u, like this, in this manner. UTi (9), a gun, a rifle. UTiTiLi (14), a flea, fleas. UTOPE, MATOPE (^14), mud, clay. -UTUKA, V, {-utunche), run. -UTUTA, V. (-utwite), kick. UTUTU (14V the brain. -UULA, V. (-uimle), groan. -nuTA, V. ('uutile)y soften a skin by rubbing down. -TIWA, V. (-uwile), die. (The ini- tial u is often dropped, e.g. wawile, ''he died^'). U^ARI (14), a muKhi-ooni. UWE, UWEJI, pron.y we, us. UWEWE, pron.j we ourselves. uwiLiLi (14), shade : Mhvnlili, ^in the shade. uwou (14), maV^ou (6), pus. -UYA, V. (-uyile)j parboil ; half- cook in any way (to prevent the food going bad). W -WA, V. ('liji, -'Cbele)f be, become. -^AJILWA, V. {-'Cbajilwe), be suit- ^able; fit. -WAKA, V. (-ibachile), build (brick ; cf. -tawa). (Swah.) -WALA, V. (-ibasile), shiiie. -WALA, V. ('Wete\ wear, put on (clothes), WALAKWE, pron.y you (polite), they. -WALANGA, V, (-{balasile), count, ^ read. wAli (2), the candidates at the ^boys* or girls* unyago. -WALULA, V. ('{balwile), split up (trans.y WAMBA, adv.y aimlessly ; with- out plan or reason ; any kind or description ; " anyhow." ^A MPiNGO, those people ; people like those. i^'ANA KAJUMO, of oue family; th)B children of one man or woman. -^ANDICHILA, V. (-{kandichile), ^come near to. -WANDIKA, V. (-ivandichile), be near to. -^ANDIKANYA, V. (-wundikemje), place near to. -WANGALA, r. {-wangele), seem ; resemble. -WANGANYA, v. (-Ccangenye), mix. WANGANYAO, pron., they, those people. WANI Y pron.j who ? -WANIC'HISYA, i\ (-ivanichisye), be doubtful. Wanya'mwe ! you there ! 186 A TAO GBAMMAB -WASA, V. (-'Cbasile), take out from a store (e.g, the ngokwe), -^ATAMA, V. {'ibateme^ be flat, level. WATO (14) (pl.f mawato), a canoe. -^A^A, t?. l-ijbaijbile)j be bitter; have a burning taste ; singe. -WECHA, V. ('Wechile)j clothe. -WECHETA, ^ELEOHETA, V. {'<he- ^chete)j speak. -WELEKA, V. {''iheleche)y bear or beget a child ; carry a child on the back. WELE WANGANYAO, those people, people of that kind. -WELUKA, V. {''Cbelwiche\ stop wprk : Lyuiha lyakuiheluka, Saturday. we'mwanja'wo, that fellow. WENDA (14), manners, customs. WENDE (14), wanderings. -WENGA, V. ('-(benjile), hate. WEPEWENU, your nephew, etc. (see Appendix II). WESANI (14) (pLf mawesani)y scales. ^ESE (2), father, etc. (see Ap- pendix II), -^IKA, V. (-'Cbisile\ place, put. -WILANGA, V. (-<biladle\ call, summon. -wiLi, two. -wiLiSYA, V, ('wilisye)j repeat. -WIMBA, V, (-wimbile\ thatch. -wiNGA, V, ('ibinjile), drive away ; chase. wiNJi (14), many, too many ; much, too much ; amount : Winji wandu, a large number of people ; ngongumanyilila winji wakwej I don't know how many there are, or^ how much there is. wiPi (14), shortness ; short, too ^ short. -wisi, adj.y fresh, green (not re- f erring to colour). -WITUKA, V. ('Witwiche), go off (of a trap) ; (-ITUKA is more usual). wiu (14), jealousy. WOGA (14), fear. -i^OLA, V. (-iJbosile), rot. -WOMBOLA, 1?. (-dombwele), ran- som, compensate ; propose in marriage. -WON A, V. (-went), see. WONG A (14), gunpowder. -WULA, V. (-wusile), take off (clothes). YAKULYA (9), food. YALUMO, adv., the same (see chalumo). YATi II, such things as this. ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULARY. ABLE, BE, V,, -kombola (-ko- mbwele), -pakombola. ABOUT {concerning) (prep.)j ya, sya. ABOVE, prep.y kwinani, penani ; On top, pa chanya. ABUNDANCE, n., winji. ABUSIVE, BE, t'., -tukana (-tu- kene). ACCOMMODATION, n., Huto, malo. ACCOMPANY, v., -pechesya (-pe- chesye), -longana na (-longene na); "«ee o^," -sindichisya (-smdichisye). ACCUSE, v., -lagusya (-lagwisve). ACCUSTOMED, BE, V., -syowelela (-syowelele). ACQUAINTED, BE, V., -nianya (-manye). ACQUIRE, v., -pitta (-patile). ACROSS, adv. (a river), pesi ; {over a hill), pasyeto ; go across (a river), -jomboka (-jombwe- che). ACTIVE, BE, v., -jalukangana (-jalukangene). ADD, v., -pambula (-pambwile). ADVISE, v., -jelusya (-jelwisye). ADZE, n., chipininjila ; v,, -sema (-semile). AFRAID, BE, v., -jogopa (-JO- gwepe). AFTERWARDS, adv,, panyuiTia pakwe ; in the future, ku- mbujo. AGAIN, adv., soni ; Do again, v., -tandilila (-tandilile), -wilisya (-wilisye). AGO, LONG, adv., kala, kalakala ; recently, katasipe ; some time ago, katasi. AGREE, v., (consent), -kunda (-ku ndile), -j itichisya M i tichi- sye) ; together, -jilana (-jilene). AGROUND, GO, v., -sagama (-sa- geme). AIMLESSLY, adv., wamba, wa- mbape. ALIGHT, V. (come to earth), -tula (-tusile). ALIKE, adv., yalumope. ALL, adj. pron., -ose, -osepe. ALLOW, v., -kunda (-ku ndile) ; (to pass), -pisya (-pieisye) ; "Xe< me look," nimkwe, numkwe. ALLUVIAL SOIL, w., matimbe (litimbe). ALONE, adv., jikft, jikape, pa jika. ALSO, adv., -akwe (with Class Char.), nombe, nombe na- ; (conj.), namuno, namose, nombe, soni, nipo. ALTHOUGH, conj., nachi^amuno, namose, namuno. ALWAYS, adv., mo^a gosepe. AMBUSH, v., -ju^ilila (-ju^ilile). AMOUNT, n., winji. ANCHOR, COME TO, v., -kochela (-kochele) ; -kochesya (-ko- chesye). AND, conj., ni, na, nipo ; and then, soni, nipo. ANGRY, BE, V., -tumbila (-tu- mbile). ANIMAL, n, (for food), nyama ; (wild beast), cnikoko. ANSWER, V. (reply), -janga (-ja- njile). (187) 188 A TAO GRAMMAB ANT, n. (white), ucheche ; {fly- ing), nsumbi ; (red), salau ; (amall bromi), lupamba (pi., mbamba). ANT-HILL, n., lisugulu ; (small), ehikula. ANYHOW (at random), adv,, wa- mbape, balala-balala. ANYTHING, n., chindu. ANXIOUS, BE, v., -pwelela (-pwe- lele). APART, odi?., pa chisyepela. APPLY, V. irans., -taga (-tasile), -^ika (-Visile). ABE, V, (identity), nde, ni, no ; (description), -li. AREA, FLAT (country), n., lilamlx); UNINHABITED, n., lipululu. ARGUMENT, n., makani. ARM, n., mkono ; arm-pit, ku- ngwapa. ARRANGE, V. (adjiMt), -linganya (-lingenye) ; (agree), -langana (-langene). ARMY, n., ngondo. Gather to- gether an — , V,, -lalika (-la- liche). ARRIVE, v., -ika (-iehe), -ichila (-ichile). AS, conj., mkuti, pakuti ; (as if), mpela ; (as far as), mpaka. ASHAMED, BE, 'V., -teiida soiii (-tesile). ASHES, n., liu. ASHORE, adv., ku mkuli. ASIDE, adv., pa mbali ; lay aside for future use, v., -salasya (-salasisye). ASK, v», -usya (-usisye). ASSEMBLE, V. neut, -songana (-songene). ASSENT, V. (see AGREE). ASTHMA, n., mbuuiu. AT, prep., pa, ku, mu ; at home, kumangwetu, kuraangwao, etc. AUNT, n., amao, atati wakongwe, etc, {see Appendix II), AWAIT, V,, -lindilila (-lindilile). AWAKE, BE, v., -^a mesope (-liji, -^ele) : — all night, -chesya (-chesisye). AWAKE, BE HALF-, V., -gwesela (-gwesele). AWAY, GO, v., -tyoka (-tyosile) ; take — , v., -tyosya (-tyoeisye) ; run — , v., -tila (-tisile) ; throw — , v., -jasa (-jj AXE, n., li^ago. B BABOON, ^i., lijani. BACK, «., mgongo ; turn hack, v., -ujilila (-ujilile). BACKWARDS, odv., cha lugali. BAD, BE, v., -sakala (-sakele). BAD, LUCK, n., likungu. BADGE, n., chimanyililo. BAG, n., msaku. BAIT, n., nyambo. BAMBOO, n., mlasi. BANANA, n., ligombo ; hunch of — , mkonga ; cluster of — , chi- sagwa. BANIAN TRADER, n., mmweuye. BAOBAB, n., mlambe. BARK (of tree), n., likungwa ; — rope, mgoji ; — , strip off, -gwagula (-g wag wile). BARK {of dog), v., -guma (-gu- mile). BARTER, n., malonda ; v., -su- mana (-sumene). BASKET, n, (large), Jukalala ; (7'ound, shallow), chiselo ; (sift- ing), lupeta. BAT (small), n., chiputiputi. BATHE, V. neut., -joga (-josile) ; V. trans., -jofeya (-josisye). BE, v., -\va (-liji, -^vele). BEADS, n., chuma ; string — , v., -tunga (-tunjile). BEAK (of hird), n., lugoino (pi., ngomo). BEAM (wooden), n., ingoniha. BEANS, n., mbwanda. BNGLISH-TAO VOCABULABT 189 fiEAR, V. (give hirth)j -^eleka (-^eleche) ; (fruity -sogola (-sogwele) : See also carry. BEARD, n., ndeu. BEAST, WILD, n., chikoko. BEAT, V.J -puta (-putile), -menya (-menyile) ; (excel), -punda (-pundile). BEAUTIFUL, odj.y -koto. BECAUSE, conj.j ligongo, paku^a, patipo. BECKON, V.J -kodola (-kodwele), -palasa (-palasile). BECOME, V.J -\^a (-liji, -wele). BEDSTEAD (native)j n.j chi- ndanda ; — , pole (fixed), usa- ngwali. BEE, n.j