BULLETIN OF THE Madras Government Museum EDITED BY THE SUPEFM'ITEi'it} E ,V7 AN OUTLINE OF INDIAN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE RV F- H, GRAVE! V, d.sc„ f.fua,s,b. Cj'iiiv! « i in r nf A-Ij/xcuru, il/nrTrtu New, Series— G enera/ Stttfon* VoLJlf. Fi. 2 Id A DRA5 PJRINTMP TH:-: SL’PEHIWTENDFNT, GOVEflHMElfT FftESS i'i!:LL. [z> tappcrl mce LIST OF MADRAS GOVERNMENT MUSEUM BULLETINS (NEW SERIES), ISctVrerce, Tipfe* Page*. PtottJ*. frjtt- Naturai History Scerien fs.arA stf.ar.w t'aluw«/.v Zs^kjiy and lialattff #+jji#dp(MUj- , j L . Ad. A. P. YnJ. I, Nd. I, 3 i>i -7 ,? ■ n The Littoral Foum of Krjisiii Island igt, all l±. -g In drift £>ult Of Mans or, by vsri-owi authors, Vel. T, Np, a, port i, i Supplement » (ta Littoral Fsjumi of ?s t boo t&) 0. Km tidal Island in the Gulf of Alatir, tiy ¥ 3 ri"n»o esesnipJca art tnovn LFiE* ?H). ITne JieJehir type ia 6 vianinfi rou.t j ef Nneebcm J fhe fl'J&iHfrvj (yen. uid eh P Hehfiir “At* Juloed tu-radj eiher in u very ipLliVMH ttVmnuY''' the former ranuij 1 the irciiAAeftTViT Isage 1541 or veiiLtute no die Ij«it which i*1hi lyph^l ti>nn of vtnaDe in Orissa, tn (he Lnj:nj Lirnjili: i( E-ir.-nHrHl, bfiwwvar, diB ir.jnn cpprcEjd cj]- be uf tluJSfiJiira type. atLab bead an Qhi 4 ctlS 1 .MeiBM ftnce Id thevinmnaa of Kadnmba tauplea |see heltM', page 9J. 'lh-r in nr 4h#naeieTTi4(^ i,| ihc tj^pe se.ma co he in ree.(Mzi^uiHr EihIimiJ vf ^ijn:i-r j>Lui fn for |r ! P rhoufih. eict Ln use, it thus "beers mjch ihe sam.: sore of" ™|H(ian fo the te-^Lcal Orissar, vimcjia as the Tstmdiui gopum dees-co the- Thmi .inn vimin'. itaensl walls e.riz d :ini _-r in'. sr iy!i : fp]. 1 : [^ c ri te p p %t- j 2 j -s 5 in the "I nmiluui ^apnjs.iamerirnea eutved l?t. oppoiiKpage 37^. Who) the JJurtiem fomi ef ((rnple hasbivn aim:iii |y updftd in eihvrftrtAf' ji ia rM( uiuisaly tli^t it i»iy cuvt«] a cinclirdivenLiyanifiiij; els I'm- hiirfs elsewture. Several etrty ivnpies (if Neirdmcn focm nre considered in Ch. Vjll 1:1 Timjilw And A.ri:liii«i:tvt*"" ■vf R. 1 ?, Baoyrji'H “ fe^rteni Judjn idaacJ of JVltdi&evaJ Sctipiuru " Ctirrrt, Srr/t.. Usd^Nao Imp. Scr. XL-VIf, DeThi, [ftjjJ, An Outline of Indian Tetnph Architecture 5 The Southern form, of Leihplc. 2 ^ been regarded by Fengusson Mid moat gubttfUKnt authors As- associated with a single style, to which the name Dravidinn has generally been appfisd. Actually, however, two different styles have in this tray been confused, styles which ware already differentiated from one Another by the time their earliest Surviving- examples Tfc'Ofta Duhrmil t tl Archdningle de 3 ud de I'lnde " I, pagea 171-182) ; but there are distinctive differences between the two in enterr-sl form as well. For instance, though the crown of the t-imana is octagonal in the earliest surviving temples oi both, it has a window ornament on each face in the Tamilian style but only on ajKxatK faces m the Kaoarftse {Gravely snd Ramachandran, lac. til. pi, II, fig. rj ; and whereas j%ti Ovtfine of Indian, Temple Architecture 7 f 93*1 it mostly retains this original ocutgnsul bM]ii= ib later Tamilian ttmplea, it is square icx a]) kibsr K^rtartse Ones (hi- iiJ, F pi. IT, figg. 3-4) except the Ma.llifc;irjuna at Pattudnkal in which ic is found. In the latter style, moreover, a decorative gjablc is aided to the front of the Spiro at a comparatively early dace (Itx. rii., pi. II, fig?. 3.-4), a feature pipt fnusstl in Tamilian. tcmpluLi, 1 And there are other differences also,. concerning which see Gravely and ftonoa- chHndrnjl, be, rit, page i&. As these Ksnarcsc temples were erected by the Chaluhyas,* of which dynasty they arc the earliest surviving nwnumOnts, they may conveniently he desigtiaied Early Chain feyan. This term is not only historicaliy correct for the earliest Chain hyan buildhtga that survive, but will further help to avoid their confusion with later temples derived from them (see below, pagea 16-19! to which the general term Chnlukytm was applied — in a geographical and not it dynustic sense 1 by Fcrgusson, though the moa* celebrated of th-ens art now kftOwn to have been the work of a different dynasty, the Hriysalas, Whether Early ChaEukyan architecture should be so deiioed as to include M-inples of Northern 1 A scnnwh.ii similar structure is bund in the Early Chela icrsijilca a.] Tii'ijtnp ^nd Oai^ikandaioa'lupunni. hut finite le* in. jvajiajcion la the irvirtiani* height of tine vimsnn* Tlv± ptiae.ii.if vra-usi at i(4 Sj of bia " ChilaltyAii Arehiieyiure of the Knnsrtst district* :> lAntk. Sort;. 2nd. N(»w Imp. S«. XL! l Calcutta, 1 Osfrf Coitann points 1o the rcmirkable ilmilDritp exitting. faotwAm rhi: Virujnktiin temple of ccie of tJm a: the Onslufcyiii K .1:^ V, k, ■— vlhi. i hy ■. It lotted ska! end the Kaslnsa temple of datcnn^irejoi rii' she 1 CbaLukyii (ui his *WiJj Ki-ithna 1 of the £l:sh:?ikuti dynasty, at EJaia. fact Rtet'a DynaariAi of the KtooTtss iliiiriu* - . . " in r| CoeetttAi- of :he BauIm,<. PrrtidrnAy '■•C$6, (uge the d«onciv± deiAjl raE dte Blura !'