lujuchi (pi. J nyuchi). BEER (fermented), n., ukana (should he used for native beer only). BEFORE, adv. J see Grammar, p. 96. BEG, V.J -juga (-jusile). BEGET, V.J -^eleka (-^^eleche). BEGIN, V.J -tanda (-tandite). BEHIND, adv.j kunyuma, mu- nyuma ; (prep.)j panyiima pa (ku, mu). BELIEVE IN, V.J -kulupilila (-kulu- pilile). BELOW, adv. J pasi ; (prep.)j pasi pa. BELT, n. - {leather) J mkanda ; (cloth), mpango. BEND, V.J -pinda (-pindile). BENEATH, prep.j pasi pa. '^ BESEECH YOU, I," chonde. BETROTHED, w., asono, asonogo. <* BETTER, I HAD,"nambaya(m</i suhjunct.). BETWEEN, prep.j pakati pa ; (adv.) J pakati. BEWITCH, V.J -Ic^a (-losile). BEYOND, prep.j kumbujo ku, ku- piinda ku. BIG, adj., -kulungwa ; become — , v., -kula (-kusile). BIND, v., -ta^a (-ta^ile). BIRD, n.j ehijuni. BIT, n.j chipisya. BITE, V.J -luma (-luraile). BITTER, BE, V., -^a^a (-^a^ile). BLACK, adj., -piliyu ; — dye, n., -jina (-jinile). BLESS, v., -jinichila (-jinichile). BLIND, BE, v,j -tatala (-tatele). BLISTER, n.j iituku, litusa. BLOOD, n.j myasi (4). BLOW, V. (of wind) J -puga (-pu- jile) ; (with mouth) j -pepela (-pepesile) ; (inflate), -pepesya (-pepesye). BOAST, 1?., -likwesya (-likwesi- sye). BODY, n., chilu. BOIL, v., -tokota (-tokwete). BONE, n.j liupa. BOOK, n.j buku, chibuku, libuku (Engl.). BORE, v. J -poola (-powele) ; be bored by insects, -pukuswa (-pukwisye) ; be bored (tired)j -isya ulesi (-isisye). BORN, BE, V.J -pagwa (-pagwile, -pali). BORROW, V. (Jtemporarily), -ja- sima (-jasime, -jasimile) ; (for some time), -kongola (-ko- ngwele). BOTTLE, n.j lisolOBOlo. BOUNDARY, n., malile, mpika. BOW (weapon)j n., ukunje. BOX, n.j libweta. BRACELET, n. (brass) j chikungu, sapuli (Swah.); (ivory), likosa. BRAIN, n., ututu. BRANCH, n., luambi (^jZ., nyambi). BRASS, .n., chikungu, sapuli (Swah.). BRAVERY, n.j ukali. BREAK, V. neut., -temeka (-te- meche) ; trans, (in pieces), -kasa (-kasile) ; — off, -te- mangula (-temangwile). BREASTS, n., raa^ele. BREATHE, V., -pUinula (-pU- mwile). BRIBE, n., mbote ja chile. 190 A YAO GBAMMAB BRICK, n., njelwa. BRIDGE, n.j ulalo. BRING, v., -tola (-toeile), -jigala (-jigele), -ika ni (-iehe ni) ; — hackf -uja ni (-usile ni), -uchisya (-vichisye). BRINK, n., njengwe. BROKEN, BE, t?., -temeka (-te- meche), -kasika (-kasiehe), -temanguka (-temangwiche). BRONCHITIS, n., liundika. BROOM, n,j liBache. BROTHER, eldeVf akulii, achim- wene ; younger j mpwanga, mpwao, etc, ; brother-in-law, alamu {see Appendix II), BUFFALO, n., njati. BUGLE, n., lipenga. BUILD, V, {a native hxit)^ -tawa (-ta^ile) ; (brick), -^aka (-wa- fhile), (Swah.). BULLET, n., chiix)lopolo. BUNDLE, n., mtambala. BURN, 1?. trans,, -jocha (-jo- chele) ; neut, -pya (-pile) ; scorch, -vichilila (-uehilile) ; burnt, be {of food), r,, -tinika (-tiniche). BURST, V,, trans,, -jiapula (-j)a- pwile) ; {explode), -ulika (-uliche). BURY, v., -jasa (-jasile). BUSH, THE, n., litinji, likonde. BUSH-BUCK, n., mba^ala. BUT, conj,, nambo, aka^e. BUTTERFLY, n., chipuluputwa. BUY, V,, -suma (-sumile). CAGE, n., chijumba. CALICO, n,, malekano; n^uo. CALL, V. (summon), -wilanga (-^ilasile) ; (name), -ta (-tele) ; (call on by name), -kolanga (-kolasile). CALM, n,, bata. OAMP, n., chigono ; (first, on a joiirney), lulao. CAKE, SUGAR-, n,, mlungu. CANOE, n., wato. CAP, n,, chisoti. CARAVAN, w., ulendo ; ^a ni'ii- lendo. CARE FOR, V,, -kosya (-kopisye). CAREFULLY, adv., 'chenene ; m]x)Iembole. CARRY, v., -jigala (-jigele) ; carry on the back, -^eleka(-^eleche). CARTRIDGE, n., chilasl. CASE-AT-LAW, 71., magambo ; de- cide a — , v., -lamula (-la- mwile). CASSAVA, n,, chinangwa. CAT, n., chome ; (wild), eh lulu ; (civet), ungo; (gen,et), mbe- ndii. CATARRH, n., liundika. CATCH, v., -kamula (-kamvvile). CATTLE, n., ng'ombe. Cattle- kraal, liohinga. CAUGHT IN TRAP, BE, V., -tanjila (-tanjile). CAVE, n., mbanga. CAVITY, n,, mbugii. CEASE, v., -leka (-lesile) ; — work, -^eluka (-welwiche). CENTRE, IN THE, adv., pa cliili- kati, pa silikati. CEREMONIES, INITIATION, n., vinyago ; pass through — , v., -inigwa (-inigwe), -urabala (-umbel e) ; — womenh, liti^o ; — boy*s, lupanda; — girVs, chiputu ; — candidfite at, rawali. CHAIN, n., unyolo. CHAMELEON, n,, nalwii. CHANGE, V. trans., -tindanya (-tindenye) ; — one^s abode, -sama (-samile) ; (he changed), V,, -syuka (-synch ile). CHARCOAL, n., makala. CHASE, v., -^inga (-^injile). CHAT, V,, -kunguluka (-kungu- Iwiche). CHEAT, V,, -nyenga (-nyenjile), -lambusya (-lambwisye). ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULARY 191 CHEERFUL, V., -kondwa (-ko- ndwile). CHEST, n,j pamtima. CHEW, v.y -tauna (-tawine). CHIEF, v., mwenye, mchi- mwene ; — qualities of, uehi- mwene. CHILD, n., mwanache ; hear or beget — , v., .^eleka(-^eleche) ; children of the same parents^ ^ana kajumo. CHINK, n., chipo^o, lipesa. CHOOSE, 1?., -sagula (-sagwile). CIGARETTE, n., kanundu. CIRCUMCISED, BE, V., -umbala (-umbele). CIVET-CAT, n., ungo. CLAN, n.f lukosyo, liwele. CLEAR (the hush)j V.J -chochola (-chochwele) ; — up (tidy), -linganya (-lingenye); — up (after rain), -cha (-chele). CLEVER MAN, juana lunda. CLIMB, v,j -kwela (-kwesile). CLOTH, n., nguo. CLOTHES, n., nguo (pL) ; clothe, v., -wecha (-wecnile) ; wear clothes, -wala (-wete) ; wash — , -chapa (-chapile), -saula (-sa- wile) ; iron — , -sita (-sitile) ; take off — , -wula (-wusile). CLOUD, n., liunde. COAST, THE SEA, H., mbwani. COAT, n., jaketi (Engl), koti (Engl). COB, MAIZE, n., chisonde ; strip off seed from — , v., -putukula (-putukwile). COBRA, n., lite^o. COCK, n., tambala ; — a gun, v., -tega (-tesile). COCKROACHES, n., mbeu. COIL ROUND, v., -syenga (-sye- njile). COLD, n., mbepo ; — , adj., -sisisi ; he — , v., -sisima (-sisimile) ; hecome — , -pola (-posile) ; a cold, liundika. COLLECT, V. (see gather). COMB, n., lisamvilo. come, v., -ika (-iche), -jisa (-ji- sile) ; — hack, -uja (-usile) ; — from, -umila(-uraile) ; — in, -pita (.pile) ; " , Ma^j I? " ieho, hodi (Swah.) ; " — m," apite, hodini (Swah.) ; — near, -wandichila (-wandiehile) ; — on ! Kwende ! ; — out, -kopoka (-kopweche). commence, v., -tanda (-tandite). commission (to huy), give a, v., -lajisya (-lajisye). companion, n., mjaiigu (my), mjakwe (his), etc. compensate, v., -wombola (-wombwele). complain, v., -dandaula (danda- wile). compound (place), n., kunganya. conceal, v., -sisa (-sisile). CONCEITED, BE, V., -Hkwesya (-likwesisye), -liwona uleu msingu (-liweni). CONCERNING, prep., ya, sya, mkuti. CONFUSION, IN, a(it>.,balala-balala. CONJOINED, BE, v., -lumbikana (-lumbikene). CONSENT, v., -jitichisya (-jiti- chisye), -kunda (-kundile). CONSIDER, v., -ganisya (-gani- sisye). CONUNDRUM, n., nda<W. CONVERSE, v., -kunguluka (-ku- ngulwiche). CONVEY, o.y -peleka (-peleehe) ; — a messa>ge, -lungusya (-lungwisye). COOK, v., -teleka (-teleche) ; he cooked, -pya (-pile); — half-, -uya (-uyile). COOL, V. neut., -pola (-posile) ; he —, -sisima (-sisimile). COOP, hen-, n., chitundu. COPULATION, n., chikululu. CORK, n., chisiwilo. CORNER (of a house, etc.), n., lutumba. 