■*■; ili-p, lifec (hat -of this ccies, lias seen iltown by JouvAifj-Djbriiall ( lr AichArilr^i,? Sud dc rlfltU' 1 ' I, pafl« Trt-sJi. pi, MhbuTt to be is a very dtfTtmm iry lc fn: of the form afetttivn leciunfttr Lthai becaabindoued by rlr= Chaluliyaa in Aivriur of rhcafjyaTe fbrm.. and in the present trf uap-ill gnpturas — ray liht tiin« rli* K , . j I : , ^ 1 , h 1 1 . . ■ Conic erf nirt — bd bitIj ta in " U'.± fnanbrr raf hjpetiijri! of the finis '' ooinmKittd an by Cnuieni. Id myloiDr popes wltfa Mr. ’Rirmchuidsafi Abwady hsOrred to tip A *aiii that £u view s: :hc apparently dear irunripur.s!. AVirfAnCA tJiLi "Isr a> lI .itniT :it the Vjrupakslxi temple wra frriA div Tcimil eoor*ry vta nacu fAJrpc^i*J tn Ih miib]* to find uirtfiina distinrtivtEr TsnQiim dbout Lt_ I new Ml dsn Ln driii temple ind in the Ma.lltkt'nuna frem the snrnt reign, iliscie an ftr nt 3 hnnw Niniig ChnliLkyan rtinples, cbere ore smiLl g*porea. These Ace^ hrau^rtr, lituited. Ai5h*j *m n|*o in ch? ^«ilH*a temple at EluTa, over -iit rumple doorway behind the pore bn rare Bisrqrcs ' ' The AncienrMenumeHts, Temples and Seulpturea of End. is, ft, MditHll Monuments ”, pi. *77 i anJ Hrselimtnei [4 P|grg J ?efiqiic Irtiia lh , p]. irfil IflHfsd of thw plmyn of one ormort outer eiiurts in Tamlliar. temples. \S:. ftaiYiarfiAiLdiae, hr,s es.leJ my mreDtiois ra dte faei tlesr diner Taanhun in.llsniie H ih,- tdim t^inple* it quite pa^.ible in view or the refolded »1 1 nn« r at shout the time whets they were snide, between the Ejuhtmfastm jpd eeyraji) ciKinkhdi of the Paliava crayil fsra.h itgalisar dseif AOidrsuet foe rhe ChalulLyiL. i S ik: Aicu.ni Mftiinkiv Altckiur, - 1 '['he IXnshtrekutH imd. Thoir Time* ftmir Oriental ffen'et. No. 36, .page* J7-3S ; nlso Rnmtrfinnd rtr., yeiirn. Dartre. Hiunry, RraniKinslen and Sotiolnfty I, pugts 34^-41.! I have ia thank Mr. Tonnkchindnn hst hit t taily help in all matter: obaut Yvfiioti L had ootiuaion ta oneivalt him in Toncseetieei with this paper. a Ate [>£^ 4 : nf hit Arch ■ tee hind Memoir ' 1 In H Atele,tee[isre Jrs Dharusif and Myin** " |>l:Okkgnp 1 ; 4 .xl by Dr, Pigeu, A, C, B, tlesh said Col. Mendon-a Thylor, with an Eliftor.CLl und DeecrljKsv'e Memoir by CoL MtDdawj Tayint a-iif. ArshiiectiitaJ Noka bp nines FergMsaen {London, rkC 6 Ji. Bulietin , Madras Gmemmeti! M uscti m [ChE. TEX, 3 . 1 Cbnaerjiiu^ tht «Q2.I aquatc effirirw# u*[ (h< northern put of iha tr/jnti j' iu b:.uv.', pigs la. farm built by the same kings, at whether these latfat temples resembled other Northern temples in their decorative detail as well us Ln theit outward farm* and thus arc nor to be regarded *s belonging to any distinctively Chaluiyan style, are unfortunately questions that cannot be. answered until the characteristics and development of decorative detail have been more fully worked out for both forms of Hfflpls Ln the Chalukyan country, and for the Northern form generally. Nor is it possible to say whether Chidukyan and Hoysala can must conveniently be regarded as distinct Styles Of as two periods of a single style, The Northern form of temple apparently dominates the whole of the fcx.Lensive area of which it Is characteristic ; but the frOutEiCin form seems (chare been confined, til 1 the rise of the Vijiyanagar Empire, to ilia Chalukyan and Tamil kingdoms. Jvsceept for a few care temples and the early apsidaL temple ac Chesasla, practically nothing seems yet to be known of the archaeology of the Telegu country, subsequent to the decline nf the Buddhist centres in the lower part of the Itistna basin 1 ; and such scanty evidence as 1 have, seen points to n distinctive style existing there. History suggests the likelihood af iu being derived from Early Chalukyan temples and this seems to be supported by sculpture* but I know of no published evidence one way or the other. In the w:st f however, two styles are found which appear to be independent in origin from any of those described above, one- characteristic of the ancient Kadamha kingdom of die Kauareac country, the other of the Malabar Const. Fie, 4 - KsdimlM. [yjw; of teinplv (from GtuteIjf nod Rum a Chord run i An tulv c&umplc before llw uddltinri of ttis cable [o front of rhe salio Crown j1;u obunt. An Outline 0/ Indian Temple Anhiiattire > 93*1 9 In a Kadamba temple (fig. 4.) the virnsna is square in. plan, with ita tower pyramidal and composed of a aeries of horizontal step-lik* ftta.gcs. r each of which is usually decorated marginally with a uniform ft tit* of qitadtaogular vertical projections — 3 kind af roof, it must be noted, which in al&o found covering vestibules attached to vimanaa of Northern form in Orissa, ac RhuYancavar and elsewhere, 1 The atjigtE are more numerous and less elevated chart