192 A YAO GBAMMAK CORPSE, n., mtembo, chitanda. COST, n., usume, mtengo ; cogtly, -a mtengo. COTE, PIGEON-, n., chitundu. COTTON, n., litonje ; thread, usi. COUGH, V.J -kosomola (-koso- mwele) ; a cough, liundika. COUNT, v., -^alanga (-^alasile). COUNTRY, n., chilamlx) ; open flat — , lilamlx) ; uninhabited — , lipululu. COURT- YARD, n., pa nganya. COUSIN, n. {see Appetidix II). COVER, v., -unichila (-unichile) ; a cover, n.,. liuniko, chiiini- chilo. COW, n.j ng'ombe jamkolo ; cow^s milk, mkaka. CRAB, n., ngala ; — -, catch, v., -kopa (-kopele). CRACK, 71., lugwa. CRATE (for carrying fowls, etc.), n., chiteletele. CRAWL, v., -kwa^a (-kwa^ile). CROCODILE, n., ngwena. CROSS {a mver), v., -jomboka * (-jombweche). CROSS-WISE, adv., chamchitipa. CROW (cock), v., -torigola (-to- ngwele). CRY, V, (weep), -lila (-lisile) ; — (shout), -gumila (-gumi- sile). CUBIT, n. kono). CUNNING, BE, V. (-kalamwiche). CUP (gourd), n., mgao. CURDLE, v., -kwe^a (-kwe^ile). CURE, v., -posya (-posisye). CUSHION, n., msamilo. CUSTOMS, n., wenda, mitengo. CUT, v., -kata (-katile) ; — down, -tema (-temile) ; — open, -tumbula (-tumbwile) ; — throat, -singa (-sinjile) ; — up, -ga^a (-ga"^ile) ; — with saw- ing motion, -sichita (-sichite). , mkono (pL, ma- -kalamuka D DAMP, BE, v., -nyo^a (-nyo^ile) ; — , n., chieisila. DANCE, V,, -ina (-inile) ; — , n., ung'asi ; — ceremonially, v., -popela (-popele). DARKNESS, n., chipi. DAUGHTER, n. (see Appendix IT). DAWN, 1?., -cha (-chele) ; before — , adv., kumasikusiku ; at — , adv., kulimbuwu. i:)AY, n., lyw^SL ; tims, musi ; — before yesterday, lijusi ; yes- terday ^ liso ; to-day, lelo ; to- morroWy mala^i ; the day after to-morrow, mtondo ; two days after to-morrow, mkucha. DEAD, BE, 1?., -jasika (-jasiche) ; die, -uwa (-uwile). DEBT, n., ngongole. DECEIT, n., unami, ulamba. DECEIVE, v., -nyenga (-nyenjile) ; be deceitful, -lambusya (-la- mbwisye). DECIDE A CASE, V. -lamula (-la- mwile). DEEP, BE, v., -kwendesya. DEFAECATE, V., -Dya (-nyelc). DELAY, v., -ka^a (-ka^ile), -ko- ko^a (-kokwe^e). DELIVER (a m^essage), n., -lu- ngusya (-lungwisyej. DENY, v., -kftna (-ka,nile) ; -jima (-jimi). DERISION, n., ehanSche, chi- pongwe. DESCEND, v., -tuluka (-tulwiche). DESERT, n., lipululu. DESTROY, v., -jonanga (-jona- sile). DIE, v., -uwa (-uwile), -jasika (-jasiche) ; a mourning, malilo. DIFFER, v., -tindana (-tindene), -lekana (-lekene). DIFFICULT, adj., -nonono ; be -r, V,, -nonopa(-nomwepe), -talika (-taliche). DIG, v., -sola (-sosile). ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULABY 193 DIP (esp., food into the " relish "), 1?., -pamba (-pambile). DISAPPEAR, v,j -gwala (-gwasile). DISEASE, n., chilwele. DISPENSE (medicine), v,, -jenjela (-jenjele). DISPOSITION (nature), w., upagwe. DISPUTE, n.j makani. DISRESPECTFUL, BE, 17., -jalusya (-jalwisye). DISTANT, BE, V., -talika (-taliche). DISTRICT, w., chilambo. DIVIDE, v., -ga^anya (-gaL^enye). DO, 1?., -tenda (-tesile). DOG, n., mbwa; — , wild, n., lisogo. DOOR, n., litanga; doorway, pa mlango. DOUBTFUL, BE, V,, -wanichisya (-wanichisyef). DOVE, n,, nju^a. DOWN, adv., pasi ; — stream, kwi^anda. DRAG-NET, n., likoka. DRAIN, v., -lagala (-Jagele) ; — , n., lukoloma. DRAKE, n., li^ata (lyamka- mbako). DRAW, V. (pull), -uta (-utile) ; — (water), -teka (-techile) ; — (write), -lemba (-lembile). DREAM, v., -sagamila(-8agamile). DRINK, v., -ng'wa (-ng'wele^ DRIVE AWAY, 17., -^inga (-^i- njile), -tisya (-tisisye), -topola (-topwele). DRUM, n., ngoma ; heat a — , -gomba (-gombile). DRUNK, BE, 17., -kolelwa (-kole- Iwe). DRY, adj., -juma; — season, n., chau; be — , v., -jumula (-ju- mwile); — up, »., -jumilila (-jumilile) ; — partially, v., -lagala (-lagele) ; spread out to — , V,, -janika (-janiche) ; — (the hands), v., -tichitila (-ti- chitile) ; — at a fire, v,, -ja- tusya (-jatwisye). DUCK, n., li^ata (lyamkolo). DUIKER, n., ngolombwe. DUST, n,, luundu. DWELL, 17., -tama (-temi) ; woi7e somewhere else to — , -sama (-samile). DYE, 17. (black), -jina (-jinile); — (red), -chesula (-cheswile). E EACH, pron.-adj., -ana -ose, -osepe. EAR, n., lipikanilo. EARLY (in the morning), adv., kunda^W, kunda^ipe ; before dawn, kumasikusiku ; start early in the moiming, v., -la^a (-labile). EARNEST, IN, adv., kwene. EARTH (soil), litaka. EARTHENWARE POT, n., chi^iga. EAT, 1?., -lya (-lile). EGG, n., lindanda, litaji ; — lay, v., -tajila (-tajile). EITHER . . . OR, conji, kanga . ; . kanga; pane . . . pane. ELAND, n., mbunju. ELDER BROTHER, n., akulu, achimwene (see Appendix IT). ELEPHANT, n., ndembo. ELSEWHERE, adv., kwine. EMERGE, i7.,-kopoka(-kopweche). END, 17., -mala (-masile) ; the end, adv., pa mbesi ; the tip, mtepa. ENDURE, 17., -pimilila (-pimilile). ENOUGH, BE, V., -jenanila (-jena- nile) ; have —, v., -jikuta (-jikwite). ENTER, 17., -jinjila (-jinjile). ESCAPE, 17., -kulupuka (-kulu- pwiche). EUROPEAN, n., msungu. EVEN, adv., namuno, namose ; even if, conj., nachi^amuno. EVENING, n., ligulo ; this — , ligulo'lino. EVERY, pron. adj., -osepe ; every one, -ana -ose, -osepe. 13 194 A YAO GBAMMAB EVERYWHERE, adu., posepe. EXCEED, v., -punda (-pundile). EXCEL, v,f -punda (-pundile). EXCEPT, conj, and prep., aka^e, nambo. EXCHANGE, «., -tindanya (-ti- ndenye); barter, v., -sumana (-sumene). EXPLAIN, t?., -gopolela (-gopo- lele). EXTINGUISH, v., -sima (-simile). EXTREMELY, adv., kwamuope, kusyesyene. EYE, n., liso (meso) ; — lid, n,, chikolof^a. F PAIL, «., -lepela (-lepele). FALL, v., -gwa (-gwile) ; (of rain), -nya (-nyele). FALSE, adj., -nami. FAMILY, OF ONE, ^ana kaiumo. FAR, BE, v., -talika (-taliche) ; adv., kwakutalika, kwanaula ; as far as, mpaka. FAREWELL, BID, V., -langa (-la- njile). FAST, adv., chitema; go — , v., -chelenga (-chelesile). FASTEN TOGETHER, V., lumbi- kanya (lumbikenye). FAT, BE, v., -jimbala*(-jimbele). FATHER, n., atati, ^ese {see Ap- pendix IT). FATHOM, n., mkwamba. FAULT, n., ulemwa. FEAR, n., woga; v., -jogopa (-jogwepe). FEATHERS, n., mang'omba. FEEL (with fingers), v., -tomasya (-tomasisye). FELL, v., -kanga (-kanjile). FELLOW, ITS, mjakwe ; that fel- low, we m wan j a' wo. FEMALE, adj. (person), -kongwe ; (animal), -mkolo. FENCE, n., lutenje ; — (round a house), n., chimbundi. FERTILE, adv. n., ehajila. FESTIVAL, n., chaka. FETCH, v., -tola (-tosile). FEW, BE, v., -nandupa (-na- ndwipe). FIERCENESS, H., ukall. FIG, n., lukuju. FIGHT, v., -menyana (-menyene). FILE, n., tuupa. FILL, v., -gumbasya (-gumbesye) ; fill in, -silila (-silile). FIND, v., -simana (-simene), -wona (-weni). FINE, n., maehila. FINISH, V. neut, -mala (-masile) ; trans., -malisya (-malisisye), -mala. FINGER, n., chala ; little — , chala cha nyonje ; middle — , c. cha chilikati; fore — , c. cha ku- lanjila ; thumb, c. cha chi- kongo ; — nail, chikalawesa. FIRE, n., moto ; — a gun, v., -gomba (-gombile); warm oneself at the — , -lijota (-lijo- tile) ; extinguish a — , v., -sima (-simile) ; kindle a — , v., -kolesya (-kolesisye) ; take off the — (e.g. a pot), v., -tegula (-tegwile) ; maJce up the — , v., -kwisila (-kwisile) ; take out of — , v., -jokola (-jokwele) ; — f d^y at, v., -jatusya (-ja- twisye) ; fireplace, n., chisisa ; fire stones, n., maiga ; firewood, n., ngwi, saso. FIREFLY, n., chinyetanyeta. FIRM (stiff), BE, v., -kwindimala (-kwindimele). FIRST, adj., -atanda, -akutanda ; in the first pla^e, pandanda. FISH, n., somba ; — -poison, mtutu ; — -eagle, ngwasi ; hook, chisopo ; scale, n., li^amba. FITTING, BE, V., -^ajilwa (-^ajilwe). FIVE, num., msano. PLAT, BE, v, -^atama (-^ateme). ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULARY 195 FLAVOUR, LACK OF, n., usuma. FLAY (skin) 1?., -gwagula (-gwa- gwile). FLEAS, w., utitili. FLEE, v,j -tila (-tisile). FLESH, n., mnou. FLOOD, n., chikumba. FLOUR, n,y utandi. FLOWER, n., ulu^a. FLY, n., lumembe ; gad-fly, ligu^o ; V.J -guluka(-gulwiche). FOLD, V.J -pinda (-pindile). FOLLOW, V.J -kagula (-kagwile) ; pur sue J kuya (-kuyiye). FOOD, n. chakulya, yakulya ; — left over after meal, ma- kombo ; — he burnt, v., -tinika (-tiniche) ; — he smoked, v., -uchilila(-uchilile) ; — (for journey), n., inga. FOOL, ri., mjinga. FOOLISH, BE, v., -lo\^ela (-lo^ele). FOOLISHLY, adv., wambape. •FOOT, n., lukongolo ; foot-print, likau, likumbo. FOR, prep., -a, kwa. FORD, n., chiko. FOREHEAD, paUSyO. FORGE, n., chipala; — (metal), v., -syana (-syanile). FORGET, v., -li^alila (-li^alile). FORGIVE, v., -kululuchila (-kulu- luchile), -lechelela (-lechelele). FORKED STICK, w., lipanda. FORMERLY, adv., kala. FOUR, num., mcheche. FOWL, n., nguku ; crate for — , chiteletele. FRAGMENT, n., chipisya. FRESH, adj., -^isi. FRIEND, n., ambusanga. FRIENDLY, BE, V., -syo^^ckana (-syotvekene). FRIENDSHIP, n., uga'nja. FRIGHTEN, V., -jogoya ("jogweye) ; frightened, he, -jogopa (-jo- gwepe), -pwelela (-pwelele). FRIGHTFUL, BE, V., -jOgOya (-jogweye). FROG, n.j chiula. FROM, prep. J ku, kwa. FRONT, IN, adv., kumbujo ; go — , 17., -longolela (-longolele). FROTH, n., chiulo. FRUIT, n., chisogosi ; hear — , v., -sogola (-sogwele). FRY, v., -kalanga (-kalasile) ; frying-pan, chiwaya. FULL, BE, v., -gumbala (-gu- mbele). FULL-GROWN, BE, V., -kula (-kusile), -komangala (-k o- mangele). FUTILE, oAj., -mtega. FUTURE, IN THE, adv., kumbujo. G GAD-FLY, n., ligU^O. GAME (puck), n., nyama ; play a game, v., -ng'anda (-ng'andile). GAPE, v., -jasama (-j a s e m e) ; yawn, -jasama mwaju. GARDEN, n., mgunda ; stream- garden, ku matimbe. GATHER (pluck), v., -kS^a (-ka- ^ile) ; — i7ito heaps, v., -unjika (-unjiche); (assemhle), -songa- na (-songene). GENET-CAT, n., mbendu. GENTLY, adv., mbolembole. GESTURE, SUMMON BY A, V., -kodola (-kodwele). GET, V.J -pata (-patile) ; (possess), -kola (-kwete) ; (fetch), -tola (-tosile) ; get up, -jimuka (-jimwiche), -jima (-jimi). GIRL, n., mwali. GIVE, v., -pa (-pele), -peleka (-peleche); — hack, -uchisya (-uchisye) ; — a present, -lagusya ('-lagwisye). GLAD, BE, v., -kondwa (-ko- ndwele), -sechelela (-seche- lele), -sangalala (-sangalele). GLASS, LOOKING-, n., kalilole. GLUTTONOUS, BE, V., -SUSUkwa (-Busukwile). 196 A TAO GRAMMAR GO, v., -ja Mile), -jaula (-jawile), -jenda (-jesile) ; — out, -ko- poka (-kopweche) ; — withy -longana na (-longene na) ; — further on, -pelenganya ^-pelengenye) ; — away, -tyoka (-tyoBile), -pita (-pite) ; — round, -syungula (-syungwile); — beyond, -punda (-pundile) ; — q^ {trap), -ituka (-itwi- che) ; — out (of fire), -si ma ^simile) ; — fast, -chelenga (-chelesile). GOAT, n., mbusi. GOD, n., mulungu. GOING, adv. n., mwanja. GOOD, adj., -mbone ; be good, v., -lumbana (-lumbene). GOOD-BYE, asigaleje, ajendeje : say — , v., -langa (-lanjile). GOOD-LUCK, n., upile. GOODS, w., chipanje. GOSSIP, n., chikamwa-kamwa. GOURD (cup), n., mgao. GNU, n., sindi. GRAIN, POUND, V., -twa.'<-twele), -twanga (-twanjile) ; grind, -syaga (-syajile). GRAIN-STORE, n., ngokwe ; take grain out of — , v., -tegula (-tegwile). GRANDCHILD, n., chisukulu. GRANDFATHER, n., ambuje (see Appendix it). GRASP, v., -kamula (-kamwile). GRASS, n., manyasi ; — , small bundles of (for thatching), mbutu. GRASSHOPPER, n., cliitete. GRATUITOUSLY, adv., lulele. GRAVY, n., msusi. GREATNESS, n., ukulu, uchi- mwene. GREEN (fr e s h), a dj., -^^ i 8 i ; {colour), -a chisamba. GREET, 1?., -komasya (-koma- sisye). GRIND, v., -syaga (-syajile). GROAN, V,, -uula (-uusile). GROUND, ON THE, odv., pasl f — , roll {in saluJte), v., -galagata (-galagatile). GROW (of plants), v., -me la (-mesile) ; v. trans., -sogosya (-sogwesye) ; — big, -k u I a (-kusile), -komangala (-ko- mangele). GRUMBLE, v., -dandaula (-danda- wile). GUIDE, v., -longolela (-longolele) ; n., mlongola. GUINEA-FOWL, w., nganga. GUN, n., uti ; fire a — , v., -gomba (-gombile) ; cock a — , -tega (-tesile) ; gun-powder, n., wonga. GUT, v., -tumbula j(-tumbwile) ; the gut, n., matumbo. H HAFT, n., mpini. HAIL, n., m^talila. HAIR, n., luumbo, umbo ; — of ani^nals, mang'omba. HALF {approximate), n., litika. HAMMER, n., nyundo ; v., -koma (-komile), -komela (-ko- mele). HAND, n., mkono ; — , in the, muyala ; palm of — , ligasa. HANDLE, n., mpini ; tap {hoe, axe) out of — , v., -ku^la (-kusile). HANG UP, v., -koleka (-koleche). HAPPEN, V,, -gwa (-gwile), -woneka (-woneche). HAPPY, BE, v., -kondwa (-ko- ndwele). HARD, adj., -nonono ; be hard, v., -limba (-limbile), -kwindi- mala(-kwindimele); {difficult) -nonopa (-Yiomwepe), -sausya (-sausisye). HARE, n., sungula. HARTEBEESTE, n., ngOSe. HARVEST SEASON, n., masika. HASTE {see hurry). ENGLISH-TAO VOCABULABY 197 HASTEN, v,j -kulumisya (-kulu- misye). HAT, n., chipewa. HATE, V.J -tvenga (-^enjile). HAVE, v., -kola (-kwete) ; having, -ana ; not having, -angali. HE, pron., ajo, juelejo, jualakwe. HEAD, w., mtwe ; — , put on the, v., -twichila (-twichile). HEADMAN, w., asyene musi. HEAL, V. neut, -pola (-posile). HEALTH, n., umi ; — , he in good, v., -jimukaga (-jimwicheje). HEAP, n., chikwekwe, lituto ; — together, v,, -unga (-unjile), -unjika (-unjiche). HEAR, V,, -pilikana (-pilikene), -pikana (-pikene). HEART, n., mtima. HEAT, n., chitukuta, mtukuta, moto ; reheat, v., -k 6 s y a (-kosisye). HEAVY, adj,, -sito ; be heavy, v,, -sitopa (-sitwepe). HEEL, n., chindende ; — over, v,, -pendama (-pendeme). HEIGHT, n., msingu. HELP, v., -kamusya (-kamwisye), -kamuchisya (-kamuchisye). HEN, n., nguku ; hen-house, chitundu. HERD, v., -chinga (-chinjile), -langa (-lanjile). HERE, adv,, akuno, apano, amuno ; — and there, pakwe pakwe. HESITATE, v., -dodoma (-dodwe- me). HIDE, v., -sisa (-sisilo), -ju^a (-ju^^ile), -gwala (-gwasile) ; — {skin), n., lipende ; prepare — , v., -uuta (-uutile). HIGH, adj,, -leu ; he — , v., -talika (-taliche). HILL, n., litumbi. HIPPOPOTAMUS, n., ndomondo. HIRE, n., mbote. HIS, pron,, -akwe, -gwe. HITCH UP, v., -susa (-susile). HOE, n., 1 i j e 1 a ; v., -lima (-limile) ; clear the bush, v., -chochola (-chochwele) ; hoe down weeds, v., -lima luwila ; hoe into heaps, v., -unga (-unjile). HOLD, TAKE, V,, -kamula (-ka- mwile). HOLE, n. {in ground), lisimbo ; {in cloth), chipo^^o ; {in wall, fence), chimbeleta ; {in tree), mbugu ; {cave), mbanga ; rat- hole, miinjilo ; hook out of hole, v., -kopa (-kopele). HOME, adv,, kumangwetu, ku- mangwenu, kumangwakwe, kumangwao ; change one^s home, v., -sama (-samile). HONEY, n., uehi. HONOUR, 71., ehijinichilo ; v,, -ehimbichisya (-chimbi- chisye). HOOK, FISH-, n,, chisopo ; hook out of hole, v», -kopd; (-kopele). HOOP, n,, chitungulu. HORN, n., msengo. HORNET {var, of) litendeu, namlondola. HOSPITAL, n., (chisako). HOT, adj., -ana moto, -a moto ; — season, n., chau. HOUSE, n., nyumba ; gable-ended — , libanda ; rectangular — , without gables, likome ; wall of — -, lipupa ; fence round — , chimbundi ; partition in — , lusasa ; corner of — , lutumba; verandah, lipenu ; verandah- room, lukole ; build — {of brick), -^aka (-^achile) {Swahili) ; build — {native fashion), -ta^a (-ta^ile) ; at whose — ? Kwa cheni ? HOW ? adv., uli ? How many ? -lingwa. How do you do? Ana mkwimukaga ? HUNDRED, n., lichila. HUNGER, n., sala. HUNTING-GROUND, n., kumikull. 198 A TAO GBAMMAB HURRY, t;., -kangamala (-kanga- mele), -janguya (-langwiye), -chelenga (-chelesile) ; trans, (see hasten). HURT, v., -poteka (-poteche), -pweteka (-pweteche) ; be hurtj v., -ulala (-ulelo). HUSBAND, n., asono, rasonogo. HUSK, V.J -pomola (-pomwele) ; husks, n., mascte ; husked maize, msokolo. HY^NA, n., litunu. I, pron., une, uneji ; I myself, unene. IP, conj., naga, na^a, na ; as if, mpela. ILL, BE, v., -Iwala (-Iwasile) ; illness, n,, chilwele. IMITATE, v., -syasya (-syasisye). IMPUDENCE, w., chipongwe, chalu. IN, prep., mu, m* ; insomuch as, pakuti, mkuti. INCREASE {a quantity), v., -jo- njechesya (-jonjechesye). INDEED ? Eti ; — ! chisimu ! INFECT, BE INFECTIOUS, V., ja- mbuchila (-jambuchile). INFLATE, v., -pepesya (-pepesye). INITIATION CEREMONIES, n., unyago ; pass through — , v., -umbala (-umbole), -inigwa (-inigwe), (see also cere- monies). INSERT, v., -sweka (-swechile), -jinjisya (-jinjisye), -pisya (-pisisye). INSIDE, adv., mkati. INSIPID, BE, v., -sisima (-sisimile). INSIPIDITY, n., usuma. INSOLENCE, n., chalu, chipongwe. INSOLENT, BE, V., -jalusya (-ja- Iwisye), INSULT, v., -jalusya (-jalwisye). INTENTIONALLY, adv., melc, melope. INTERFERE, V., -chenjechesya (-chenjechesye). INTIMATE, BE, V., -syo^ekaDA (-syo^ekene). INVOKE, v., -kolanga (-kolasile). IRON, n., chisyano ; iron (clothes), v., -sita (-sitile) ; ore, «., utale. IS, -li (descriptive) ; no, ni (de- noting identity). ISLAND, n., chilumba. ITCH, v., -nyanya (-nyanyile). IVORY, n. ndembo. JEALOUSY, n., wiu. JlQGER(8arcopsylla penetrans), n., litekonya. JOURNEY, n., ulendo ; — , food for, inga. JUDGE (a case), v., -lamula (-la- mwile). JUMP, v., -sumba (-sumbile) ; (be startled), -tojima (-tojime). JUST — (merely), (see Qramnmr, page 89. JUST, BE, v., -golosya (-golwesye). K