in tempJeH of Southern form, and are deui&id of paviLian ornamentation . The crow, when present, Is square. In a West Coast or Malabar temple (fig. £j the whIIs resemble a wooden railing in Fto. 5- rvliikilTir pjjir nf r ttv.jjli fcfiLr J'::r r jrron j. structure and art: as a rule still made of wood to-day, though stone Copies from about the time of ths VLjayanagar JEmpLre also e^ist {ace Cousens’ 11 Chalufcyan Architecture., |J pages 134-“ 137, FI. csllii, cxliv, cxivi Hnd CxJviii], Roth temples may have either a simple pitched roof of overlapping Hlabe, or they may hav* a. series of pitched roofs one above another (fig. which bear an obvious resemblance to the multiple pitched roofs of Chinese and Nepalese temples {fig. 6 ), In the first edition of his " Hiatety of Indian and Eaatem Aichittoture " (ifigg, page 308 omitted in the ipco edition revised by Burgess), Ferguaaon refers to tl:c well known anthropological similarity between the Nayara of Malabar and the Ntwais of Nepal, especially a* regards their custom of polyandry. If the gimilartcy between these two 1 fV»H»imjng jpmi II mmw viauMi vjicfa similar mirgE in OtflUrni tf* btljw, pigt Ti. fi-ee ilia above, pige 4 fbotniols 2, concurr.ir.i! Lie lnrn« vim mu uf ths? type u KniuJialc, b Id Bulletin, Mndrpj G&utrnmettt Mmeutn [c,s, m, a now widely separated peoples should pnove to be due to both, representing an ancient stock, formerly of more general distribution, which has been *p)it into two and driven to shelter in. the mountains of the north and heiiind those of die south-west, these multiple roofed temples would presumably represent an older style of architecture than the Northern and Southern forma now octupyhig the wide area between tltem, But it must not he forgotten, on the other hand, that the West Coast has from wry early times been in direct contact with China by sea, a fact to which the Cciinese fishing nets of the Cochin and Travanoore backwaters si ill bear testimony. Temples that seem to show a more or leas definite affinity to those of ^falahar do, however, exist h*rt and there in other para of FiC. (k Ntptl !JT* xemple (oher Terig-iuivanl. the Peninsula also. The future]'* shrine of the Chidambaram tempLe, for instance, has wooden walls of peculiar construction sontewlut reminiscent of those of a Malabar tcnople h though the shape of the building as 1 whole, with its golden roof, is dearly connected, through the Duxga cemple (the so-called Draupadi Hal ha) ac Mahabaiipur-am, with that of square thatched huts illustrated in Buddhist sculptures from Amaravati. TJw temple in true MetLiihar style at Harpanahalle, BelEary district, .shown in Ph LuxEv and Ixxv of Meadows Tiylor and FcTguRson'a 4J Architecture In Dharwarand Mysore " is probably due to some direct connexion between those who built it and die Kanateje West Coast ; but I know of no confirmatory evidence of thin, nor whether any other such temples, occur in rhe Deccan, 1 jjjcg also cbftpccr iiE ,L Ajstu1«hi»vt Sjylfs ” i* Bum Chandra Kak': " Ar.riunt Moaununu a! Kdftimir ” ilndis. iiaftiuty, L i ri i L- ^ i l , 1933 j, An On flint- sf Indian Ttmpls Arefaletlurt In the Kashmir valEcy of the Western Himalayas multiple roof* ite found in yet another xtyEc of Manple (fi&- 7b According to Ferguaaon these temples bear two or three roofs 11 which are obvieualy copied from the usual wooden roofa common to moat buildings in Kashmir, where the upper pyramid covers the Central part of the building and the lower a v^anda, separated from the centre either by walls or merely by a range of pillars, In the wooden examples the interval between the two roofs seems to hare been left open for light and sir j in the stone buildings it is dosed with ornaments. Besides this* however, ail these roofs are relieved by dormer windows, of a pattern very ailmilar to those found in mediaeval buildings in ICnrope ; and the same steep, doping lines arc used also to cover Fig. jv Fra. 3 . Fig. 7. Kashmir type uF leifllii* [jfrer F< rues soul r P*. &. Bviiffil leiif-biJL Typ± ai (*(fcr GfeiBOly). doorways and porciica, these being virtually a section of the main roof itself, and evidently 4 copy of the some wooden Construction. The pal lats which support the porticoes . . , are by far the moat striking peculiarity of this style, their shafts being Su distinctly like those of the Grecian, Doric, and unlike anything of the clasa found in other parts of I^dia/ 1 1 Lastly, mention must be made of the form of temple illustrated in fig. 8. This, as has been pointed out by Ganguly on pages 23-24 of his “ Indian Architecture 11 (Little lio&ki Adatk- AH, Vol. Ill), Is “evidently borrowed from Icaf-huta very common in Bengal, “ the region to which it belong. In this form of temple with curved eaves we also find the same tendency £0 a mu I dp lira don of roofs One above another. X2 BnJ/c/lis, Madras