KEEP, v., -tama na (-temi na), -kamula (-kamwile) ; — tame animals, -langa (-lanjile). KICK, v., -ututa (-ututile). KIDNEY, n., lupyo. KILL, v., -ulaga, (-uleje). KIND, n., lukosyo, mtindi ; dif- ferent hinds, ngosyongosyo. KLIP SPRINGER, n., chi^alama. KNEE, n., lilungo. KNEEL, t;.,-tindi^ala (-tindi^ele). KNIFE, n., chipuLa, mkalo; (large), lupanga. KNOT, n., chilumbo. KNOW, V. (understand), -manyi- lila (-manyilile) ; (be acquainted with), manya (-manye). KOODOO, n., ndandala. KRAAL, CATTLE-, n., lichinga. ENGLISH-TAO VOCABULAEY 199 LACK, t;., -sowa (-so wile). LADDER, n., makwelelo. LADLE, n., chikoi ; — outy v., -pakula (-pakwile). LAKE, n., nyasa. LAMP, n,, nyali ; light a — , v., -pamba (-pambile) ; put out — , -simisya (-simisye). LANDING-PLACE, n., chiko. LARGE, adj.y -kulungwa'; grow — , v., -kula (-kusile). LAST WELL, V., -ka\^a (-ka^ile) ; he lasty -malichisya (-malichi- sye) ; last night (adv.), chilo cha lelo ; last year, mwa- cheso. LATE, BE, v., -koko^a (-ko- kwe^e), -ka<^a (-ka^ile). LATER, adv.j panyuma pakwe. LAUGH, v., -seka (-sechile). LAY DOWN, V,, -tula (-tusile), -goneka (-goneche). LAY EGGS, v., -tajila (-tajile). LAZINESS, n., ulesi. LEAD, v., -longolela (-longolele) ; n., chumbu. LEAF, n., lisamba. LEAK, v., -sulula (-sulwile). LEAN AGAINST, v., -jegama (-je- geme). LEAP, v., -sumba (-sumbile). LEARN, v., -lijiganya (-lijigenye). LEAVE, V,, -leka (-lesile) ; — a place, -tyoka (-tyosile) ; take — , -langa (-lanjile) ; — , be ready to, v., -kulumika (-kulumiche). LEFT, TO THE, adv., ku mchlji. LEG, n., lukongolo. LEND, V, (temporarily), -jasima (-jasirae) ; — for some time, -kongola (-kongwele). LENGTH, n., uleu ; lengthwise, adv., chamchileu. LEOPARD, n.y chisui. LETTER, n., chikalata. LEVEL, BE, v., -^atama (-Pa- terae). LICK, v., -lapita (-lapite), -lamba (-lambile). LID, n., liuniko, chiunichilo. LIE, V. (tell lies), -lambusya (-la- mbwisye) ; lie down, -gona (-gonile) ; lie in wait for, -jut^ilila (-ju^ilile) ; lies, n., unami. LIFE, n., umi. LIFT, V,, -nyakula (-nyakwile). LIGHT, V. (a fire), -kolesya (-kole- sisye) ; (a lamp), -pamba (-pambile) ; — , he (in weight), -jaluchilwa (-jaluehilwe). LIGHTNING, n., iijasi. LIKE, adv., chisau, mpela ; in this manner, au utende'u ; like, v., -nonyela (-nonyele) ; he like, -landana na (-landene na) ; resemblance, n., chilasya. LIME, n,, njelesa. LIMP, V,, -tundajila (-tundajile). LINE, n., msela ; in line, adv., ndandanda. LINGER, v., -koko^a (-kokwe^e), -kai^a r-ka^ile). LION, w., lisimba. LIP, n., lugomo. LISTEN, v., -pikana (-pikene), -pi- kanila (-pikanile). LITTLE, adj., -nandi, -mnono ; a little, adv., panandi, panono ; littleness, n., unandi ; he little, v., -nandupa (-nandwipe). LIVER, n., matoga. LIVING, adj., -jumi. LOAD, n., msigo, katundu ; head-pad for — , singwa ; put down — , v., -tula (-tusile) ; put — on head, v., -twiehila (-twiehile). LOITER, v., -koko^a (-kokwe^e). LONG, adj., -leu ; he long, v., -leupa (-lewipe) ; long ago, kalakala. LOOK, v., -Ida ^lolite) ; look after, -lolela (-lolele). LOOKING-GLASS, n., kalilole. LOOPHOLE, n., ehimbeleta. 200 A YAO GBAMMAB LOSE, v., -sokonechesya (-sokone- che8ye),-jasa(-jasile); — (acase at law), v,j -goma (-gomile). LOST, BE, v., -jasika (-jasiche). LOTS, THE, n., chisango. LOVE, v., -nonyela (-nonyele). LUCK, n., (good), upile ; {bad), likungu. LYING, adj., -nami. M MADNESS, n., masoka. MAIZE, n., chimanga ; husked — , msokolo ; steeped — , mno^e ; — -cob, chisonde ; stalk, mpesi ; — strip off the cob, v,, -pukutula (-pukutwile). MAKE, v., -panganya (-pa- ngenye) ; — bricks, -gumba njelwa (-gumbile). MALE, adj. (person), -lume ; (animal), -mkambako. MALLET, n., mkomelo. MAN (person), n., mundu. MANNER (method), w., utende ; in this — , au utende'u, utende inoino ; in that — , we utende 'wo. MANNERS, TEACH (at unyago), v., -unda (-undile), MANNERS (customs), n,, wenda. MANY, adj., -jinji ; too many, winji ; how many ? -lingwa? ; be many, v., -ehuluka (-ehu- Iwiche), -tupa (-tupile). MARK, v., -lemba (-lembile). MARKET, n., msika. MARRIAGE, n., ulombela ; — , propose, v., -tombola (-^o- mbwele). MARRY, v., -lombela (-lombele). MAST, n., msati. MASTER, n., bwana (Swah.), ambuje. MAT, n., reed (sewn), ugono, ulili ; (tied), lichika ; palm - leaf (large), liambi ; (small), mkeka ; (large round), chitanga. MATCH (6e alike), v., -jilana (-ji- lene). MATTER (pus), n., UWOU. "MATTER, IT DOESN'T," paugali kandu. MATURE, v., -komangala (-ko- mangele) ; ripen, -jiula (-ji- wile). ME, pron., une. MEAN, BE, v., -8uka (-suchile). MEANING, n., mate. MEASURE,*n., mlingo; v., -ling^ ^-linjile) ; sca^, wesani, (Sioah.), MEAT, n., nyama. MEDICINE, n., mtela ; — , pre- pare, v., -jenjela (-jenjele). MEET, v., -simana (-simene). MEND, V, trans., -linganya (-li- ngenye). MENTION, v., -kolanga (-kolasile). MERCY, n., chanasa. MESSAGE, TAKE A, V., -lUIlgUSya (-lungwisye). MICTURATE, V., -tunda (-tu- ndile). MIDDLE, IN THE, adv., pakati, pa chilikati, pa silikati. MIDNIGHT, adj., pakati chilo. MILK, n., mkaka (ChiNyasa) ; mother's — , ma^ele ; miUc, v., -minya (-minyile). MILLET, n., usanje ; sorghum, mapemba. MINE, pron., -angune. MIRROR, n., kalilole. MISS, v., -kulusya (-kulwisye). MISTAKE, n., uleijiwa ; make a — , v., -soya (-soyiye). MIX, v., -Panganya (-^angenye) ; — by stirring, -kolonganya (-kolongenye), -unga(-unjile); be mixed, -sungunukuka (-su- ngunukwiche). MONEY, n. (ndalama), mbiya. MONDAY, n., lyu^^a lyakulemba. MONKEY, n., ehitumbili. MONTH, n., mwesi. MOON, n., mwesi. ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULARY 201 MORE, adj., pron,y -ine. MORNING, EARLY IN THE, adv., kunda^i, kunda^ipe ; before dawn, kumasikusiku ; next morning, kunda^i kwakwe ; start -early in the morning, -la^a (-labile). MORTAR, n., lituli ; pound in — , v., -twa (-twele) ; take prain out of — , v., -tegula (-tegwile) ; pestle, mwisi. MOSQUITO, n,, njenjema. MOTH, w., chipuluputwa. MOTHER, n., amao, achikulu, kusyeto ; in-law, akwego (see Appendix 11). MOULD, v., -gumba (-gumbile) ; a brick-mould, chikombole. MOUNTAIN, n., litumbi. MOURN, v., -lila (-lisile) ; a mourn- ing, malilo. MOUSTACHE, n., ndeu. MOUTH, n., pa kamwa. MOVE TO ONE SIDE, V. neut, -sejela (-sejele) ; trans., -se- je8ya(-8ejesye) ; move quickly, v., -chelenga (-chelesile') ; — one^s horns, -sama (-samile). MUCH, adj., -jinji. MUD, n., matd{)e. MUSHROOM, n., u^asi. MY, pron., -angu ; my own, -angune. N NAIL, n., msomali ; — of the finger, chikalawesa. NAME, n,, lina {pi., mena) ; give — , v., -ta (-tele). NATIVE, n., juampiliyu. NATURE, n., upagwe. NEAR, adv., mgulugulu, paku- ^andika. NEAR, BE, v., -^andika (-^andi- che) ; come — , -^andiehila (-^andichile) ; put — , -wandi- kanya (-\^andikenye). NECK, n., lukosi. NEEDLE, n., singano ; — {bam- boo), chilo^a. NEIGHBOUR, n., mnasi. . NEST, n., chisusi. NET, n., luao ; drag-net, likoka. NEURALGIA, It., ching'alang'ala. NEW, adj., -a sambano. NEWS, n., ngani (pZ.). NICE, BE, v., -salala (-salele), -lumbana (-lumbene). NICELY, adv., 'chenene, iche- nene, uchenene. NIGHT, n., chile ; midnight, pa- kati chile ; last night, chile cha lele. NIMBLE, BE, V., -jalukangana (-jalukangene). NO, adv., ngwamba. . NOBODY, ngapagwa {see page 72). NOD, V. {with sleep), -gwesela (-gweseie) ; beckon, -kedola (-kodwele). NOISY TALK, n., liscgwe. NORTH, n., kumpote. NOSE, n., lupula ; blow the — , v., -penga (-penjile) ; — , stud worn in, n., chipmi. NOSTRILS, n., mbula. NOTHING, ngapagwa {see page 72). NOW, adv., 8amb3,ne. Now-A-DAYS, adv., ge me^^a'gano. NUMBER, n., winji ; a large num- ber, mwanda. OBEISANCE, n., ulambi ; — , pay, v., -lamba (-lambile). OBEY, v., -pikana (-pikene). OCCASION, n., katema. OCCUR, v., -gwa (-gwile), -weneka (-weneche). OF, prep., -a. OFTEN, (idv., kawili kawili ; how often ? Kalingwa ? OLD, adj., -chektilu (of persons) ; -a kala {of things). ON PURPOSE, adv., mele, me- -lepe. 202 A YAO GBAMMAB ONCE, adv,, kamo; at oThce, sa- mb&no'jino. ONE, num,f -mo ; pron., ugwe. ONIONS, n., itunguu. ONLY, adv,f -pe. OPEN, v., -ugula ^ugwile) ; — a hoxj -unukula (-unukwile). OPENING, n., lipesa. OPPORTUNITY, n., lipesa. OR, conj,f kanga, pane. ORDEAL POISON, ti. (mwai). ORDER, V.J -lamula (-lamwile^ ; put in — , v., -linganya (-li- ncenye ; — {goods), v., -lajisya (-Tajisye). ORE, IRON, n., utale. ORIBI, n., chikosimbi. OTHER, adj., -ine. OUGHT, v., -^ajilwa (-^ajilwe). OUR, pron.y -etu ; our ovm, etuwe. OUTSIDE, adv,y pasa, kusa. OVERGROWN, BE (with gvass), V., -utala (-utele). OVERSEER, n., jua chilole. OVERTURN, v., -galausya (-gala- wisye), -pitikusya (-pitikwi- sye). OWNER, n., asyene. ox, n., ng'ombe. PACK, v., -longa (-lonjele) ; — tightly, v., -chinyindila (-chi- nyindile). PADDLE, v., -palasa (-palasile) ; a paddle, n., mpalasilo. PAIN, v., -poteka (-poteche^ ; become less painful, -tondowa (-tondwe^e). PALM, BORASSUS, n., mgwala- ngwa ; — , Raphia, chi^ale ; palm-leaf, mlasa ; — rope of, n,, lukwambala ; — of hand, ligasa. PAPER, n,, chikalakala, chipe- pela. PARABLE, n., chitagu ; — speak in, V,, -welecheta chining^EU PARBOIL, v., -uya ^uyile). PARENT, n., nangola PART, TAKE OF, V., -sapula (-sa- pwile), PASS, v., -pita ; — (put through), -pisya (-pisisye) ; — beyond, -pelenganya (-pelengenye). PATCH, n., chigamba. PATH; n., litala ; — , leave the, v., -sepuka (-sepwiche). PATIENCE, HAVE, V,, -jembecheya (-jembecheye). PAY, v., -lipila (-lipile) ; wages, malipilo, mbote. PEACE, n., mtendele. PEAS, n,, sa^a^a. PEEL (off), V,, -matula (-matwile) ; — (fruit), V,, -menya (-me- nyile). PEG, n., chichili, msomali ; — (in waU), chipanda. PEOPLE, n., ^andu. PERHAPS, adv., panjipa, pane, kanga, kwalini, kwaliko. PERSEVERANCE, n., mtau. PERSEVERE, V., -pimilila (-pimi- lile) ; -chaiila (-chalile). PERSON, n., mundu. PESTLE, n., mwisi. PICK UP, v., -lokotaf (-lokwete). PIECE, n., chipisya. PIERCE, v., -8oma(-somile), -poola (-powele). PIGEON (domestic), n., ngunda ; cote, chitundu. PILLOW, n., msamilo. PINCH, v., -tona (-tonile). PIPE, TOBACCO-, n., chilongo. PITY, n., chanasa. PLACE, w., liuto, malo ; place, v, (see put) ; landing — , chiko ; sleeping — , chigono ;• in the first — , pa ndanda. PLANE, v., -tilisya (-tilisye). PLANT, n., mbeju ; — , v., -panda ; a planter, juakusogosya. PLASTER, v., -mata (-matile) ; — sm,oothly, -syasyajila (-sya- syajile). ENGLISH-YAO VOOABUIjAEY 203 PLATE, n., mbale. PLATFORM (Jot drying meat, etc.), usau ; (for a bed, nidde of earth), chilili. PLAY, v., -ng'anda (-ng'andile). PLENTY, n., winji ; he — (enough), -jenanila (-jenanile). PLOT, A {trea>chery)f n,, malindi. PLUCK, t7. (fruit), -ka^a, (-ka^ile) ; (a fowl), -mesa (-mesile). POINT OUT, v., -lanjila (-lanjile). POISON, FISH, w., mtutu ; — ordeal, (mwai). POLE, n., chitela ; — of house, centre, tu, msati. POND, n., litamanda. POOL, n., litanda, lita^ale. POOR, BE, V,, -laga (-lasile). PORRIDGE, n., ugali. POSSESS, v., -kola (kwete), -ka- mula (-kamwile). POSSIBLE, BE, v., -komboleka (-komboleche). POSSIBLY, adv., kwaliko. . POST (verandah), n., luchanamila. POT, n., mpika, chi^iga, chiu- lugo ; water-pot, luulo. POTATO, n., mbatata (pi ). POUND, v., -twa (-twele), -twanga (-twanjile), -ponda (-pondile^ ; — steeped grain, v., -timbula (-timbwile). POUR, v., -taga (-tasile) ; — into another vessel, -pungula (-pu- ngwi le) ; — out, v., -j ita (-j it i 1 e). POVERTY, 71., usanchi. POWER, n., machili, uchimwene. PRAY, v., -popela (-popele). PRESENT, BE, V., -pagwa (-pa- gwile) ; — , give a, v., -lagusya (-lagwisye) ; — , n., msati. PRESERVE, v., -gosa ^goslle). PRETTY, BE, V., -salala (-salele). PREVENT, v., -lekasya (-leka- sisye). PRICE, n., usume, (mtengo). PROHIBITION (traditional), n., mpingusi ; — , observe, v, -gosa (-gosiie). PROLONG, V,, -leuya (-lewiye); — ons^s stay, -lonjela (-lo- njele). PROPOSE (marriage), v,, -tombola (-^ombwele). PROSPER, v., -jinichilwa (-jini- chilwe). PROUD, BE, V,, -poka (-pochele) ; pride, lilama. PULL, V,, -uta (-utile) ; — out, -swekula (-swekwile). PUMPKIN, n., liungu (jpl., mo- ngu). PUNISH, V,, -sausya (-sausisye). PURPOSELY, adv., melepe. PURSUE, 1?., -kuya (-kuyiye). PUS, n., uwou. PUSH, V,, -tuta (-tutile). PUT, V,, -^ika (-<^isile) ; (apply), -taga (-tasile) ; — aside, -sa- lasya (-salesye) ; — back, -uehisya (-uchisye) ; — down, -tula (-tusile) ; — in, -sweka (-swechile) ; — in order, -li- nganya (-lingenye) ; — on the head, -twichila (-twichile) ; — on top, -sajika (-sajiche) ; — out (extinguish), -simisya (-si- misye) ; — through, -pisya (-pisisyeO ; — together, -pa- mbula (-pambwile). PUZZLE, v., -simosya (-simosi- sye); puzzled, be, -simongwa (-simongwile) ; puzzling, he, -simonjeka (-simonjeche) ; — , n., chitagu. Q QUANTITY, 71., wiuji ; increase — , v., -jonjechesya (-jonjeche- sye). QUARREL, TO., ndeu ; quarrelsome- ness, umani ; — , catwe of, li^amba. QUICKLY, adv., ehitema. QUIETLY, adv., chete ; quiet, pe-e ! 204 A YAO GBAMMAB R RACE, n., chilindasi. RAFTERS, n,j chipagala. RAIN, n., ula ; rainy seasofiy chuku ; , beginning of, mtuluka; rain^ v., -nya ula (-nyele) ; rainsj first, chisi- mopya. RAISE, t?., -nyakula (-nyakwile), -kwesya (-kwesisye). RANSOM, I?., -tombola (-^o- mbwele). RAT, n., likoswe ; field-rat, li- puku ; rat-trap, chigwenembe, lili^a. RATIONS, n., inga. REACH, v., -ichila (-ichile). READ, v., -^alanga (-^alasile). READINESS, IN, adv., chile. READY, MAKE, V,, -kulumisya (-kulumisye). REALLY, adv., kwene, chisimu. REAP {maize), ik, -go^ola (*go- ^ele). REASON, n., ligongo, li^amba ; without — , lulele ; (foolishly), v/^ambape. REBUKE, v., -jamuka(-jamwiche). RECEIVE, v., -pochela (-pochele). RECENTLY, adv,, katasi. RED, adj., -chejeu ; — , be, -che- jela (-chejele) ; — , dye, v., -chesula (-cheswile). REED, n., litete ; cut — , v., -tema (-temile). REED-BUCK, n., ndope. REFRAIN FROft*, V., -ligOSa (-UgO- sile). REFUSE, v., -kana (-kanile), -jima (-jimi). REJOICE, v., -sechelela (-seche- lele), -sangalala (-sangalele). RELATIONS (see Appendix IT), REMAIN, v., -sigala (-sigele). REMEMBER, V., -kumbuchila (-kumbuchile). REMIND, v., -kumbusya (-ku- mbwisye). REMOVE, V,, -tyoeya (-tyoeisye). RENT (tear), n., chipo^o. REPEAT, v., -wilisya (-wilisye), -tandilila (-tandilile^. REPLY, v., -janga Manjile). RESEMBLE, V., -landana (-la- ndene), -wangala (-wangele). RESOLVE, MAKE A, V., -chalila (-chalile). RESPECT, TREAT WITH, t?., -Chi- mbichisya (-chimbichisye). REST, v., -pumula (-pumwile). RETURN, V. neut., -uja (-usile^ ; trans., -uchisya (-uchisye) ; — the same day, v., -ujanganya (-ujangenye). * RHEUMATISM, n., chilumi. RHINOCEROS, H., mbela. . RICE, n., mpunga. RICH, BE, v., -sicbila (-sichile). RIDICULE, n., chanftche. RIFLE, n., uti (see gun). RIGHT HAND, TO THE, adv,, ku mlyo. RIPE, BE (of grain), v., -komala (-komele), -komangala (-ko- man^ele) ; (of /n*tY), -jiula (-jiwile). RIVER, n., nyasa, lusulo ; cross a — , 1?., -jomboka(-jombweche). ROAD, HOED, n., mseu ; — , fork of, n., malekano. ROAR, v., -tongola (-tongwele). ROCK, n., Iwala. ROLL ABOUT ON THE GROUND, V., -galagata (-galagatile). ROOF, n., msakasa, chipagala. ROOM (space), n,, liuto, male. ROOT, n., mchiga. ROPE, n., lukonji ; bark-rope, mgoji ; — of palm leaf, lu- kwambala ; — , splice, v., -ti- mbilisya (-timbilisye). ROT, v., -^ola (-^osile). ROUND, GO, v., -synngula (-syu- ngwile) ; coil — , -syenga (-sye- njile). ROUSE, v., -jimusya (-jimwisye). ROY-BUCK, n., swala. ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULARY 205 RUB, V,, -tichita (-tichite) ; — stomach {as compliment), -pata (^patile). RUBBISH, n., iswani ; — heap, chitutu. BUN, v.y -utuka (-utwiche) ; — away, -tila (-tisile). RUST, n., mkuo. S SABLE ANTELOPE, n., mbalapi. SALE, THINGS FOR, n., malonda. SALIVA, n., mat a. SALT, n., njete. SALUTE, «., -komasya (-koma- sisye). SAME, THE, n., chalumo, yalumo. SAND, n., msanga. SATISFIED, BE, V,, -jikuta (-ji- kwite). SATURDAY, n., lyu^a lyaku^e- luka. SAVE UP, u., -salasya (-salesye^j. SAY, v.y -jila (-jile), -ti (-tiji, -chite, -tite), -sala (-sasile). SAYING, n., ngani. SCALES (weighing), n., wesani (Swah^ ; — , fish, n., ma^a- mba. SCISSORS, n,, makasi. SCOLD, v., -jamuka (-jamwiche). SCORCHED, B^, V,, -tinika (-tini- . che). SCORPION, n., chi^ala^ala. SCRAPINGS OF POT, n., makokoto. SCRATCH, v., -mwaga (-mwasile). SCREAM, v., -gumila (-gumisile), -jamila ^-jamisile). SCUM, n., cniulo. SEARCH FOR, v., -sosa (-sosile), -lolela (-lolele). SEASON (dry), n., chau ; — -. rainy, chuku ; — , harvest, masika. SEE, V,, -wona (-weni), -Ida (-lo- lite) ; see off, -sindichisya (-sindichisye). SEED, n., mbeju. SEEING THAT, conj,, pakuti, mkuti. SEEM, v., -wangala (-wangeleV SEIZE, v., -kamula (-kamwile). SELDOM, adv,, kamo kamo. SELF, pron., -syene ; -li- (with verb), SELL, v., -sumisya (-sumisye). SEND, V, (a man), -tuma (-tu- mile); (a thing), -tumisya (-tumisye). SENSE, n., mate, lunda. SERVE (food), v., -pakula (-pa- kwile). SERVAL, n., njusi. SET UPRIGHT, V,, -jimika (-jimi- che) ; set (a trap\ -tega (-te- sile, -tejile); set (of sun), -swa (-swele). SEW, v., -tota (-totile). SHADE, n., uwilili ; in the — , mbwilili ; {lit, shadow). SHAKE, v., >sangusa (-sangwise) ; -tenganya (-tengenye). SHAME, n,, soni. SHARP, adj., -akutema ; sharpen, V,, -nola (-nosileV SHAVE, v., -myola (-myosile), -moga (-mosile). SHE, pron., ajo. SHED, GRASS, n., lisakasa. SHEEP, n., ngondolo. SHILLING, w., lupiya (Hindustani, rupee). SHINE, v., -^ala (-^asile). SHOOT, v., -gomba uti (-gombile), -ulaga (-uleje) ; go for a shoot, -jaula ku mikuli (-jawile). SHORE, n., njengwe ; ashore, ku- mkuli ; — , reach the, -kochela (-kochele). SHORT, adj., -jipi ; too — , wipi. SHOULDER, n., likoyo. SHOW, v., -losya (-losisye). SHUT, v., -ugala (-ugele) ; — (a box), -unichila (-unichile). SICK, BE, v., -Iwala (-Iwasile) ; • (romt*), -tapika(-tapiche); — , hut for the, n., chisako. SIDE, n., mbali, upande ; the*other side (of river), pesi ; of an obstacle, pasyeto. 206 A YAO GRAlOfAR SIFT, t?., -peta(-petile), -senyenda (-senyendile) ; sifting basket, lupeta. SIGH, v,, -isya mtima (-isisye). SILENT, pe-e ! ji-i ! SIMPLETON, 11,, jua chisilu. SIN, n., ulemwa ; — , v., -lemwa (-lemwile), -soya (-soyiye). SINCE, conj,, pakuti, patipo. SING, t;., -jimba (-jimbile). SINGE, v., ^a^a (-^a^ile). SINK, v., -titimila (-titimilo). SISTER, n. {see Appendix IT), SIT, v.y -tama (-temi). SIZE, n., ukulu. SKILL, n., ukungwi. SKiN,n., lipende ; braytoitk ^tones, v., -uuta (uutile) ; — , strip off, v., -gwagula (-gwa^wile). SKY, n., kwinani, kwiunde. SLACK, BE {of rope), v., -tondot^a (-tondwe^e). SLANT, v., -pendaraa (-pendeme). SLAVE, n., kapolo. SLEEP, v., -gona m'lugono, -gona ^gonile^ ; he sleepy, -gwesela (-gwesele). SLIPPERY, BE, V,, -telesya (-te- lesye). SLOPPY, BE, v., -tepeta (-tepete) ; sloppiness, ndepete. SLOWLY, adv.j panandi panandi, mbolembole. SMALL, adj., -nandi, -mnono ; smallness, u nandi ; he — , v., -nandupa (-nandwipe). SMASH, v., -kasa (-kasile). SMEAR, V,, -mata (-matile), -paka (-pachile). SMELL, V, trans,, -nusya (-nu- sisye) ; — nice, v, neut, -nunjila(-nunjilile) ; stink, v,, -nunga (-nunjile). SMILE, v., -mwetulila (-mwetu- lile). SMOif E, n,, liose ; — (tohacco), v., -kwemba (-kwembile) ; smoked, be (of food), v., -uchilila (-uchi- lile). SMOOTHE, v., -tilisya (-tilisye). SNAKE, n., lijoka. SNEEZE, V,, -jesemula (-jese- rawile). SNIFF, V,, -nusya (-nusisye). SNORE, v., -koloma (-kolwerae). SNUFF, n., Bona juakunusya. SO-AND-SO, nyono. SOAK, V,, -lo^eka (-lo^eche). SOFT, BE, v., -jolo^a (-jolwe^e) ; soften {a skin) by rubbing, v., -uuta (-uutile). SOIL, n,, litaka. SOMEBODY, n., mundu ; some- thing, n,, chindu. SOMETIMES, adv,, pane ; from time to time, katema kwa ka- tema ; rarely, kamo kamo. SON n,, mwanache {see Appendix II). SOON, adv,, pangaka^a. SORE, n., li^anga ; be sore, v,, -poteka (-poteche). SORGHUM, n., mapemba. SORRY, BE,v,, -dandaufa (-danda- wile) ; " / am sorry " (condol- ence), " Une juangali chilapo," " Iwele ya chanasa." SORT, n., lukosyo, mtindi ; — , V,, -sagula (-sagwile), -loko- tanya (-lokotenye). SOUND, n,, lilo^e ; — (a bugle), v., -gomba (-gombile). SOUTH, kumwela. SPACE, n., lipesa, liuto. SPEAK, V,, -^echeta (-^echete), -^elecheta (-^elechete). SPEAR, n,, lipanga. SPIRITS, THE, n., masoka. SPLICE, v., -timbilisya (-timbili- sye). SPLINT, n,, chitanga. SPLIT, V,, -kachula (-kachwile) ; — up, V,, -^alula^(-^alwile). SPOIL, v., -jonangaT (-jonasile), -sakasya (-sakesye). SPOON, WOODEN, n,, chikoyi. SPOOR, n., likau, likumbo. SPOTS, n,, ma^^ala. ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULAKY 207 SPREAD, V. trans., -tandika ^-ta- ndiche) ; neut, -jenela (-je- nele) ; — in the 9un, v,, -janik'a (-janiche) ; — out (cloth), -sa- pangula (-sapangwile). SPRINKLE, v., -misa (-misile) ; — with the fingers, v,, -nyunya (-nyunyile). SPUD, n., chilaja. SQUEEZE, V,, -minya (-minyile). STAB, V,, -soma (-somile). STAFF (stick), n., ngongo. STAMMERING, adv, n., chimeme. STAND, v., -jima (-jimi). STAR, n., ndondwa. START, v., -tyoka (-tyosile) ; — early, v,, -la^a (-labile). STARTLED, BE, V., -tojima (-to- jime). STAY, v., -tama (-temi) ; — some time, v., -lonjela (lonjele). STEAL, V,, -ji^a (-ji^ile). STEEP (soak), v., -lo^eka (-lo- ^eche) ; — , he, v,, -lemala (-lemele). STICK, n., chitela ; walking-stick, chimbonga, ngongo ; forked stick, lipanda. STIFF (hard), BE, v., -kwindimala (-kwindimele). STING, v., -luma (-lumile). STINGY, BE, v., -suka (-suchile). STINK, v., -nunga (-nunjile) ; a stink, n., liungo. STIR, t;.,-kologanya (-kologenye) ; — porridge (in cooking), -uga (-usile). STOMACH, w., chitumbo, ma- tumbo. STONE, n., liganga. STOOL (native), n., chitengu. STOOP, v., -jinama (-jineme). STOP, v., -leka (-lesile), trans,, -lekasya ^-lekasisye) ; — work, -^eluka (-^elwiche). STOPPER, n., chisiwilo. STORE (grain), n,, ngokwe ; take out from — , v., -^asa (-^a- sile). STORY, n., ndano ; tell — , v,, -jimba ndano (-jimbile). STRAIGHT, BE, V,, -goloka (-gO- Iweche) ; straighten, v., -golosya (-golwesye^. STREAM, «., lusulo ; country in relation to a strea/tn, n., lisi ; stream-garden, ku matimbe ; — , bank of, mjengwe ; — , country between two, n., lu- tando. STRENGTH, w., machili. STRETCH (especially oneself), v,, -jongola (-jongwele), or refi, STRIKE, V,, -puta (-putile) ; — ujith fist, v., -twanga (-twa- njile). STRING, w., lukonji ; — , make, v., -pota (-potile) ; st^'ing beads, -tunga (-tunjile) ; — a bow or - bed, V,, -kunga (-kunjile). STRIP (maize from the cob), v,, -putukula (-putukwile). STRIPED, adj,, ina^ala-ma^ala. STRONG, BE, V., -limba (-limbile). STRUGGLE, V,, -pilipita (-pilipi- tile). STUMBLE, V,, -ku^ala (-ku^elej. STUMP (of axe, hoe), n., chigwili ; — (projecting), n., chisichi. STUPID, BE, V,, -lo^ela ^lo^ele) ; a stupid person, jua chisilu. SUBMISSION, n., ulambi. SUBSIDISE (especially an army), V,, -lalika (-laliche). SUCH AS THIS, yati'ii. SUCK, v., -jonga (-jonjile). SUFFER, v., -laga (-lasile). SUFFICE, n., -jenanila (-jena- nile) ; -jenela (-jenele). SUGAR-CANE, n., mlungu. SUITABLE, BE, V., -^ajilwa (-^a- jilwe). SUMMON, v., -^ilanga (-^ilasile), -kolanga (-kolasile) ; beckon, -kodola (-kodwele). SUN, n., lyu^a ; rise, «., -cha (-chele) ; set, v., -swa (-swele). SUPPOSE, V,, -pela (-pesile). 