CuuerwwrM t Mtumm [t.a. m, t Multiplication of roofs is thus u feature of the different f*rrsia of temple typical ic^.p K - tjvcly of Malibu Bingit, and the Extern anti Western Himalayas. SKould any or all of these four stylej he grouped tofietfaer as belonging to a single form i The answer to this must depend Ofl whether Qt not they can be sEmwn to have a common origin, independent of the Northern and Suutlwrn form* of temple characteristic, of the rest of the country. At present this cannot be dene, and to attempt any such grouping would ho to prejudge the Issue. But the different hinds of Indian temple known to me— there may of course he ethers that have escaped my nutlee— all either belong or seem to have been derived From the above mentioned fundamental types, which are as folEoWS : temples of Northern form, whether OirfiprfjJflg one or several styles it is not yet possible to say f tertipkft of Southern form in two distinct styles, the Early Chaiukyun and the Tamilian ; and temples in five apparently independent styles of more restricted rangc s namely those of the ancient. Ktduqfa kingdom, Malabar, Bengal, Nepal and Kashmir. To- chi* list of prototypes must be added apskLal temples, baaed on the Buddhist chaitya hall, and square temples, based on a squire thatched hut with simple roof, and straight caves, which occur sporadically in the style of their locality as regards detail, in various places such as Mihabalipuram (the so-called Suha- devs and Praupadi KattiHS respccfinrely)* CbrzHrla, AihoEc (the so-edied! l>urgs) and CEiidam- baram (the Natsrajs shrine). bmall square plain shrines based on n square hut with simple roof and straight eaves occur In many places and should perhaps he regarded a* an independent type, though when decoration ls added Lt naturally follows the local Style.. These temples are, however, so insigni- ficant that little or nd attention seems yet to hav* been paid to them. When travelling re- cently by train from Calcutta to Madras, I noticed that such temples seemed to be the prin- cipal, if not the only, form of temple in Gunjam and the northern part of the Telugu country. In Ganjam the pyramidal roof is marked by a series of horizontal courses wh.Lcb s in at Ifllit one example a little to the soUtlt of the CliLlla Lake, have the form of low step-like stages decorated with quodrangulnr vertical projections as in. the vestibules of some of the tempos of the adjoining province of Ori#$a and in the shrines of Kadainba temples. The crown, however, is unlike that of either being, so hi as I could observe, round but neither clearly separated from the; pyramidal spire by a distinct neck nor ribbed like an amalaks. In some, crown and fi-nial seem, to be merged into one another to form, an octagonal column, Furtlwr south all trace of the crown disappears and the horizontal courses become less marked and less, numerous till near Viiagspatam they sre often entirely absent. Almost immediately to the south of Vizagapatara, however, horizontal courses reappear in many such shrines in the form of deep steps, suggestive of the terraced spire of the Southern form of Kinple, though without Its decoration. In the Madura district rdso, round about Koilaikana! Road station, there sure many small square shrines, but they differ from those just described in that their spire is curvilinear and is much smaller at its base than is the body of she shrine from which it rises. It may l>e either square or circular in plan, in the Estler ease being or An Outline 0 / Indian Ttmpk Architecture ]c 33 beini&pbeffca] instead of pyramidal ; an d sometimes ornamentation of Tamilian type is added. Evidently these little shrines differ considerably in form from, one part of the eaqnTry to another and deifrvG more attention than their aimplitity would item to indicate. It is unlikely tbit any of die above mentioned styles, except perhaps tho List if it ii to be regarded distinct, have remained Mnchanged throughout the ages during which they have beer, in existence ; and the more complex of the temples of Bengal, such as the DaMhinea- vsxa temple rear Calcutta figured on pi. rafi of HuriimaniTs if Picturesque India," have evidently arisen from a combination of the Northern form of tower with the Bengal leaf-hut form of temple , 1 two prototypes which belong to contiguous areas. More investigation seems, however, t*> he needed before tht evolution of any of the styles found north of the Krishna cam be mads clear ; and this seens Lrj he the p tuition with regard to the Malabar style also. The evolution of the Tamilian style h*a been worked out by Jouveau-Dubrcu.il, whose results ore embodied in (he two books mentioned On pages ;-6 above. Ha divides the time from the making of its earliest surviving erampka by the Pal lava king MahendiavanmijL 3 , early in the seventh century A.D., do the commencement