208 A YAO GBAMMAB SURPRISED, BE, V,, -lapa (-lapile). SUSPEND, v., -koleka ^koleche) ; suspended, be, v,, -saKama (-sa- keme). SWALLOW, v., -mila (-misileV SWEAR (use had language), v., -tukana (-tukene). SWEAT, n., chitukuta. SWEEP, v., -pyajila (-pyajile) ; broom, lisache. SWEET, BE, v., -nong'a (-nonyile). SWELL UP, V,, -imba (-imbile). SWIM, v., -Dg'ambila (-ng'sr- mbile). swizzLESTicK, n., lupukuso. SWORD, n., lupanga. TAIL, n., mchila. TAKE, v., -jigala (-jigele), -tola (-tosile) ; — aioay, -tyosya (-tyosisye) ; — off clothes, -wula (-wusilej ; — off fire, -tegala (-tegwile) ; — out of fire, -jokola (-jokwele) ; — ovi of grain store, -^asa (-^asile) ; — part, -sapula (-sapwile) ; — back, -uchisya (-uchisye). TAP (rubber), v., -goma (-gomile). TASTE, v., -pasya ^pasisye) ; — , bitter, -^a^a (-wa^ile) ; taste- less, be, -sisima (-sisime) ; lack of flavour, n., usuma ; tasty, desire of something, n,, luko^o. TATOO MARKS, n., nembo. TAX, n., msoko. TEACH, V,, -jiganya (-jigenye) ; — manners (at unyago), v., -unda (-undile). TEAR, V,, -papula (-papwile) ; — out, -kachula (-kachwile). TELL, «., -tagulila (-tagalile), -salila (-salile) ; — lies, -la- mbusya (-lambwisye). TEN, num,, likumi. THAT, IN ORDER, conj,, kuti, ya- pate. THATCH, V,, -wimba (-wimbile). THEIR, pron., -ao. THEMSELVES, jwon., achimsyeiie. THERE, adv., apo, kweleko, etc, ; there is not, kwangali ; there is, akuii. THEREFORE, cotij.,' mSnSma, ambi. THIEF, n,, juawii. THIOH, n., chiiga. THIN, BE, v., -ganda (-gandile) ; (of texture), -jepepala (-jep«- pele). THING, n., chindu. THINK, 17., -ganisya (-ganisisye), -pela (-pesile), -wona (-weni). THIRST, n., njota. THORN, n., mwi^a. THOUGH, conj,, nambo (see also ALTHOUGH). THREAD, n., usi, ulusi ; twist — , -singa (-sinjile). THREE, num., -tatu. THROAT, n., ku ngulo. THROW, v., -ponya (-ponyile) ; — away, -jasa (-jasile). THUMB, n., chala cha chikongo. THUS, adv., iyoyo, sai, inoino, *ii, au utende'u. TIDY, PUT, v., -linganya (-li- ngenye). TIE, v., -ta^a (-ta^ile) ; — to- gether, -lumbikanya, (-lumbi- kenye). TIME, n., katema ; how many times ? kalingwa ? TIP (end), n., mtepa. TIRED, BE, v., -sakalika (-saka- liche), -pela (-pesile). TO, prep., ku, kwa. TOAD, n., chiula. TOBACCO, n., sona ; smoke — , v., -kwemba (-kwembile) ; — pipe, n., chilongo. TO-DAY, adv., lelo. TOE, n., chala ; great — , e. cha chikongo ; little — , c cha nyonje ; — nail, n., chikala- wesa. ENGLISH-TAO VOCABULARY 209 TOGETHER, adv,, p a m p G p 6, pamo ; go — , v,, -longana (-longene). TOKEN, n., chimanyililo. TOMATO, n., lipwetechela. TOMB, n., chilisa. TO-MORROW, adv., mala^i ; day after — , mtondo ; two days after — , mkucha. TONGUE, n,, lulimi. TOOTH, n., lino (pi, meno) ; tooth-brush (native), mswache. TOP, ON, adv., pa chanya, penani; place — — , v., -sajika (-sa- jiche). TRACK, n., likumbo, likau. TRADE, v., -sumana (-sumene) ; — n., upasani. TRADER, BANYAN, n., m'mwenye. TRAMPLE ON, V., -li^ata (-li^ete). TRAP, n., chigwenembe ; flat stone, lilK^a ; set — , v., -tega (-tesile) ; go off, v., -ituka (-itwiche). TRAVELLER, n., mlendo. TREACHERY, 71., malindi. TREAD, v., -li^ata (-li^ete). TREE, n., mtela ; fell — , v., -kanga (-kanjile). TREMBLE, V., -tetemela (-tete- mele). TRENCH, n., lukoloma. TRIBAL MARKS, n., nembo. TRIBE, n., lukosyo. TRIM NAILS, v., -sinda (-sindile). TRIP (stumble), v., -ku^ala (-ku^ele). TROUBLE, v., -8ausya (-sausisye), -sakalisya (-sakalisye) ; be in — , -singalilwa (-singalilwe). TRUSS (of cloth), n., mtumba. TRUST, v., -kulupilila (-kulu- pilile). TRY, v., -linga (-linjile). TURN BACK, v., -ujiHla (-ujilile), -galauka (-galawiche); — aside, v., -sepuka (-sepwiche) ; — round, v., -galausya (-gala- wisye) ; — over, -pitikusya (-pitikwi8ye),-unika (-uniche); — face up (right way up), -galika (-galiche). TWICE, adv., kawili. TWIST (thread), v., -singa (-si- njile), -pota (-potile) ; — round, v., -syenga (-syenjile). TWO, num., -will. U ULCER, n., li^anga. UNCLE, n., atati (see Appendix IT). UNDER, prep., pasi pa. UNDERSTAND, V., -manyilila (-ma- nyilile), -pilikana (-pilikene). UNDRESS, v., -wula (-wusile). UNFOLD, v., -sapangula (-sapa- ngwile). UNFORTUNATE, BE, v., -kola likungu (-kwete). UNHAPPY, BE, v., -laga (-lasile). UNINHABITED AREA, n., lipululu. UNRAVEL, v., -sapangula (-sa- pangwile). UNRIPE, adj., -^isi. UNTIE, v., -gopola (-gopwele). UNTIL, prep., mpaka. UPHILL, adv., ku mkuli. UPRIGHT, SET, V., -jimika (-ji- miche). UPROOT (tear up by roots), v.; -kachula (-kachwile) ; -tupula (-tupwile). UPSIDE DOWN, TURN, V., -piti- kusya (-pitikwisye), -galausya (-galawisye) ; -unika (-uniche). UPSTREAM, adv., kumkuli. USELESS, adj., -mtega ; uselessly, adv., wambape. VALLEY, n., liti^i. VEGETABLE, n., liponda. VERANDAH, n., lipenu ; — room, lukole ; — post, luchanamila. VERY, adv., mnope, kuayene ; very much, very often, kwakujinji» 14 210 A YAO GRAMMAR VILLAGE, n., musi ; — large, n., msinda ; — new, n., luno ; — deserted, n., masame. VISIBLE, BE, v., -woneka (-wo- neche). VOMIT, v., -tapika (-tapiche). W WAGES, n., malipilo, mbote. WAIT, V,, -linda (-lindile), -je- mbecheya Membecheye) ; lie in vHiit, -juwilila (-jui^ilile). WAKEN, v., -jimu8ya(-jimwi8ye). WALK, v., -jenda, (-jesile) ; go for a — , -jaula kwimajima ; — /oa*, -tugala (-tugele) ; wcUk- ing-stick, chimbonga ; — staff, ngongo. WALL, n., lipupa ; partition — , lusasa. WANDER ABOUT, v., -la^ala^a (-la^ala^ile). WANDERINGS, n., wende. WANT, v., -saka (-sachile), -sosa (-sosile); (lack), -sowa (-sowile). y WAR, n., ngondo. WARM ONESELF AT FIRE, V,, -jota, -lijota (-jotile). WARM UP (food), v,y. -k5sya (-kOsisye). WARTHoG, n., mbango. WASH, V. (clothes), -chapa (-cha- pile), -saula (-sawile) ; (per- son), -joga (-josile) ; (hands), -na^a (-na^ile) ; (face), -su- kusula (-sukuswile) ; (aw article), -siika (-suchile). WASTE, v., -jonan^a (-jonasile). WATCH, V,, -lindilila (-lindilile) ; ' — house, n,, chilindo. WATER, n., mesi ; water-pot, luulo. WATERBUCK, n., ndogofo. WATERSHED, n., lutando, mlila. WAY, w. (path), litala ; {manner), utende. WE, pron., uwe, uweji ; — our- selves, uwewe. WEAK, BE, v., -loi^ela (-loi^ele). WEALTH, n., chipanje. WEAR (clothes), »., -wala (-wete). WEAVE (baskets), v., -luka (-lu- chile). WEDDING, n., ulombela. WEED, n., chikoko ; — , v., -lima luwila (-limile). WEIGH, V,, -linga (-1 i n j i 1 e) ; scales, n., wesani. WELL, adv., ichenene, uchenene, chenene ; — , conj., kwende ; — , n., chisima. WET, BE, v., -nyo^a (-nyowe^e, -nyo^ile). WHAT ? pron,, chichi ; adj. pron.^ chi, -api ; — about it ? ambi uli ; — for ? -a chichi ; — kind of? -a chi. WHEEL, n., chitungulu. WHEN? adv., lyu^a chi, chaka chi, katema chi ; — (feL), pe, po, pi, pa. WHERE ? adv., kwapi, papi, m w a p i ; — (rel.), pe, po, pa, pi. Whether, conj., kanga, pane. WHICH ? pron., -api, chi. WHISPER, v., -songona (-so- ngwene). WHISTLE, v., -gomba lulu si (-gombile); — (bamboo), chikwelu. WHITE, adj., -swela ; — ants, n., ucheche ; — ants (flying), ngumbi ; — , be, v., -swejela (-swejele). WHO? pron., ^ani; whom? cheni ; whose ? -a clieDi. WHY ? adv., li^ongo chichi. WIDE, -ana chitipa. WIDTH, n., chitipa. WIFE, n., asono, asonogo ; head- wife, kusyeto. WILD BEAST, ti., chikoko. wiLDEBEESTE, h., sindi. WIND, n., mbungo, mbepo ; blow, v., -puga (-pujile). WINDOW, n., chimbeleta. ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULARY 211 WING, n., lipapiko. WIPE, V.J -pukuta (-pukwite). WIRE, n.j lusambo. WISDOM, n., lunda. WISH, v.y -saka (-sachile), *sosa (-sosile). WITCHCRAFT, n., usa^i. WITH, prep., ni, na. WITHER, V,, -nyala (-nyasile). WITHOUT, adj.f -angali, ; he — , V.J -sowa (-80 wile). WITNESS, n., mboni. WOMAN, n., juamkongwe, ^a- kongwe, mbumba ; pL, achambumba, achamba, achakongwe. WONT, BE, V.J -syo^elela (-syo^e- lele). WOOD (jungle), n., mseso ; wooden, adj.j -a mtela. WORD, ri.,-lilo^e. WORK, n., masengp ; stop — , v., -^eluka (-^elwiche). WOUND, n.j li^anga ; — - v., -ulala (-ulele), -soma (-somileV WRIGGLE, V.J -pilipita (-pilipite). WRITE, V.J -lemba (-lembile). WRONG, DO, v., -soya (-soyiye), -lemwa (-lemwile). YARD, n. {measure) J upande {pl.j mbande) ; courtyard, ku nganya. YAWN, V.J -jasama mwaju (-jaseme). YEAR, n., chaka ; — before last, mwachejusi ; last — , mwa- cheso ; next — , pa chaka, chaka chine ; this — , namyaka. YES, adv.j elo. YESTERDAY, adv., liso ; day before — , lijusi. YOU, pron.j umwe, ^alakwe ; you yourself, umweji ; "i/ou there ! " ^anyamwe. YOUR, pron.j -enu ; your own, -enumwe. YOUTH, n.j mchanda ; (abstract^ uchanda. Z ZEBRA, n.j mbunda. abbbdbbn: thb univbbsitz fbbss,