of ih Modern period about thoo A.D., into four periods of approximately 250 years each, The first is the period of Pallava temp lea (fig. 2, p. 5), ending with the final subjection of the FaLLava dynasty of Conjeeveiam by the Ckolaa from, further south in about £50 A.D. It seems likely that in their original kingdom the Choias already pmOtEced an allied — but in certain respedi distinct — style of their own, presumably in perishable materia] ; for with their supremacy marled changes in certain details make their appearance somewhat abruptly in surviving buildings. Tlie supre- macy of the Cholaa tasted for about 500 yean ; and throughout tEtat time a gradual evolution took place, resulting in such great differences between the buildings of its beginning and end that it is convenient to divide it into an Early and a Later Chela period of 250 years each. This gradual evolution continued through the 350-year period of the Vijnyamtgar Empire by which the Later Chola period was followed, and so on into 1 the Modern Period, The Pal lavas made can't, free-standing monolithic and Structural temple*, never of very large size, and cither without gupurHS or with these smaller than the vimana. Their [argent surviving temple is the Kailnsflnath-a at Conjeevera-m, but most of their finest sculp- ture is at Mahflbalipummr The Early Chclaj built larger temples in which the vimana Still dominated the gopurw, being in some instances indeed, as at Tanjore, of immense sisc.rj The L&ter Cholas seem, probably to have enlarged existing temples, the shrines of 1 Cortccridrx aiEei form:- iHlra liy innplui si tiuii&i! >bk K. B lifiactLidl ” jwr.sprtT’ay of Euddtujt tjnd EcahminiiaU Jtit'puira in dit Djcci. Musejm. - " sOtll), pp- *it— ivii, pi. Iml — Iwiil. " -S. An id™ of ■ lit lcmples tlint mn n 1 * 3*1 avtr cheat images and 5 -. EC. Sacnsnti '■ T 1 h BtHunia Group oF Tttruphs " %rtnt. Ind. Stt, (WfiVdE Art. 3 fCdcucct, isjlSJ panel ji^-ca®, pi. Bid and “ T*pip(e*t Karanjsrci.iha at S/ifth jiduriliir, T^ic-ninapaly district, «Jid rt G.inir-ikA)R the lartr pans of aJ3 thesr ETc±p-. the Hr-st- piLLars, corbels (ace fig, 9 ), nEdica, etc., all allowing a gradually increasing degree of elabora- tion, though many cf the earlier ar.d aimpler forms, being comparatively cheap and easy of execution, have persisted and are still in use to-day. Details wilt be found in Jouvcau- Dubrcuil's two books already mentioned. The course of evolution, especially of decorative motif,, in the Kadamba and Early Chain kyan. sty lea is as yet mucEi hs* clearly understood ;: but in lb* Former style it has been atudied in eh. viii 11 Architecture " of pt. vii “ Internal History " uf Montes’ Cl The Iiiidumba Kula, a History *F Ancient and Mediaeval Kanmtska” (J3omb*y, and the broad outlines of the obviously parallel development in external form of these two geogra- phically contiguous styles have been indicated in the paper by Mr. Ramachandrao and myself already referred to. The Kadamba type of vimana (fig. +, p. &l seems to have developed from H flat-ronfed temple by the addition of a series of successively smaller and smaller horizontal rooflikc stages, a Square cupoSa-Lihe ravr. being often, but in early times at least not invari- ably, inserted between the pyramid thus formed and the finiiil. The builders of the E-arEy Ghalukyan tem&lcs, as already mentioned above, used both the Northern and the Southern /if. Outline of Indian Temple ArtfuteeiuW *5 i9 16] (fig- 3, p, 6) Form of tower, For over a century berth forma ftf Kmple seem to have been built in one m J the sums locality, each with out apparent effect Upon Lite oilier, But whether they differed (tom one another in d&Corative detail as wedl as in form, and if bo whether and Co what extent they influenced one another in respect of it, never seems to have been inves- tigated and can only be decided by JiirLher field study of the buildings , noro of which unfor lunately l have ever seen. There can he liula doubt tha* If r-e Southern form of vituana has been derived from u pyramidal Buddhist monastery or- vlhara of successively smaller and smaller stories, each consisting of a centra] mandapa surrounded by monks 1, cells ; for as Feigusson h^s pointed out [loc. rit. r 1899 edition, pages 1351-136, Jigs. 66-67 l iyio edition, 3, pages 171-173, figs- it appears Co be practically a reproduction in miniature of such a vihara. This use of tiers of pilpsteFS and miniature cells a® a mode of decoration had, moreover, probably begun to be applied to huildjngn of various shapes — elongate, whether rectangular of apsidal, as well as sonata— ;ic some period! antecedent to that of flic earliest surviving e sample*, among which all these shapes aio already included at M a hah aJ ipursm „ The origin of the Northern Form oF vimana is much more obscure. Fergusson (Joe. at., 3899 edition, pages .4.38-439 ; iqio edition, II, page jh}) with reference co the tower of the Huchchutvalliguidi temple at ALhole Hays “ II will also be observed in this tower diHt every third OOumo has on the angle a form which Elhs been described as an amalaka in speaking of ihe crowning members of northern temples- Hcik it looks as if the two intermedia courses simulated roofs, or a roof in two slot jus, and then this cro wrung member was introduced, and the same thing repeated over and over again till the requisite Eieight was obtained.'' This- docs not, however, account fur another characteristic of the Northern Form, of tower, namely , the setting forward qF the middle portion, of each few, which seems co be an equally marked feature particularly of simple and presumably early examples. Other investigators have, therefore, suggested its evolution from a stupa raised, as was often the ease, oil a aeiict of terraces, esth oF them set forward in the middle of each side to accommodate flights of steps from the one Iwlow, the whole being surmounted by a series of umbrellas one above another, of which the lowest has become ■enlarged and developed into the smalaha— a mode of evolution that receives strong support from the series of votive Stupas of various forms that have been set up round the MababodEii temple at Biaddh Gaya and elsewhere. Whatever ita origin, the Northern, form of lower, found aide by aide with Early ChaLukyan examples of the Southern form, is uLLcr than the latter jn proportion to its breadth and, though its spire is composed oF a series of JunriMnt*! courses, the lines of these arc subor- dinate to lb* stronger vertical lines resulting from the setting forward of the middle portion Bulletin, Ma dr as CoviTiimsnt Mitseum [a.£. Ill, 2 16 Of each face j while the Southern and Kadamba forms of tov^r both have a pyramidal spire consisting oi a series of strong \f ftisrkid horizontal courses, which in the former arc deeper and leas numerous thiui in the latter and decorated with immature pavilions. In the two or three earl icst surviving Early ChaJulryan temples of Southern form (Gravely and flam aeh and ran, fac. cif.^ pi, ii, fig- i) the crown ss octagonal as in the Tamilian style from which, however, as I have already explained elsewhere (faf, ek-, pane r<>) three temples differ in other features which place zhtpn at tfic base of the Eiirly Chalukyan aeries and exclude thetji from the Tamilian aeries. 7 n all other temples of the Early Chslukyan series the crown is square (fax tit,, pi. 5 i h fig, s), except in the Maliiijijuna at Pattadakal, which see -ns to be unique among temples with cupola-likc crown in haying it round. In K^d&iuba templea the crown k not always ptesent, at any rate among those of simple and presumably early COM (ruction ; but when there la one- it Is always square. In both the Early Chain kyan and Kadamba scries the WXt development is the addition of a projecting gable to ihe front of the Spire (far, cp>„ pi, ii, g, fij), a f'>rm of pttiament never found in the Tamilian style, 1 In Chalukyan temples it is first seen in those of M ailikarjima and Virupaksli* (see fig, 3, page 6 above), erected by the queens of Vifcramaditya II {-733—746 A.D.), and it presumably- appeared in Kadamba temples At About [be same time. Th* first attempt to combine into a single Chain kyan budding elements from hath the Northern and Souther forms of temple probably occurs in the JPnpanatlis temple at Patus- dalul, which is believed to be If Hnything a little earlier than the Virupaksha. flue this is essentially a temple of Northern form to cht body of which miniature pavilions from the southern form have been added h and PCI thae lines no further developments seem to have followed. At Kyhhanur we find, however, in tbfc Naval inga and KalLcsvara temples, a type of combination that proved 10 hftve much greater p-otsihiLities:. In these temples the tower n essentially of Southern Form, btit it has die middle portion of cash face act forwar d aa in the Northern form, the strong Vertical lines of which thus come to ho superimposed upon the strong horizontal lines of the Southern form. 'Hie Naval inga temple departs comparatively little from the typical Southern form, but the Kallesvara shows a more extensive incorporation of Northern elements, »nd ita miniature pavilidos arc already subordinated to the lioea of the courses from which they spring. Neither of those temples seems, bo hear any inscription giving a clue to its date, nor do dates seem as yet to be determinable for the stages hy which the composite style: chat they Cui Kerning tbr LLriaui sbn.-.t cf the 3 rirdr^am. temple jk taonc, past j r tjatuvU 1, An Outline 0/ Indian Tempt* Architecture ' 9^1 i7 initiated developed into tha style of the Hcrysafi dynasty. Whai those sragea probably wci¥ may, how^vnr, be briefly indicated by re fere net to two Of three icmplts selected for the purpose. Whether such transitional temples should be called Later Chalukyum or Chalut- ya-Hoyasla Transitional, or whether as I am inclined to suspect -tlrey batoaiff to two successive periods, of which the first is charucleriaccfrby comparative re-strainl. and the second by a profusion of external decoration, is not yet clear. The large Jaift temple at Latkundi figured by Couscna in pi. Isa of his ,H ChoLukyan Architecture 11 affords a good c sample: a little more advanced than the Kallesvara temple at Kukkanur but with the decoration under teslridjit, whiLe the temples of Tarakesvara at HangaL (Cousenfl, be. eft., pi. btxxvj) and of Santenvara a T'iLLvalli (Gouscns,, for. at., pi. e.) may be taken as repTTMentatii'Wj of ilit more unrestralnted transitional type of build ing- In the two templet East mentioned tiic shrines haV* begun to lose the square plan of an Early CliaEukynn shrine and to assume the stiir-chaped plan of a typical Hoystla; one. The crown is reported by Cousens to be modern in the Tsukcswara temple, but that 0/ lire San- tesvara shows unmistakable evidence of its derivation from a square crown of Southern cupola -like shape ; while up the middle of each aide of the spire of both the re L a series of plaques suggestive of the Northern form of tower. Cousens (fre. erf., paftc 92I tnys, moreover, of the former temple " The Little zfkkknnu on the shrine wails arc of the Cfidll'kjan type while those found the Low well, of the open hdi are of the northern.” The tower of the Mahadcva temple at lctaRi (Cousens, W- tiL 3 pi- ci) and a sculptural miniature of a very similar tower (pi- i] from over a niche in a temple of the Bdlary district and now preserved in the Mudras Museum, show a slightly ditferent combination of dementa from the Northern and Southern forms ot' temple, a cburihination in which the ends of pavi- lions from the latter are clearly recognizable projecting on either aide from behind lire retire] series of decorative plaques from tbc former, As in the Virupakahn (fig. 3. p. b) and MlhII i ka-rjutia at: Pattadskal, mTiurtg Eiriy Chalnk- yao temples, the hall in front of the shrine of the Tarakcsvara temple at Hangal (fig- ro- B. p. 1 3 ) has an entrance tot either side, each with a large porch, in addition to the median entrance at the eastern end. This median entrance is the one Corresponding to the single entrance which alone is found in Early Chslukyan tcmplea other tliari the two just men- tioned ; but in the Tarakcavaia temple, instead of opening direct tn the exterior, it :s con- nected by s covered way with a large star-shaped mandapa, and this. covered way has on each aide 0 small flight 0/ step* forming additional entrances. The plan of the Mahadeva lemple at Ittagi is on similar lines. Couafcrii gives no plan of the Santesvara temple U Ticivilli, but niEntiosis that ir has three porches- Ifiiilf.tiri , M&drst CdteriifHfrif [q.J. in, 3 , if) Fid. sg. PSuii bIi-uaci ncinu tht dmfcgnneivt c-f tlie Fivjmfci iypn nf tt^iple lhe Early fkakiicyr.n typ* — A. KaUuvara Ti-iL.p!d. KukVajiijr Eafti r Ccumdi. 1 - If- T ara Leryirt T^pla, HummsI lafrtr Qcyttna). C. I.Hl.krcicevi Temple, Doddy L'adduvidli ^r-llcr Nuriis.::i , tini li*r |_ D- Kew* Tteinfife, Stonirtifopur lafiet KiruLujuichar! . In the Kesava temple buLLt in 126S A.D, at Smnnathput (T^arBsimhadiSr H The Kcsava Temple at Somftathpur ” Mytara Artk. Ser, t Architecture Snd Sculpture in Mysore I, pE. i), ivhieK may be taNn as an example of the My developed styl-e yf th* Hoys&la period. deve!op- meats already seen in the temples just described have lieeo carried further, tie porches to nnrth and south of the hall ftre replaced by vjmanas oF the aamc aisc and form as (he median An Outline of Indian Temple Architecture 1936] <9 (me, 1 all of them being definitely &tar-ahHped (fig, 10 D.) and the whole temple is ra.ifw:d on a platform. The [loysula -style must thus be regarded as the find outcome of the union of the two forms o£ temple adopted by the Chain byan dynasty ■ but Et seems to Eta.ve absorbed the Kadanibi style also. As has already been pointed out above, thus evolution, of Kadsmba and Jv.uly Chaiukyan beiupICK lidluvci] parallel courses, As ilic predominating lines of the Kadamha spire were horizontal, the superimposing of the vertical lines of the Northern form of cower upon It would hive much the aamc effect as it had so the case of the spire of the Southern form of vimana. And in the LaEcshnudevi temple at Doddn GstEJuvalli, built in it tj A.D. (Nnrasiinhrvchsr “ The Lakabmidcvi Temple at Doddn Gaddavalli ” Mysore Arth, iSer.j Architecture and Sculpture in Myaore III) there are umniswkable signs of the uae of ftadauifja £4 wJl as of Chalukyan moddsr This temple was built about a century and a half before the Kcssv-a temple at Sornnathpiir and its shrines nre still fundamentally square in plan {fig. i 4 C), nor is the temple raised Ort a platform. It has, however, four vimanto, the fourth One replacing the largo mhndapa found at the eastern end oF the Tacahesvata temple at Hartal, tine only entrances being, consequently, rho pair immediately in front of this fourth shrine. Of these four shrines thac of LaJafojnidcvi [Narasimhachar, loo, at. t pi. viii) faces east and has been selected for special ornamentation in a manner related to that of the composite transitional vimnnaa of the Taralesvara and SanteavaFa temples described above, though ita crown is of scarcely more advanced type than that of the Kdlkivara temple at Kukltamsr at the base of the transitional series, and less SO than that of the Varaha-Najasimha temple at Hnlsi in Kudamba style (Moraer, 11 The Kadamha KulaT, Jig. 32, opposite page aHp), Tho other three shrinea of the main temple* and also apparently alt the five additional shrines in the temple enclosure, havrj tovi-erj of the ftadamba type [lot. dt ., pL i and is); Though the LakshmidcvE shrine faces east, it is situated not at the end but on one side of the central hall, the main axis of the temple extending north and south instead of Mist and west, This Mfnpktts the summary of the various types of building from which the temples of different parts of India have been derived, so Far as these am known. to me, nod of the merging of three of these styles to produce the composite Iloyaaia type of temple. Underlying all of them it will be seen that there U at Eeast one common feature— the production of tuwera by a process of vertical repetition instead by increasing the height of itny tingle structure, in same ro wtfrs there appears to be a repetition of rooJs, in others a repetition of terrace*. But vertical repetition of some hind is present in all forms, though in the Northern the resulting borirOftLal tinea are dominated by stranger vertical ones. May not this deeply roofed tendency to vertical rtpericiMi indicate some sort of fundamental unity underlying all the various styles of Indian temple architecture ? 1 VdiuTiE.1 grouped round a crmm.on hall (or Kristi sf ksils-l are found in 1K1 Kr.v.i|:n h >:i tsmplr Lt Kills ;ur.r, nfe ids Forms the eta^mcnefinjin! -of (he CT*iiaiiiLiaa 3 istici {se± above, page it;. Couuna lays, hemtver {Jpr, tit. page 7^)1 rl l[ meeds but a frUnrc at rot plan, to an- Ibst (tur wUrcUari vf stiriratf *raJ Mb in n-j( the rtrult cf a p j tm: - dilated dnipi or:i( flUfrUid iPU.* t>«n IThPM aynw^rtcil." It INDEX FJHJI A AiheCe =2, IS Amain Vi Bi . B 5 Anu.rr.'jr:. ... ... 3G Apt i..l;.l templn . . B 13 Ill'll:.' •. DidrtriiiL ... 3D, t7 Ekmfcd temple. HI::iUi li Templet — JT-rj ... 4 Hl'mTj.'iL'avar ... Hifdj ij! a virr.jrjil ... ... 2 IkidJh Gaye ... Ruddhitc aiefakcciure ... 3 QL.ddk.isr nHnutrer/ .. ... 15 Qijddbist snlFrLr.i- ... ... ::j C ttllu 2 ( IlLLir;. l !,r.|i 12 Cbahikya’IiurrsUi tTTJiGlidiii! templet 17 CtuJu'kvsn trnvplts ... u-i. Hr It l , 1. 1 .1 ■ ■■■ ■■■ '■ 13 Chidnn'iLtinim ... 14 Ghi.1 kit Luis ... 32 Chinew kudiinc rRii 30 Chinswtmtrlet ‘J L'h'jlr. tmfi|ih4 ... --- 1, U Ccqjee'.'amii .■■ ... ■■- 7. 14 Crtra Idf 1 UcfMilt TDWEr) 2, j„ 13, ib r :7 (.■Dj nriint; liM^'itiivf u. ... 3, iS li [>jkil jnv?.vam tempts; Bery;al. ia [JiLlM in 1-0 LXlumI ir r: ermliii, dtii'op- rnr'iil <>t — 6 ,A. r. ‘ 4 UprM:| ClIiidiiVjJIE 1,. ... iS; 13urk: 4JL ... 13 Drtiru:;idi H*din, MihuLoLi- purfii . ■ , ...4 ■ 11 (A, 12 Drarids Temples __i ... a, 6 Uiai'idiin unYiples Bkl , ■ , i’ 6 L'l.irv.' 1 , ftikriuL: i,| | mi E* Durip (erupt. (mrim «4 2,9 £D U Itllfy CH*hiSiy»ti fi-irttjlrt , 1 1 IV ", li ■> J-4 -iTj i-u Fjily CJofe pEriijd , Ij EHulta ... ,. r 7 F Fir. id ... ... i, 32 Gible idHontfeh? ..- ... 7 ttai^iljOd^wllWUtHIl ,~ 7, 3 j Gojijam 99 Gopui a ... a, 4 l.'hiddijM krjpjrn ... . . . 4 Qntdan DorTe piLari ... 31 put jj-J ... ... 3 J: ;Ivip;il HnrpuuhiJki ... 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IJ. ip MjbftlxtJhE Lcru-pK-, Jlu-JrJh Usyu ... ... ... c 5 Mibwlevfl Urnpfc k If«rsl ... 37 .M j I Li i'L-J l A LljTriljT [ jj J.ljlnihn temples ... S.iDy ia-ig 7 .L .., L.ijlih.i lemplt, Pitta- iIhEu .1 7 , 3 4-37 FSiJprfllihii nner .44 3 Mmdapn ... Hk E7 Meet rn per. "id ... i j -14 l']«n:.rsDE r y EEuddhiK] ... J 3 Mukfisriki ■ ■r 4 lelyrobalnn ... ... ,Pl j M Nji. 11 ^ I r.r ifilcJ ... ... 2 , 4 rv Kii ,ij,i shrine. Oiklnoi- haiain. . - id. Hi. aJjiifl’. temple,, Kuldrsrnur. j 0 . i iy Hijura of 3'lflliiln»r ... . ... 4 Hcpaluse tnr.plM ... !*. ID r [4 of Nrjti] ... >j Iflcm nf tt jnpJr ... 4, k-g. ji’i^k iy O Unity ... ... rr- 4 , g, I i P EVJIata period ... ... [j L J ^i(nV(H ... 7 EU:ih|: j:Iii Ll-:'i jplL-. F.itL. J.ik.! ■ s 0 S^rpiL'kal 7, -[fi, yj F Li 1 1 :h r 1 1 1 . 1 . 1 7 ... ... ... J PAGE R Fl:,iii(s.var^iu ... 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